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EAST MIDLANDS GEOTECHNICAL GROUP

THE INSTiTUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS

It
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Geotechnical Engineering of Landfills

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I
Proceedings of the syl.lposium
held at The Nottingham Trent University
Department of Civil and Structura: engineering
on 24 September 1998

.
I

Thomas Telford

Organizers:
Institution

The East Midlands

Geotechnical

Group of the

of Civil Engineers

Organizing

Committee:

Dr N. Dixon, Dept. Civil and Structural

Engineering,
The Nottingham Trent University; Dr EJ. Murray,
Murray Rix Geotechnical;
D.R.V. Jones, Golder Associates (UK)
1,1:1
Dr l. JcfTn\on, Dept. Civil and Structural Engineering, The
'r', .

r""jr'nllI1WIlI

Published lor the organizers by Thomas Tellord Publishing. Th,"nas Telford Ltd. 1 HenJl}
Qua\'. London E 14 4JD. URL: http://www.Hellord.co.uk

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

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ele~tr0nic, mechani:al. photncopyil.g vr otherwise, without the priJr wriuen permission 01'
the Books Publish,r. 1~10mas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, I Heron Quay,
London E 14 4J D.
This book is published on the understanding that the authors are solely responsible lor the
qalements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not I~ecessarily
imply that such statements and/or opinions arc or rellect the views or opinions of the
publishers or of (he organizers.

The symposium
on Geotechnical
Engineering
of l.andfills and thi, .1Ssociated
publication
aim to provide an opponunity
for the pr",,'ntation
and Ji-:u:;sion
of
rcccnt developments
in the d,,:;i~n, construction
,md operation
,.' landfill
"';1;'"
Th,' 'ipecifir nbi,'c,;'
",. 'highlight:
Ilic IIlJponant
ruk pl,l)l~
.dC mechanic.,:
propenies
,); ',lsle in
optimising barrier design ,md iJndfll1 operation:
issues related to the design and testing of Plineralliners.
includin~ ','ntonite
enriched soils and colliery spoil: and
recent developments
in the assessment
of geos\ nrhetics, includin~ barrier
stability,
assessment
of protection
materials
f~r liners and pro!:'~nies of
geosynthetic
clay liners.
A Ithough there have been a number of conferences
c.nd meetings both :n the UK
and throughout
the world
covering
issues of la:ldfiIJ desin,
mate;'ial
performance
and landfill viJeration, it was felt by the organising c;mmirtee
that
many of these are aimed at specific sub groups of practitioners
and researchers.
Therefore
it was considered
timely to hold a symposium w'1ich co\erd
a range
of issues relevant
to geotechnical
engineers
and associated
disciplines,
~o
highlight
new areas i)f research and practice,
and to provide
a forum for
discussion.
It was for these reasons that the East 0.11dlands Geot~chnical
Group
(EMGG) decided to organise a symposium on the subject in 1998, following the
succe:;sful seminars on Groundwater
Pollution in 19q4 and Lime Stabiiisation
in
1996.
The EMGG was formc,-j in 1992 with the aim of pro\iding
the
environment
of a learned society on geotechnical
subjects, for the benefit of
civil engineers and engineering
geolog:sts living ak,ng the hinterhnd
of the M I
from North.amptonshire
to South Yorkshire.
Most of tre ~ctivity concerns the
evelling meetings j::rogramme, ",Ithough site visib and sy:-:1pos;a are 0'ga~lise,-j
to complement
tpis wair, r01e. The Nottingham
(rent U:~iversity was considered
an ap;,roprialt: ~ost for the symposium since it has beell active in r.esnrch i;1 ~he
area cf landfill engineering
for several y:::ars.
The editors wisi1 te acknowledge
the considerable
s~PlJon c' both the
organisin;
committee
and the full EMGG ,:ommirtee.
They also wi3r. to thank
the contributors
for their excellent papers, particularly
since the ti<Ile to write
sLlch a paper apiJears to be progressively
harder ~o find. Meeting the deadline
for camera-ready
copy so that the book couid be made available
::t the
symposium
requires a considerable
concentration
of effort, and this is much
appreciated.
Finally the support provided
by Samantha
Casten on from the
Commercial
Administration
Centre of The Nortingham
Trent Lniversity,
is
gratefully acknowl~dged.

Contents

COll1pression of waste allli Il11plications for pr:1Ltice

W !'OIvrie, f)J Richards (1/1(//<, P. Beaven

/1 Stress states in, and stillness of. landfill waste

N. Dixon and D.R. V. Jones

Properties and te~ting of clay liners

EJ Murray
Issues related to the use and specification
C. C. Hird, C. C. 5111ithand J. C. Cripps

of collir::ry spoil liners

The design and control of bentonite e<lriched soils

S.A. Jefferis
.

'I Ile stability of geosynthetic

D,R. V. Jones llnd N. Dixon

landfill lining systems

Perfornnnce testing of protection ;naterials for gecmembranes

tJ DarbysUre, R.(j, Warwick LInd E. GaLlagher
~ngineering propc~ties and use of geosynthetic
E. Gart:ng and H. Zanzinger

