Applied Mathematics for

Complex Engineering
Lecture note 01 - Week 02.
Problem
Applied Mathematics for Complex Engineering Problems

2.0 Algebraic equations

2.1 Non-Linear Equation
Equation whose graph does not form a straight line (linear) is called a Nonlinear Equation. In a nonlinear equation,
the variables are either of degree greater than 1 or less than 1, but never 1.
Examples of Nonlinear Equations

4x2 + 2y - 1 = 0 and x3 + 2x2 - 4xy - 1 = 0 are the examples of nonlinear equations.

1

x3 + y 3 =

3
7

is a nonlinear equation.

2.1.1 Solving equations by iterative methods

Many equations can only be solved graphically or by methods of successive approximations to the roots, called
iterative methods. The most popular methods of successive approximations is by using the Newton-Raphson formula
and the bisection method.
Each successive approximation method relies on a reasonably good rst estimate of the value of a root being made.

y=f (x) , and determine the approximate

One way of determining this is to sketch a graph of the function, say

values of roots from the points where the graph cuts the x-axis. Another way is by using a functional notation method.

f ( x )=0

This method uses the property that the value of the graph of

just after the value of a root. For example, one root of the equation

changes sign for values of x just before and

2

x x6=0

is

x=3 . Using functional

notation:

It can be seen from these results that the value of

f ( x)

changes from

at

f (2)

to

+6

at

f (4) ,

indicating that a root lies between 2 and 4. This is shown more clearly in Fig. 2.1.

Fig.2.1:
2.1.2 Bisection Method of Solving a Nonlinear Equation
What is the bisection method and what is it based on?
One of the first numerical methods developed to find the root of a nonlinear equation f(x) = 0 was the bisection
method (also called binary-search method). The method is based on the following theorem.

A.C.M. Suhoothi BSc.Eng.(Hons)

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Applied Mathematics for

Complex Engineering
Problem
Theorem

Lecture note 01 - Week 02.

An equation f(x) = 0, where f(x) is a real continuous function, has at least one root between x l and xu if f(xl).f(xu) < 0
(See Figure 2.2). Note that if f(xl)f(xu ) > 0, there may or may not be any root between x l and xu (Figures 2.3 and 2.4).
If f(xl) (xu) < 0, then there may be more than one root between x l and xu (Figure 4). So the theorem only guarantees
one root between xl and xu.
Bisection method
Since the method is based on finding the root between two points, the method falls under the category of bracketing
methods. Since the root is bracketed between two points x l and xu one can find the midpoint xm between xl and xu. This
gives us two new intervals
1. xl and xm, and
2. Xm and xu.
3.
4.

Fig.2.2: At least one root exists between the two

points if the function is real, continuous, and changes
sign.

Fig.2.3: If the function f(x) does not change sign between the two points,
roots of the equation f(x) = 0 may still exist between the two points.

Fig.2.4: If the function f(x) does not change sign between two points, there may not be
any roots for the equation f(x) = 0 between the two points.

A.C.M. Suhoothi BSc.Eng.(Hons)

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CE/13/03

Applied Mathematics for

Complex Engineering
Problem

Lecture note 01 - Week 02.

Fig.2.5: If the function f(x) changes sign between the two points, more than
one roots for the equation f(x) = 0 may exist between the two points.
Is the root now between xl and xm or between xm and xu ? Well, one can find the sign of f(xl) f(xm), and if f(xl)f(xm) < 0
then the new bracket is between xl and xm, otherwise, it is between xm and xu. So, you can see that you are literally
halving the interval. As one repeats this process, the width of the interval [x l, xu] becomes smaller and smaller, and
you can zero in to the root of the equation f(x) = 0. The algorithm for the bisection method is given as follows.

Problem 1

Find a root of the function f(x)= x3+6x2+5x-13

A.C.M. Suhoothi BSc.Eng.(Hons)

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CE/13/03

Applied Mathematics for

Complex Engineering
Problem
2.1.3 The NewtonRaphson method

Lecture note 01 - Week 02.

The NewtonRaphson formula, often just referred to as Newtons method, may be stated as follows:
If r1 is the approximate value of a real root of the equation

f ( x )=0 ,then a closer approximation to the root r 2 is

given by:

The advantages of Newtons method over other methods of successive approximations is that it can be used for any
type of mathematical equation (i.e. ones containing trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic, hyperbolic and algebraic
functions), and it is usually easier to apply than other methods.
Problem 1: Use Newtons method to determine the positive root of the quadratic equation

5 x2 +11 x17=0 ,

correct to 3 signicant gures. Check the value of the root by using the quadratic formula.
Problem 2: Taking the rst approximation as 2, determine the root of the equation

2
x 3 sin x+2 ln ( x +1 )=3.5 ,

correct to 3 signicant gures, by using Newtons method.

Problem 3: Use Newtons method to nd the positive root of:
3

1.92 x

( x+ 4) e

x
+5 cos =9 Correct to 3 signicant gures.
3

4.2 Linear Equation

A linear equation looks like any other equation. It is made up of two expressions set equal to each other. A linear
equation is special because:
1. It has one or two variables.
2. No variable in a linear equation is raised to a power greater than 1 or used as the denominator of a fraction.
3. When you find pairs of values that make the linear equation true and plot those pairs on a coordinate grid, all
of the points for any one equation lie on the same line. Linear equations graph as straight lines.
E.g.:

2
y= x +0.5 ,
3

x=5 , 3 x+ 4 y17=0 etc.

2.2.1 The solution of simultaneous equations by matrices and determinants

A. The procedure for solving linear simultaneous equations in two unknowns using matrices is:
(i)

write the equations in the form

a1 x+ b1 y =c 1
a2 x+ b2 y =c 2

(ii)

write the matrix equation corresponding to these equations,

(
(iii)

)()()

a 1 b1
x = c1
a 2 b2
y
c2

determine the inverse matrix of

i.e.

1
b2 b 1
a1 b 2b1 a2 a2 a1

a 1 b1
a 2 b2

(iv)

multiply each side of (ii) by the inverse matrix, and

(v)

solve for x and y by equating corresponding elements.

Problem 1: Use matrices to solve the simultaneous equations:

A.C.M. Suhoothi BSc.Eng.(Hons)

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CE/13/03

Applied Mathematics for

Complex Engineering
Problem

Lecture note 01 - Week 02.

B. The procedure for solving linear simultaneous equations in three unknowns using matrices is:
(i)

write the equations in the form

(ii)

write the matrix equation corresponding to these equations, i.e.

(iii)

a1 x+ b1 y + c1 z=d 1
a2 x+ b2 y + c2 z=d 2
a3 x+ b3 y+ c 3 z=d3

(
(

)()( )
)

a 1 b1 c 1
d1
x
a 2 b2 c 2 y = d 2
z
a3 b3 c 3
d3

determine the inverse matrix of

a 1 b1 c 1
a 2 b2 c 2
a3 b3 c 3

(iv)

multiply each side of (ii) by the inverse matrix, and

(v)

solve for x, y and z by equating the corresponding elements.

Problem 2: Use matrices to solve the simultaneous equations:

A.C.M. Suhoothi BSc.Eng.(Hons)

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CE/13/03