Part 02 Ce 769 Oe Mtech BRN Moodle

9/3/2014
CE 769
Coastal and Ocean Environment
Part-II
Dr. BALAJI Ramakrishnan
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay.
email: rbalaji@civil.iitb.ac.in
Estimation of nearshore waves

Nearshore environment
-Most coastal engineering problems are near the shoreline normally in water
depths of less than 20m.
-Generally, project designs usually require knowledge of the wave
characteristics over an area of 1-10sq.km in which the depth may vary
significantly.
-Specifically, projects involve understanding of shoreline change and beach
protection frequently requires analysis of coastal processes over entire littoral
cells, which may span 10-100 km in length.
-Wave data are generally not available at the site or depths required.
-Often a coastal engineer will find that data have been collected or hindcast
at sites offshore in deeper water or nearby in similar water depths.
-Conservative wave characteristics can greatly increase the cost of a project
and may make it uneconomical, where as underestimating results in
catastrophic failures/ significant maintenance costs.
-The various nearshore processes and the dynamics of waves will be
discussed in this section.
Dr. BALAJI Ramakrishnan, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg., IIT Bombay. email: rbalaji@civil.iitb.ac.in
9/3/2014


-Waves in the nearshore are influenced by seabed contours & currents.
-Any change in bathymetry (sloping/undulating/shoals/underwater canyons)
leaves large changes in wave height and direction of travel.
-For example; shoals can focus waves & sometimes leading more than
doubling wave height behind the shoal. Where as; other seabed features can
reduce wave heights.
-The magnitude of these changes is particularly sensitive to wave period and
direction and how the wave energy is spread in frequency and direction (as
shown below figure).
Amplification of wave height behind a

shoal for waves with different
spreads of energy in frequency and
direction
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Processes affect the wave characteristics
(a) Refraction
Propagation effects
(b) Shoaling
(c) Diffraction
(d) Dissipation due to friction

(e) Dissipation due to percolation
Sink mechanism
(f) Breaking
(g) Additional growth due to the wind Source mechanism

(h) Wave-current interaction
(i) Wave-wave interactions

Processes affect the wave characteristics
Shoaling
Diffraction
Shoreline/beach
-1m
-2m
A
5m/s
-3m
B
6.5m/s
-4m
-5m
C
9m/s
Refraction
Breaking
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Brief overview of linear waves theory

Summary of linear wave characteristics

Energy, energy flux & group celerity
The total mechanical energy in a surface gravity wave is the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies.
applying u & w
Energy flux: The rate at which the energy is transferred by the waves.
For the linear wave theory it is the rate at which work is being done by the
fluid on one side of a vertical section on the fluid on the other side.
For the vertical section AA (in Fig.), the
instantaneous rate at which work is being
done by the dynamic pressure per unit width
in the direction of wave propagation is;
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The avg. energy flux is obtained by averaging over a wave period and
applying the equation of p and u;
d
d
d
Integrating the above equation will lead to;

(or)
d
d
Celerity, C
Energy, E
where Cn is the speed at which the energy is transmitted; this velocity is

called the group velocity (or group celerity) Cg,
d
In which,

Example problem: A wave, of height, H=1m and period T=15sec, is
propagating on a sea. Calculate the energy flux at d1=500m and d2=3m.
Solution:
-Calculate the deepwater wavelength; L0=1.56T2.
-Calculate the wavelengths for d1 & d2
-Estimate celerity (C=L/T)
d
-Calculate
In which,
Shoreline
-and finally, energy flux;

Wave direction
-Compare the results.
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Surf zone hydrodynamics

Incipient wave breaking
-Breaker types; (spilling, plunging, collapsing and surging).
-Surf similarity parameter;
-Breaker index (breaker depth index & height index);
And for the regular waves;
Hb is on both sides!,
iteration..
The semi-empirical relationship for the breaker height index;