clay liners

Mechanical Properties of
Landfill Waste
While significant 3ltcntion is givcn to thc design, construction and long term
performancc of landfill side slope lining and capping systems, relativel: little
work has been directed towards gaining an understanding of the mechanical
properties of the Ilaste and assessing its interaction with the surrounding barrier.
1\ knowledge of the mechanical properties of waste is required to 'enable cost
effective, environmentally safe landfill facilities to be constructed and operated.
A number of issues related to landfill design require consideration of the waste
body behaviour.
Shear strength of the waste mass are reCjuired for use in slope stability
stt.:dies.
Compressibility uf waste has to be quantified to enable predictions of total
and differential settlements, and of the distribution of these with time during
the life of the landfill facility (e.g. this information is needed to Jptimise
Capf1i'lg dp.sign)
An understanding of the permeability of waste, and of the influence of
overbun.icn pressure and degradation, is .equired to improve operation of
leachate collection wells and the jevelopment of leachate re-circulation
systems (e.g. for potential use ir. flushing bio-reactors).
The in situ stress within, and stiff:1ess of emplaced waste are needed to
enable assessment of the support pruvided to vertical and near vertical side
slope lining systems by the wa~te (i.e. leading to an understanding of the in
service d'.:'formations o~the lining system).
The pap.;:rs in this section address aspects of housel.old waste compres5'bility,
iJcimeabi:ity and stiffness.
The paper by Powrie e: ul. covers issues related tv the compression of
land filled waste 'shich occurs both during placement (due to machine
cOlllpaction and olerburden effects) and in tne long-term (as a result of
processes such as degradation ane ra,elling).
The changes in waste deilsity
that result from compressioil during land filling are considered including the
affect on the mass of waste that a site can accept, and on the permeability of the
waste. The authors emph:::.si~e that knowledge of the permeability of the waste
is important becau"e of its influence on leachate production and management.
In additio'l, they stress that long-term settlement must be taken into account in
the riesign of the landfill site closure systems, and comment that provision

should be made for the continuing care and maintenance of restoration works .
.The paper summarises the various mechanisms of waste cumpression and
discusses the implications for landfill operation, closure ;"ld aftercare.
Dixon & Jones highlight the important role 1I1at waste plays in the
stability and structural integrity of vertical or near vertical lining systems. It is
contended that although the landfill industry is developing and constructing
novel barrier systems for steep side slopes, there is still a dearth of information,
and hence limited understanding, of the factors which control both short-term
and long-term deformations of the lining; these are intluenced by construction
techniques and waste degradation processes respectively. The paper describes a
novel method for nbtaining the relevant mech~nical properties of waste for use
in assessment of designs, based an the pressuremeter, and presents the results of
initial field trials. Results from in situ tests, to measure stiffness and stresses in
both fresh and partially degradcG household waste, are discussed.
The work presented in this section provides a timely and significant
contribution
to the study of waste mechanics.
Whi:e the study of waste
behaviour is fraught with difficulties (i.e. studying a heterogeneous material
whose engineering properties change with time), t'1C papers demonstrate that
useful results can be obtained. This area of research requires continued attention
from the landfill community.

Compression of waste and

implications for practice
w. Powrie, DJ. Ric"art!.\ a"d R.P. Beave"
Dep"rtment ol( 'i1'd & !''"''l'ironmen{(l! Engineering, Ul1lvasity
Southampton, ,)'017 113.J,UK

ol

Introduction
Compression of landfilled waste occurs both during placement \.d1Je to machine
compaction
and overburden effects), and in the long-term (as a result of
processes such as degradation and ravelling). The changes in wa~te density
resulting from compression during landfilling will affect the as-received volume
of 'Naste that a site can accept, rind also the permeability of the waste. The
permeability of the waste is import::::1t because of its influense on leachate
levelS, production and maI~:tgement.
Long-ten.1 settlements must be taken into account in the dC3ign of
landfill site closure systems, and may require provision to be made for the
continuing care anJ Plainte:lance of res:Olation works. In this paper, the varicus
mechanisms
of waste compressiJn
ai1d the f::ctors influencing
them are
summarized. Tile implications for landfill operation, closure, and aftercare are
then d:scussed.

Mechanisrr;s
The follov;ing
at. (1990).

of compression

lY'echanisms uf compression

of waste '.vere identified by 2dil et

i.1echanic:t! compression,
due to the crushing, distortion, reorientatiop.
bending and/or breaking of waste partie ies as vertical stresses are increased,
either during compaction or due to the self weight of the fill as further
material is deposited on top. In the absence of pie-compaction,
the degree
of mechanical
compression depends (other factors being equal) on the
depth of the waste.

Degradation,
.llIc to biological decomposition and physico-chemical
processes such as corrosion and oxidation oflhe waste in the longer term.
Ravelling, which is the f;radualmigration of finer particles into,the larger
voids and which can occur during both mechanical compression and
degradation.

Compression may also occur on wetting of thc waste, due to the loss of strength
or structurc of ccrtain componcnts on contact with moisture, e.g. paper and
cardboard. Waste settlemenl is convcntionally classified as either primary or
sec()nd~II")'.depcnding on the lill1escak over which it occurs.
Primary compression
Primary compression of thc waste in the landfill will probably occur within a
period of days following the deposition of further material on top (Bleiker ef al.,
1995; Beaven & PO\lTie, 1995).
Beaven and Powrie (1995) carried out a series of tests on a number of
samples of domestic refuse to investigate the variation of density and hydraulic
conductivity with vertical stress. The tests were carried out in a large purposebuilt compression cell, located at Cleanaway LId's Pitsea landfill site in Essex,
England. The cell consists of a sieel cylinder, 2m In diameter and 3m high, into
which refuse is placed for testing (Figure I).

The cylinder is suspended vel1ically within a steel support frame. The

feet of the support frame are mounted on load cells, enabling the weight of the
contento of the cell to be monitored continuously. The base of the cylinder is
sealed oy a 2m diameter platen which is seated on an '0' ring, Refuse in the
cylinder is compressed by an upper platen, just under 2m in diameter, which can
be moved vertically up and down inside the testing cylinder. The upper platen is
connected to, and moved by, two 200mm diameter hydraulically operated
pistons. I\t the start of a test the upper platen is lowered onto the refuse: a
constant vertical load can then be applied by means or the hydraulic pistons.
The maximum vertical load is 1900kN, giving a stress of 600kPa distributed
uniformly over the plan area of the refuse sample.
Water can be allowed to flow dpward through the sample, from two
450 litrc water header tanks mounted on a scaffold tower :Ip to 3 metres above
the top of the testing cylinder. The tanks are connected to 12 evenly spaced
25mm diameter ports on the lower platen, Water flows out of the upper platen
through similar ports, and through a 2mm annular clearance gap between the
outer edge of the platen and the inner surface of the testing cylinder. In-line
electromagnetic flow meters are used to record the total volumes and flow rates
of water entering and leaving the sample,
At the start of each test, refuse was loaded into the cell and compacted
in layers to the desired initial density, until the overall refuse depth was
approximately 2.5m. Following placement of the refuse, 18 piezometers were
illstalled horizontally through ports in the side of the cylinder, located at vertical
spacings :)f between 150mm ane I100mm, Lengths of string anchored at known
~oints within the refuse and running out of the cell throug:l the piezometer ports
were used to measure the total compression at various depths, The uppf'r pla~en
was then lowered onto the sample and an initial load was applied u~ing the
hydraulic system. The compression of the refuse was monitored as a funstion of
time by measuring the downv .ard movement cf the upper platen. Any leachate
squeezed out of the refuse W'lScollected and its volume recorded,
When compression had substantially ceased (in pmctice, when the rate
G f settlement had hllen to less than I % of the sample Ilf'ight per rlay~, the waste
was saUrated by introducillg water through tne lower platen and then ai:owed
drain to leach its field capacity ~i e, the moisture cor tent of the refuse under
conditions f)f free down~ard drainage conditions). The saturated hyoraulic
c'1nductivity ofth~ refuse was drterrllined (ilt constallt applied vertical stress) by
carrying Ollt a constant head flow test. '.Vater from the header tanks was aiiowed
tv flow upward through the refuse, Gverflowing at the tC;J of the oample. The
hydraulic gradient was measured by means of the piezometer ports in the side of
the colunlI~ and the flow rate using the electmmagnetic flowmeters. At high
vertical stresses and low refuse permeabilities the flow rate of water into the
sample was low, and direct measurement of the (small) fall in water level in the
heade' tanks with time was found to be more reliable than the flowmeter
reading.

,0

Figure 1 The Pitsea compression cell during a recent overhaul and

refurbishment

I
I I

The refuse was then drained, the applied stress increased and the cycl.':
of operation and measurement repeated (i.e. the moisture content of the refuse
under conditions of free downward drainage conditions). Tests were carried out
on a number of samples of crude and pulverized domestic wastes. In this paper.
the results from one test on crude waste (OM3) and one test on pulverized waste
(PV I) arc discussed.
DM3 was a crude domestic refuse obtai:1ed from the iipping face of a
landfill. The water content at field capacity at the start of compression was
-102% (by dry mass). I'V I was a processed refuse, obtained by pulverizing
crude dOl11estic refuse, passing it through a 150111111
filter aild removing dense
fines (including some putrescibles). The water cu,:tent at field capacity at the
start of compression was -141 % (by dry mass). The composition of these
wastes is summarized in I able I.

Refuse
component

Ory density of
component,
]
Mg/m

Paper/card

0.41

Plastic fi 1m

1.01
I. II
0..,1

Oense plastics
Textiles

.J

Misc. noncomhustibles

:'81

GI<:s:

2.91
1.0'
~O-'-

Ferrous metals
Non ferrous
< I()mli1 fines
TOTA~

PV I
%01'

total
mass

39.8
4.4

49

1.01
1.11

6.4

7.8

5.::;

5.7

2.0

24

1.1

2.91
1.22

7.0

1.3

13.2

6.5

3.2
1.2

9.0

4.~)
100

5.2
100

0.0

8.3

1.02

Misc.
combustibles

Putrescib!~s

OM3
%of
total
mas~

Saturated
density of
component,
]
Mg/m
1.21

measured density p and the initial woter content II' obtained from a sub-sample
of the refuse, using the standard soillllechanics relationship Pd = p/(I+w). The
initial dry density of the processed refuse PV I was 0.25Mg/~), while for the
crude waste (OM3) the initial dry density was 0.33Mg/IllJ The corresponding
initial wet densities were 0.62 Mg/mJ (PV I) and 0.50 Mg/mJ (OM3).
.
Figure 2 shows the variation in dry density and wet density at field
capacity with vertical dfective stress. (It has been assumed that the applied
vatical stresses at equilibrium stages of the tests under discussion are effective
stresses. lransmitted through the refuse matrix by interpanicle contact. This is
because alihough the refuse is nOI dry, it is free to drain verticallv dl)\\'n\\,ard
and the sample is of substantiall)' uniform hydraulic conductivity: llllls the fluid
in the \'oids is at zero gaugt: prt:ssure). [3oth axes arc plotted 10 logarithmic
scales, :lIId it has been assumed that the dell,il" and stress are uniform
throughout the sample, i.e. the cffects of self weigh; alld sidcwall li'iction have
been ignored.
. The final dry density of OM3 at an applit:d stress of 600kPa was 0.71
Mg/m~. while the tinal dry density of the processed refuse PV I was 0.60
J
Mg/m . The coiTesponding final wet densities at field capacity were 1.18 Mg/mJ
J
(OM3) and 0.97 Mg/Ill (PVI). These may be compared with wel densities of
J
0.62 - 0.67 Mg/m and 0.81 - 1.11 Mg/mJ reported by Caterpillar (1995)
following compaction of crude domestic wastes in layers using Caterpillar 8168
and 826 compaction plant. Assuming a water content in the range of :;0 - 40%,
these ~'anges of wet density correspond to dry density ranges of 0.37 - 047
M~/mJ and 1).49 - 078 Mg/mJ resp::~ti'!~ly. The implication is that, in terms 01'
tile waste density achieved, compaction at the tipping face can have a similar
effect to the uurial of the waste by several tens of metres of overbu,den.