Incipient wave breaking
Example problem: Over a beach with a 1 on 100 slope, a deepwater wave of
height Ho = 2m, and period T=10sec is propagating. Estimate the wave height
and water depth at incipient breaking occurs. Assume, a unrefracted wave
height of 2.1m.
Solution:
-Calculate the deepwater wavelength; L0=1.56T2.
-Use
and get Hb from;
-Estimate a & b, for beta=1/100;
&
-Calculate
-and finally, db=Hb/b.
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Wave transformation in surf zone
After the incipient wave breaking, the wave
shape resemble like a bore.
At this stage, the leading edge of the wave
crest becoming nearly vertical and takes a
sawtooth profile.
outside surf zone
Along the surf zone, the wave either continue

to dissipate energy or, re-forms and break
again on the shore.
This transformation of wave height through
the surf zone impacts wave setup, runup,
nearshore currents, and sediment transport.
inside surf zone
Changes in wave profile

Similarity method
Using the breaker index and assume a constant height-to depth ratio from
the break point to shore;
This method is good for constant decrease of water depth through the surf
zone & suggested to be fine for a beach slope of approximately 1/30.
Underestimate on steeper slopes & overestimate on milder slopes.
Smith and Kraus (1988) developed expression that includes beach slope;
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Energy flux method
Solving the steady-state energy balance equation;
where is an empirical decay coefficient (=0.15), and ECg,s is the energy flux
associated with a stable wave height;
The quantity is an empirical coefficient (=0.4).

The stable wave height is defined as the height at which a wave stops
breaking and re-forms.

Radiation stress
The average value of the sum
a vertical plane of unit width.
with respect to time, integrated along
Vn is velocity component perpendicular to the considered plane & pw is

pressure fluctuation due to water waves around the hydrostatic pressure
from the still water level.
i.e.
flux.
where p is the total pressure, and Vn2 is the momentum
When the plane is vertical and parallel to the wave crest (V=u), the radiation
stress is;
Wave thrust
(or)
Radiation stress
Applying the values of pw and u from linear wave theory and integrating;
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Radiation stress
The wave thrust reduces to;

Shallow water
Deep water
A wave traveling over a gently sloping bed from deep water into shallow
water, the wave thrust increase by a factor of 3.
Therefore, the momentum balance requires an external force. This external
force is obtained by differences in the hydrostatic pressure.

Wave set-up & set-down
Let us consider the momentum balance in a slice of water bounded by the
free surface, z=, a gently sloping bottom, z=-d(x) and two vertical planes
parallel to the wave crest at x=x0, x=x0+dx.
The variation of midwater level is defined as;
The total forces exerted on the planes are the sum of hydrostatic pressure
and wave thrust.
@ x0
@ x0+dx
As the bottom is not horizontal,
another external force is due to
bottom pressure exist and the
horizontal component of the same is,
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By balancing the momentums;
Since, <<d;
As Sxx increases when the wave proceeds from deep water to shallow water,
it is seen that bar decrease, i.e. the midwater level is set-down.
After incipient wave breaking, the wave energy is dissipated; therefore Sxx
decreases and bar increases, which is called as the wave set-up.
If all the wave energy is assumed to be dissipated in the surf zone, the total
force exerted on the beach (or on a wave absorber) is equal to the wave thrust
in deep water, i.e.,

If wave breaks at an angle with coast, the wave thrust has a component
parallel to the shore which cannot be balanced by pressure variations.
Which generates a longshore current.
The piling of water due to the wave thrust acting on beach is unstable and
causes some times rip currents.
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Sediment dynamics
Characteristics of sediment
Importance in Coastal engineering
Dredging -Entrainment: fluid, loose, firm, or hard
Pumping: cohesive, noncohesive, or mitigated
Near-vertical banks: degree of cohesiveness.
Environmental concerns: Size (turbidity, current-interactions)
Beach fill: borrow & native material
median size of borrow sand should not be < native.
shore protection & recreation conflict sediment sizes.
Scour protection: revetment/riprap or scour blanket
heavy enough to resist movements under currents
adequate porosity & thickness - dissipate wave energy
Sediment transport studies
Sediment properties: grain size, density, fall velocity, angle of repose,
volume concentration
Sediment size distribution and grain shape.
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Classification by size
Size
-Particle diameter
-Size classifications (Wentworth / ASTM)
-Median (D50) and mean grain sizes.
Compositional Properties
-Density
-Sp. Weight & Sp. Gravity
Fall/settling velocity
When a particle falls through water, it accelerates until it reaches its fall/
settling velocity.
This is the terminal velocity that a particle reaches when the (retarding) drag
force on the particle just equals the (downward) gravitational force.
A particle's fall velocity is a function of its size, shape, and density; as well as
the fluid density, and viscosity, and several other parameters.
For a single sphere falling in an infinite still fluid, after balancing the drag &
gravitational forces, the fall velocity is;
CD = dimensionless drag coefficient, D = grain diameter, = density of water,