('02
.V

!.8~

6.0

6.0

2.02
I

1.6

10M3

;::;0.7

.-

i~ote 1: P:'Olll Landva & Clark (1990)

Note 2: Assumed value

ios

-~

L3L==:==:>
o2
30

The dry density Pdry is defined as the density that the waste would have if it
were complete!y dry (i.e. had zero liquid content). The initial dry density of the
refuse as loaded into the cell (prior to compresslUn) was determined from the

...____________-

----------~-~------~--....:
50
100.

200
(J

v (kPa)

300

500

The hydraulic; conductivities of PV I and DM3 at different applied stresses are

shown in Table 2. Between low and high stress states,~he hY~iauhc conductivity
reduced by over 2 orders of magnitude (fro~ 3.5x10 t,~ 10 m/s) for DM3 and
by nearly 5 orders of magnitude (from 10 to 3.5x10 m/s) for the processed
refuse PV I.
Saturated hydraulic conductivity, mls
DM3
PVI
2x 10,4
ND
3.5x1O,5
3.6x 10'5

Applied stress, kPa

Initial
40

2x 10'5

165

7x 10'6
2x1O,6

322

9x1O,8

3x 10'6
8xlO,7

600

3.5xlO,9

1X 10,7

87

Table 2 Hydraulic conductivity

at different applied stresses

Hydraul ic conductivity i:; plotted as a function of dry density for both wastes (to
a douhle logarithmic scale) in Figure 3.

Secondary

Quantitative
investigation into secondary compression of waste due to
degradation is rare. Although case records are given in papers such as those by
Gasparini et at. (1995), Hilde & Reginster (1995) and Kostantinos et at. (1997),
there are few data concerning the likely ultimate settlements of municipal solid
and industrial wastes taking the effects of degradation into account.
The UK guidance manual on landfill design and operational practice,
Waste Management Paper 26B (1995), suggests a secondary settlement f~gure
of 15-20% of the initial refuse depth on the basis of research at a limited
number of UK household waste sites (Coulston 8: Wye College. iQ(3). Other
research has sliggested that settlements in excess of 25% of the depth of the
landfill may occur (3jarngard 8: Edgers. 1990; Di Stefano, 1(93).
The f:rst draft of the DoE Waste Management Paper (WMP) 26D
(landfill monitoring) suggested that long-term settlements of betll'een 25 and
50% of the original fill thickness are typical of the allowance that may need to
be made in determining the final fill levels of a domestic waste landfill. The
latest draft: for public consultation of WMP 26D (January 19(6) suggests longterm settlements in excess of 20%. The paper also notes that accelerated
stabilisation will cause more of the waste to degrade during the filling phase,
reducing the magnitude of settlement following r::losure.
The considerable uncertainty regarding the secondary compression of
waste is understandable in view cf the various factors that are known to
influence its eventual magnitude. Tllf~se include:

--~---l@J

\~

1E-8 -

----

~-~--\~~---

L--'--------~-~-~-.

1E-9
0.2

0.:::;
0.5
Dry density (tlm3)

,-~-,-

07

compression

the composition
of the waste: wastes with (l higher proportion of
degradable (principally organic) materia is willlJenore
susceptible to longterm
settlemPiit
due to decol11oosition than wastes containing
predom inantly inert materials:
the as-plilced dry density of :he waste: for a given degradable fraction, a
given mass of compacted (i.e. de:1ser) waste would be expected to have less
potential tor mechanical volume loss and hence long-term settlelllent lyp;c"l dry rJcasities of wastes can be found III Beaven & Powrie (1995);
the dep~h of the fill mateia!: for a givell waste type dno density, (he
potential lo:;s of volume or ll1aos on riegrariat~C'n is roughly rr,opc:1ioEal to
~he original volume or mil'SS of waste, so ,hat in absolute terms cleeper
larylfiils would bexpecteJ to e,hibit greater settlements

The rak of waste degraaation iT' the JOng-ter:n depends primarily on the
co.nposition of the waste, its water content and the rate at which \\'at~r passes
through it. Forced gas extrJction may also influence the rate or pattern of
degradation, e.g. larger settlements tend to occur around gas extraction wells.
Increasing the water content of the fill incn~ases its rate of
decomposition (Chen & Chynoweth, 1995), while increasing the rate of water
niO v~ment through waste without changing the water content has been found to

increase methane generation rales by approximately 25-50%, (Klink & Ham,

1982). Although current UK policy is directed towards the s:abilizatio!l of
!,illdfills within a 30-50 year time period (Grono,,!, 1996), this cani,ot be
achieved with "dry" containment techniques, for which stabilization times of
hundreds or even thousands of years are predicted (Knox, 1996).
Measures currently beil~; taken to reduce stabilisation times at landfill
sites in the UK principally involve the recirculation.of leachate. Treated and/or
untreated leachate collected at the boltom of a containment cell is pumped up to
the top of the landfill and is allowed to percolate down through the wask mass.
This has been shown in laboratory scale experiments (l3arlaz c'/ (d.. I n9;
Reynolds & Blakey, 1995), landtill Iysimeters (Buivid el al. 1981: Kinman c/
aI, 1987) and controlled landfill cells (ilaivadakis ef al., 1988; Townsend ef aI,
1996) to enhance microbial activity within the waste and is suggested in WMP
2613 (1995) as a method of achieving accelerated ~tabilization of 'l landfill. As
the leachate is itself a product of the waste degradation process, it is likely to
contain the micro-organisms and nutrients necessary for the degradation of the
putrescible fraction of the waste mass. However, prolonged recirculation of
untreatf'd leachate could ('ead to high concentrations of soluble inorganic ions
due to leaching and decorrposition processes within the waste mass. These ions,
principally sodium and chlorid<" could well inhibit further degradation unless
the leachate is treated prior to recirculation (Knox, 1996).
Implicaticns

for

prac-::::;c

Operation
The main concern during the operational phase of a landfill is likely to be
primary compression, but secondary compression may begin to be an issue
especially if accelerated degradatiun i3 promoted. t)rimary or short-telI~~
compression will :::ffect

the
tile
the
,he
gas

mass ~r as-received volume of refuse that can be accepted;

penTleability of the refuse, ~nd hence tlle p0re leachate rressll!"'::s withlll
site and the ease with w:lich leachate can be re::ircul:::ted; and
integrity of structures wi\hin and adjacent to the waste mass. inr.ludillg
and ieachate extraction wells and steep sitied lining systems.

Mass input to the site

Waste alreildy emplaced within a landfill will undergo compression as further
refuse is deposited on top. This means that the volume of waste placed wil~ in
gt:;neral be greater than the final volume of the landfill, even allowing for
secondary compression due to degradation etc.
The as-placed volume or dry mass of refuse corresponding to a given
final fill depth can be calculated using a relationship between dry density Pdry
and depth z, assuming (in the absence of chemical and biological activity) that

the mass of dry solids .Iemains conStant. On this basis, and t~king the pore
leachate pressure within the landfill as zero, Beaven & Powrie (1995) silow that
the volume of refuse placed at a dry density of 0.35 Mg/m3 required to give a
final depth of 10m is 11.5 m' per square metre, i.e. there is an averdge primary
compression of 15% by volume. For a final depth of 30 m, a total of 42 m' per
2
m of refuse is required, corresponding to an overall average primary
compression of 40%.
These values of average primary compression would be reduced if the
waste were compacted ,at the tipping face to achieve a higher as-rlaced dry
density than 0.35 Mgim '. Using the data from DM3, the ;lveragc dry density due
to self-weight comrression in a 10m deep landlill would be approximately 0.--1
Mg/m', and in a 30 nl deep landfill 0 ..5 Mg/m '. T:lUS in theory, sell' weight
compression gives no incr,'ase in density if the waste is placed :,1 a 10 III deep
landfill at a dry density in excess of 0.4 Mg/m3, or in a 30 m deep landfill at a
dry density of more than 0.5 Mg/m'.
In reality, compression due to chemical and microbiological activity
may also occur during the operational stage: this would increase the volumetric
compression during filling. However, the assumption that the pore leachate
pressure is zero throughout the depth of the landtill is unrealistic as discussed in
the following section: non-zero pore leachate pressures woule reduce effective
stresses and hence the degree of self weight compression.

Refuse permeability and leachate recirculation

It ha3 already been stated that the rate of was\e deg-radation can be 'l,::celerilted
by ii:creasing either the water content of the waste or tile rilte 01' 'vater
movement through it. Conreptually, the simplest way of promoting water
movement through a landtilled ,vaste is to introduce fresh liquid at the surface,
and a:lovv it tv percoiate downward under gravity through tho::w2ste 'nass to a
basal drai;:age blanke~. The leachate pressure within the drainage blanket is
maintained at or near zero by pumping. Flusl'ing the landfill in this way would
also remove mobile non-biodegradable contaminar.ts from tile waste, which
coulJ b;; viewed as aJ1 essential part of the- proces~ 01 Ixingillf' tbe site t~ a
condition ".'hereby it is '.lIlli'<.elyto cause pollution vI' the environment or harm
to human health - a prerequisite for the sur~ender of a site licence.
!t is estimated that ~() remove the COIl,ammant load from .a municip21
solid .,taste landfill, each m' of waste must bo::flushed throu~h wit'l .5m3 of
!;ql'id (Walkci et aI, 1997). If this is to be achieved over a perind of 50 years,
the implied infiltration rete is 0.1 ~ metres per annum, where D is the depth of
the LlI1dfill (in I~l).
In a landfill in whicil the permeability of the waste is u!'iform with
depth, a uniform downward hydraulic gradient of unity would be established
and the steady-state infiltration rate (in m'/s of liquid per m2 of surface area of
the landfill) would be equal to the Darcy permeability of the ',vaste. A flushing
rate of 0.10 m/annum would then correspond to a (uniform) hydraulic