s = density of the sediment.
Unit of Wf is same as the unit of (gD). CD is fun Re (Re = Wf D/, where is
the kinematic viscosity)
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Fall velocity as a function of Reynolds number

The fall velocity equation is re-arranged to get;
Fall velocity of quartz in water & air

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Fall/settling velocity - Problem
Calculate the Wf, Re & Cd for 0.2mm quartz sediment falling in 400C of fresh
& salt water. water = 0.011 cm2/sec, fresh water = 1000 kg/m3, salt water = 1030
kg/m3, quartz = 2648 kg/m3.
Solution:
-Using 0.2mm size & 40deg, get the fall velocity from graph.
-Get the Re; Re = Wf D/,
-Get Cd, using;
For salt water
-fall velocity depends on;
-For fresh water the ratio is 1.28 (for quartz) and for salt water the ratio is
1.25 and hence, the fall velocity decreases with increase in density of water.
-Multiply calculated Wf by (1.25/1.28=0.977), get revised Re & Cd.
Shore process and changes

Littoral zone & process
Littoral zone: In beach terminology, an indefinite zone extending seaward
from the shoreline to just beyond the breaker zone.
The coastal zone influenced by wave action, or, more specifically, the shore
zone between the high and low water marks.
Littoral processes result from the interaction of winds, waves, currents,
tides, sediments, and other phenomena in the littoral zone.
We will discusses those littoral processes which involve sediment motion.
Shores erode, accrete, or remain stable, depending on the rates at which
sediment is supplied to and removed from the shore.
Excessive erosion or accretion may endanger the structural integrity or
functional usefulness of a beach or of other coastal structures.
Therefore, an understanding of littoral processes is needed to predict
erosion or accretion effects and rates. A common aim of coastal
engineering design is to maintain a stable shoreline.
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Environmental factors
Waves: The action of waves is the principal cause of most shoreline
changes. Three important aspects of a study of waves on beaches are;
(1) the theoretical description of wave motion,
(2) the climatological data for waves as they occur on a given
segment of coast, &
(3) the description of how waves interact with the shore to move
sand.
Important wave characteristics affecting sediment transport near the beach
are height, period, and direction of breaking waves.
Breaker height is significant in determining the quantity of sand placed in
motion; breaker direction is a major factor in determining longshore
transport direction and rate.
Waves affect sediment motion in the littoral zone in two ways: (a) they
initiate sediment movement and (b) they drive current systems that
transport the sediment once motion is initiated.

Currents: The wave induced drift (mass transport) can be important in
carrying sediment onshore or offshore, particularly seaward of the
breaker position.
As waves approach breaking, wave-induced bottom motion in the water
becomes more intense, and its effect on sediment becomes more
pronounced. Breaking waves create intense local currents and
turbulence that move sediment.
Since wave crests at breaking are usually at a slight angle to the shoreline,
there is usually a longshore component of momentum in the fluid
composing the breaking waves.
This longshore component of momentum entering the surf zone is the
principal cause of longshore currents (currents that flow parallel to the
shoreline) within the surf zone.
These longshore currents are largely responsible for the longshore sediment
transport.
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In some locations, there may be exchange between the water flowing in the
surf zone and the water seaward of the breaker zone. They are called as
rip currents which are concentrated jets of water flowing seaward
through the breaker zone.