conductivity of 10:7 m/s for a 30 m deep landfill ,md 5 x 10-7 m/s for a 60 m
deep landfill. According to the data shown in Figure 3, acceptable flushing rates
could be 'achieved for crude domestic wastes under a hydraulic gradient of unity
for dry waste densities not exceeding about 0.6 - 0.7 Mg/m3 Excessive
compaction of the waste at the tipping face would lead to waste densities in
excess of this range. and waste permeabilities below the required m::limum.
At effective stresses in excess of 300 kPa, the pel1l1eability of the
pulvcrized wilste flYI is signilicantl\ less than that of the crude waste DM3.
Although plJiVl'riz,ltion may be desirable. in that it promotes a more even flow
of liquid 111l'ough thl' waste, till' reduced permeability will limit the depth of
l:lIldlili that C<1Ilbe Ilushed within lh~ SO year timespan.
The tests c:1I'ried out in the Pitsea cOlllpression cell show that in reality
the permeability of the refuse is likely to decrease with depth. In these
circumstances, the downward hydraulic gradient is not un if01111with depth, but
increases as the oermeability decreases to give a volumetric flow rate that is
constant with depth.
This type of behaviour is well documented for soil deposits in which
the permeability changes with depth (Yallghan, 1994; Bromhead, 1994). For
refuse, the situation is more complicated than for most soils, hecause in addition
to the permeability, the unit weight also varies significantly with vertical
effective stress. The vertical effective stress depends in turn on the vertical total
stress (which depends on the unit weight) and the pore water pressure (which
depenc:; on the head and hence on the permeability). This i~sue is discussed in
more detail I)y Pcwrie & Reave!~ (i:l prepration), but the mam llnplication as
far as th~ current discussion is concer'ned is that the minimum permeability limit
calculated on the basis OJ a hydraulic gradient of unity is likely to be a lower
bound.
Integrity of gas/leachate wells and steep li'7ings
The likely compression of the waste during and after placement must be taken
into account in the rie,ign of structures typically loo:ated within the landfill such
as gas ar.d leachate welb. There is at lei'st anecdot;1.1 evidence of gas and
lecchate extraction w~l!s buckling or fracturing due to the downurag effect of
the waste as settlement occurs If (his is to be avoided, the wells must be
designed so ?S to withstand the shear ctresses developed at the interface With the
.vastl'. (These shear stresse3 could be estimated on the basis of the estimated
lateral earth pressure coetficient and the measured fr;ctional strength of the
waste: Jones & Dixon, 1997; Goneland el 01, 1995; Jessberger et 01, 1995).
Alternatively, we.lls can be dt:'signed to "110"t" or telescope in response to the
settlement of the waste. These issues are discussed by Jessberger et al (1995).
Downward shear stresses resuiting from differential compression
effects must also be considered in the design of a landfill lining system. An
evaluation of the stresses induced by waste settlement in a geomembrane
sirleslope liner is presented by Kanou et ai, (1997), and the issue of lateral

support provided by wasie te the lining system is discussed in detai I by Dixon 8:

Jones (1998) in their paper in this volume.
Closure and afterc :Ire
Primary settlement would be expected to be complete before site closure, and
should not therefore affect the post-closure
behaviour and aftercare
requirements
unless there is a significant change in the post-closure
groundwater (leachate) regime: this could occur in a containmcnt sitc whcn the
containment systcm fails.
Sl'condary compression due to the decay and dccomposition of thc
waste will impinge significantly on the post-closure b"haviour' of the landfill
and thc aftercare rcquirements, in terms of both the eventual magnitudc of the
settlement and the time scale over which it develops. The effects of secondary
compression will influence:

the specified final fill level; and

performance of and aftercare requirements for the cap.

Secondary compression of the waste will also affect tile permeability and hence
the flow of leachate through the waste, and the performance and integrity of
steep liners and lenchate/gas extraction wells, along the lines discussed above.
Final fill Ievel
The final fill level is important in the context of the site closure plan, primarily
because of its influence on the ultimate (post-settlement) surface profile and the
perforITIill1ce ,)1'any restorative cap or cover layer. In general, the final fill level
at any POji~tr,llIst be significantly higher than the desirc.d ultimate surface level,
to allow for the effects of secondary comprl"ssion.
The sp('cification of the final fill level needed to achieve a desired
ultimate level is complicated by the difficulty of predicting the secOildary
settlement of the waste. Obviously, any !!'1derestilllation of the magniLuJe of the
po~t-closure settlement will res:Jlt in the l"lderfilling of the landfill aile the
finished cvrltoured p:-ofile being genera!ly too 10-". Trvughs or hollows, .vhich
could significantly increas;; the iikelihood of ponding and/or cap' failure, may
al.<;0develop: pioblems associated wit!~ cap inLegrItj during continuing longterm ,ettl~ment ar':: 'veil-documerterl (Morris &. Wood" 1990). Overfilling the
landfill site in one 0iJeralior in antiCipation of large long-term settlements may
not be practicat Ie, and if the expected settlement does not occur the restored site
profile will be too high.
The main problem is that, although some apparently successful
attempts have been made (e.g. van Meerten et aI., 1997), the rate and eventual
magnitude of seconG:iry compression are at present very difficult to predict.
Field data on which a'1 empirical approach might be based are scarce, n')t least