Tides & Surges: In addition to wave-induced currents, there are other
currents affecting the shore that are caused by tides and storm surges.
Tide-induced currents can be impressed upon the prevailing wave induced
circulations, especially near entrances to bays and lagoons and in
regions of large tidal range.
Tidal currents are particularly important in transporting sand at entrances
to harbors, bays, and estuaries.
Currents induced by storm surges are less well known because of the
difficulty in measuring them, but their effects are undoubtedly
significant.
The change in water level caused by tides and surges is a significant factor
in sediment transport since, with a higher water level, waves can then
attack a greater range of elevations on the beach profile.
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Wind: Winds act directly by blowing sand off the beaches and by depositing
sand in dunes. It usually removes the finer material, leaving behind
coarser sediment and shell fragments.
Sand blown seaward from the beach usually falls into the surf zone; thus it
is not lost, but is introduced into the littoral transport system.
Sand blown landward from the beach may form dunes, add to existing
dunes.
For dunes to form, a significant quantity of sand must be available for
transport by wind, as must features that act to trap the moving sand.
Topographic irregularities, the dunes themselves, and vegetation are the
principal features that trap sand.
Geological factor: The geology of a coastal region affects the supply of
sediment on the beaches and the total coastal morphology, thus geology
determines the initial conditions for littoral processes.

Longshore sediment transport
The breaking waves and surf in the nearshore combine with various
horizontal and vertical patterns of nearshore currents to transport beach
sediments.
Sometimes this transport results only in a local rearrangement of sand into
bars and troughs.
At other times there are extensive longshore displacements of sediments,
possibly moving hundreds of thousands of cubic meters of sand along
the coast each year.
We will see the various techniques that have been developed to evaluate the
longshore sediment transport rate, which is defined to occur primarily
within the surf zone, directed parallel to the coast.
This transport is among the most important nearshore processes that
control the beach morphology, and determines in large part whether
shores erode, accrete, or remain stable.
An understanding of longshore sediment transport is essential to sound
coastal engineering design practice.
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As waves breaking obliquely to the coast, the longshore currents are
generated, and resulting movement of beach sediment along the coast is
referred to as littoral transport or longshore sediment transport, whereas
the actual volumes of sand involved in the transport are termed the
littoral drift.
This longshore movement of beach sediments is of particular importance in
that the transport can either be interrupted by the construction of jetties
and breakwaters (structures which block all or a portion of the longshore
sediment transport), or can be captured by inlets and submarine
canyons.
In the case of a jetty, the result is a buildup of the beach along the updrift
side of the structure and an erosion of the beach downdrift of the
structure.
The impacts pose problems to the adjacent beach communities, as well as
threaten the usefulness of the adjacent navigable waterways (channels,
harbors, etc.)

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The direction of longshore transport is directly related to the direction of
wave approach and the angle of the wave crest to the shore.
Thus, due to the variability of wave approach, longshore transport direction
can vary from season to season, day to day, or hour to hour.
The rate of longshore transport is dependent on the angle of wave approach,
duration and wave height. Thus, high storm waves will generally move
more material per unit time than that moved by low waves.
Because reversals in transport direction occur and because different types
of waves transport material at different rates, two components of the
longshore transport rate (net & gross) become important.
Most shores consistently have a net annual longshore transport in one
direction.
Determining the direction and average net and gross annual amount of
longshore transport is important in developing shore or highway
protection plans.

Estimation of Longshore sediment transport
CERC formula, adopted by US Army corps of engineers, in SPM (1966).
The potential longshore sediment transport rate, dependent on an available
quantity of littoral material, is most commonly correlated with the socalled longshore component of wave energy flux or power,
where Eb is the wave energy evaluated at the breaker line,
And Cgb is group velocity at breaker line;

where is the breaker index Hb/db.
The term (ECg)b is the wave energy flux evaluated at the breaker zone, and
b is the wave breaker angle relative to the shoreline. The immersed
weight transport rate Il is given as;
K is an empirical proportionality coefficient.