because settlements have to be monitored over a period of years if not decades

for mean ingful trends to emerge. Settlement data must also be correlated with
the waste type and placement histOly to enable the most important controlling
variables to be identified.
In the absence of any proven theoretical or empirical method of
estimating rates and magnitudes of secondary compression, it must be accepted
that the attainment of a desired finished profile will involve a consideraJle
amount of uncertainty Realistically, operators and regulators must accept that
there will probably be a need for a long-term management plan, perhaps
involving stripping back the cap !"mlll time to time and placing further material
below it.
Cap performance
The restorative cap geomet ..y should be designed so as to minimize the
likelihood of cap failure by cracking or rupture as secondary settlement occurs.
This is particularly important in the case of containment sites ~"here an intact
cap forms part of the leachate management strategy, as failure of the cap will
tend to lead to increas~d infiltration and a larger volume of leachate being
generated.
Magnitudes of secondary settlement are difficult to estimate with
confidence, but the pattern of waste settlement can have a significant effect on
wheti,er nr not a resistive capping layer ruptures. Damage is more likely 0 be
caused by differential settlements than uniform settlements. In addition, the
gauge leilgth 'lver which t!~edifferential sett!~ment 0CCLrs will ~IS0 be ;:-:lpurtant
in determining the severity of its effect on the cap;:>ing layer.
Recent experiment?1 studies carried out using a geotechnical centrifuge
by Richards and Powrie (in preparation) have ShOWI~that the long-term integrity
of 'I low permeability capping system can depend on the pattern of subsidence
in the waste below it. The imposition of a displacement discontinuity (i.e. a step
subside:1ce pattern) below a low l~ermeability cap is much more likely to result
in the rupture of the car t'.an the imposition of a discontinuity in slope (i.e. a
i amp subsidence
IJdttem) .. '\Iso, (".IpS\A'ith convex upward slopifl~ eriges wer::
generally foune to out-:'erform caps with ~at edges, in terms of the degree of
differential movement acros~ the discon~ir.uity requirerJ to cause throughruplLlre (Figure 4). Where possible, tile depth of the !andfill shou:d be sjJecified
so that sudden changes in the depth of the v.''lste fill (e.g. at the edg>' or a steepsided pit), "Ihich could result in the in'position of a displacemen, disconti.llIity
(stej-J) below the cap as the waste degrades, are avoided. The caiJ geometry
should be specified so that settlement of the underlying waste ..,ill tend to cause
compression, rather than exteilsion, in any resistive or low permeability layer
incorporated into the cap.

capping layer displacement

followingwaste settlement

_L ~e

f==:~
capping :ayer displacement

,-'
---r

S;,I:I~~,~nl

step displacement

Figure.t

Step and slope patterns of waste settlement (displacement and slope

d iscont inu ities)

The potential vulnerability of Ihe cap edge is confirmed by data presented by

Morris & Woods (1990), who suggest that severe differential settlements may
occur in this zone owing to the difficulty in achieving the same degree of
compaction in the waste neC.~to the edge of the site as in the remainder of the
landfill.

Conclusions
Typical domestic or municipal solid W2.<;teis a highly compressible :~1aterial.
Con~pres<;ion can c::cu~ bot!: in tre short term duriilg placeIT'ent of the waste,
and in the long-term dup. to microbial and/or chemical decomposition and
ravelling. A;,hough the mechanisms of waste settlement are well understood,
Illagnitudes and rates of compression, ;::articularly after plaeemf"nt, are difficult
predict quantitatively.
Compression of waste will affe::t bo;h the density and the permeability
of the waste. Changes in density durillg placement will tend to increase the
apparent capacity of the landtill in terms of mass or as-rer.eived volume.
Compression during and af~er plac.ement will tend to redt'ce the penl1eability cf
the waste, making leachate recirculation more diffiCult. The extent to wh;cil in
.;i/;. camj:-re.>sion affects the waste densitj
and pern~eability may dp.pend to
some extent on the degrep. of cOl:lpaction during placement.
.
StructlIres such as gas and leachate wP.lIs and lanclfill l!I1ers must be
desig.led to rc.;ist or accommodate he sheer stresses imposed by settling waste.
final fili levels and the geometry cf a ,estorative cap must take account of the
likely long-term settlement cf the waste as it degrades. As this is likely to be
large but difficult to I)redict, there may well be a need for a long-term
management pian that inccr;::orates periodic maintenance of, and placement of
further material belo\\. the cap.

,0

I
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measureillents at the msw landfill ofThessaioniki, Greece.
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oj' Waste FiUs - TheulJI and Practice. (eds. A Landva & G l)
Knowles). ASTM STP; 1070.
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in landfill and final cover design. Geotechnic.l' oj' waste fills - theory &
practice. ASTM STP 1070 (ed. A Landva and G 0 Knowles).
Philadelphia, USA: American Society for Testing and Materials
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and their implications for sustainable landfill practice.
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Report No. CWM 03 1/91. 192pp.
Richards, OJ. & Powric, W. (in preparation). Geometric factors af!\;cting lhe
durability of landfill C<IIJpi'1gsystems following subsidence induced by
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JOllr."al of Environmental Engineering, April 1996, pp 263-268.
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settlement. Proceedings of the 6th Internatiunal c:)/1fe"ence on
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Sanitary Engineering
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Stress states In, and stiffness of,

landfill waste
N.

Dix01l(I)

a1ld

D.R. V. J01le.\J!)

1) Department o(Civi! and Structural t.'ngine","ing. the NO/lingham

Trent University, Noltinghalll NG 1 4BU
2) Golder Associates, Landmere Lane, NO/lingham NG 12 4DG.

Introduction
Increasing demand for landfill facilities has lead :0 the use of void spaces
(typically rock quarries) with steep boundary side slopes. Given the present
reliance in the UK on landfilling for the disposal of waste, this t;-end is set to
continue. Structural inttgrity, and hence perf0n11anCe as a barrier to gas and
leacl.&;e, of mineral, geosynthetic or composite lining systtms lor thes~ vertic<tl
and near vertical slopes is controlled by the interaL.tion between the waste and
barrier system. Nove! barrier systems arc being developed and used for ste~p side
slopes (e.g. reinforcd earth, polystyrene face supports and buttressed clay
barriers) wit!l a limited understanding of the factors co,ltrolling bOi;1tne short-ten11
cO,1struction re!ateu, and long-term waste degradation controlled, deformatiol's. In
::ddition. despite the majority of present c'esigns relying on waste in part for their
stability (i.e. a heterogeneous material whose engi'iLering propc;rties change
during degradation), there i3 a dear';1 of pubi::;hed rccor~s on barrier systems
which have been instrumented .11ldmonitof2d in ord-:r to demonstrate sJtislactory
p-:rfoi r::anl-e. While it i~ t:nlikely that these bi'fTier ,ystf'ms wiii fa~1
c~tastrophically 'vith the barri;:r su;fprinf; deformatif)ns of several ~etres (i.e.
beca::se lh-=:wa~te provides some suppC:1), the low stiffneSS of househo:d waste
m<tterial wiii result in movement of :he barrier inta the waste until limit
equilibriulll conditions are established.
Any assessment 0f barrier/waste interaction requires information on th-=:
ill situ stresses within the waste body, the lateral stiffness and compressibility of
the \\'aste and the time dependent variation of these parameters as the waste
degrades.
While there is a growing body of information on vertical
compressibility of waste (e.g. Powrie et aI., 1998), there is still limited data on in
situ stresses and stiffuess of p.mplaced material. This paper describes a nuve!