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Applying Pl;
For shallow water breaking;
Or, after simplifying;
In engineering applications, the longshore sediment transport rate is

expressed as the volume transport rate Ql having units such as cubic
meters per year.
Applying Il in the above equation;

Variation of K with sediment grain size

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Estimation of Longshore sediment transport - Problem
(1) With Hbrms=2m, =1025kg/m3, s=2650kg/m3 and b=4.5, D50=1mm.
Assume, n=0.4, =0.15 & K=0.65; Calculate the (a) potential immersedweight and (b) volumetric longshore sand transport rates.
Soln:
(2) The energy density of waves with a peak period of 10sec is measured to
be Eo=2.1x103 N/m, in a deep-water location. The waves make an angle
of o=70 with the coast at the this location, but after refraction, the angle
at the breaking is found to be b=30. Assume K= 0.6.
Soln:
- Calculate group speed of the waves in deep water (Cg)
-The energy flux/unit length in deep water is;

-By conservation of energy flux;
-longshore comp. of the energy flux @ shoreline is;
-Volumetric sand transport rate;

Gross & Net longshore sediment transport
Cross-shore distribution of longshore sediment transport

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Equilibrium shape of headland-bay beach

Headland-bay equilibrium shoreline shapes
arise
through
wave
sheltering
by
diffraction at the object serving as the
headland, combined with refraction, which
will dominate with distance along the
beach away from the headland.
Theoretical shapes
-Log-spiral
-Parabolic bay

Log-spiral
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Parabolic
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Cross-shore transport
During storm, strong winds generate
high, steep waves. In addition,
storm also increase the water level
and exposes the higher parts of
the beach to wave attack, which is
not ordinarily vulnerable to
waves.
The storm surge allows the larger
waves to pass over the offshore
bar formation without breaking.
When they finally break, remaining
energy is spent in erosion of the
beach.
The eroded material is carried
offshore and deposited at bottom,
thus forming a berm.
Inlet dynamics
Hydrodynamics of tidal inlets
Inlets provide access to man & nature between the ocean and a bay/land
enclosed water body.
At the throat of the inlet (min c/s) and bayward, tidal currents are the
predominant forcing agent interacting with sediments.
On the seaward and alongshore away from the inlet, the effect of waves
increases.
Waves contribute sediment from adjoining beaches & tidal currents move
them in & out of bay.
Sediment may again be moved to adjoining beaches by the combination of
waves and currents, thus bypassing the inlet.
The interaction of tidal currents, waves, and wave-generated currents is a
complex process.
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Inlet dynamics
Various features of sediment dynamics along the shore
Typical tidal inlet features

Inlet dynamics
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Next.
Coastal Erosion & protection
26

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9/3/2014

Estimation of nearshore waves

Estimation of nearshore waves

Estimation of nearshore waves

Amplification of wave height behind a

Estimation of nearshore waves

(d) Dissipation due to friction

(g) Additional growth due to the wind Source mechanism

Estimation of nearshore waves

Brief overview of linear waves theory

Brief overview of linear waves theory

Brief overview of linear waves theory

Integrating the above equation will lead to;

where Cn is the speed at which the energy is transmitted; this velocity is

Brief overview of linear waves theory

-and finally, energy flux;

Surf zone hydrodynamics

-Breaker index (breaker depth index & height index);

And for the regular waves;

The semi-empirical relationship for the breaker height index;

Surf zone hydrodynamics

and get Hb from;

-Estimate a & b, for beta=1/100;

-and finally, db=Hb/b.

Surf zone hydrodynamics

outside surf zone

Along the surf zone, the wave either continue

Surf zone hydrodynamics

Surf zone hydrodynamics

The quantity is an empirical coefficient (=0.4).

Surf zone hydrodynamics

with respect to time, integrated along

Vn is velocity component perpendicular to the considered plane & pw is

where p is the total pressure, and Vn2 is the momentum

Surf zone hydrodynamics

The wave thrust reduces to;

Surf zone hydrodynamics

Surf zone hydrodynamics

Surf zone hydrodynamics

CD = dimensionless drag coefficient, D = grain diameter, = density of water,

Fall velocity as a function of Reynolds number

Fall velocity of quartz in water & air

Shore process and changes

Shore process and changes

Shore process and changes

Shore process and changes

Shore process and changes

Shore process and changes

Shore process and changes

Shore process and changes

Shore process and changes

Shore process and changes

Shore process and changes

where Eb is the wave energy evaluated at the breaker line,

And Cgb is group velocity at breaker line;

K is an empirical proportionality coefficient.

Shore process and changes

Or, after simplifying;

In engineering applications, the longshore sediment transport rate is

Applying Il in the above equation;

Shore process and changes

Variation of K with sediment grain size

Shore process and changes