method for obtain ing these parameters

the results of initial field trials. Results
(I to 3 year old) and partially degraded
1.7 to 12 metres below ground level
described.

bCisedon the pressuremeter, and presents

from in situ tests undertaken in both recent
(! I year old) household waste at depths of
arc discussed, and proposed further work

Issues of barrier stability

Numerical mudellin~ of typic;i1lv used harrier contigurations which rely on the
urprisingly.
that the waste properties conrrol pcrlilrlnance (Reddy eI (/1.. Il)()6, Jones & Dixon,
1l.)l)8b). J'his leads to <I Illllnbcr of concerns:
Deformation of the lining system is conrrolled by in situ slress conditions ancl
the stiffness of ~he emplaced waste. Of particular importance is the strain
incompatibility of traditional mineral/geosynthetic lining materials and the
waste, and specifically the large strains which are likely to occur for the lining
system/waste body to reach equilibrium. There exists uncertainty regarding
the integrity of the lining system in the shol1-term under these conditions.
Degradation of the waste with time will "Iter its mechanical properties, and
thus influence the long-term stability and hence potentially the integrity of the
lining system.
The shear stresses mobilised at interfaces within composite barrier systems are
strain dependent, and a"e influenced by the forces transmitted into the lining
system as the waste body deforms. Research carried Ol:t by Gilbert & Byrne
(1996) and Jones :l Di\on (i 99l)a) has de.nonstraled that such was~e
movements can result in interface shc~.~strengths being redused to residual
conditions over significant areas of the side slopes and base sections. Hence, a
decision on lil':: magnitt:de of interface shear strengths which can be reiied
upon to provide the required degree of st'lbility can not be made withom
understanding the interaction between the waste andliuing system.
There is a rl~aI1h of inforn.ation regarding the stresses in the barrier
components ~esulting from the barrier/'vaste interCict;op
To d"te there exi:i!, only limited d::tailed inform'ltion en the
~erformance during construction, waste pl~cement and operation of barrier
systems used to Iiile steep slopes. Hertweck (1997) described a large seale field
trial which was :md.crtaken in Germany I:> invesligate the interar:tion between a
specific design of a steep side slope barrier system and waste (th~ barrier design
investigated was a compacted clay liner supported uy a gabon wall installed on
a slope ot 80), and compared the observed trial behaviour with the performance
of the actual barrier system obtained by in situ i110nitoring. Findings from this
detailed study included:
a) the barrier experienced significant vertical and horizontal strains,
with the magnitude dependent on the stiffness of the waste body;

b) the method of construction, including the phasing of barrier

construction dnd supporting waste lifts,. had an influence on the magnilllde and
distribution of barrier deformations;
c) differential stl .ins were found in the barrier components; and
d) a number of IJ\ltenti,,1 failure mechanisms were predicted resulting
from the magnitude of deformations required for equilibrium between the
barrier ane! waste body to be reached (see Figure I).

bearing capacity
failure

shear failure

Hertweck (1997) concluded that ultimate limit state :otndserviceability limit state
must be examined 1'0. eacl, barrier design separately and should be checked by
ap;:>ropriate in situ measurements.
The landfill barrier system investigated is
one of only a very small number which have been instrumented to check the
stress/strain behaviour during construction and operation.
Waste properties
The majority of research on the mechanical properties of household waste has to
date concentrated on shear strength and coml='re~sibility (e.g. Beaven & Powrie,
199:5; Jcssberger, 1994; Kolsch, 19C;S;Landva et of., 198,1; Van Imfle & Bouaz.zti,
i996; aIld Watts & Charles 1990), As with illl part:culate materials obtaining
undisturbed samples for use in hboratory tests is prJblem:otti". The heterc.seneous
nature uf waste also dictales th'lt large saIllple sizes should be used in order that
they be representative.
In most cases if is not possible for large undist,-,rb~d
samples to be obtained, and this has lead to the majority of labor"tory studies
using processed (e.g. milled) ~nd fe-compacted s~.mples. While these can provide
useful information related to the general mechaIlisms of waste behaviour, these
measured mechanical properties are of limited use and can not be applied to field
problems with any confidence.

The deficiencies of using relatively small laboratory samples hJS lead te

the development of a limited number of large scale test facilities for assessing
unprocessed wastes, although there are still problems associated with sample
disturbance due to the waste having to be re-compact~d in the test apparatus. Tests
developed include a large shear box (Kolsch, 1995) and a compression cell
(Beaven & Powrie, 1995). Studies of certain properties have been undel1aken
using in situ waste. These include trial failures of artificially steepened slopes to
obtain shear strength parameters, and compression experiments to obtain stiffness
parameters for use in settlement calculations.
Ilowcvcr, to date therc is no
evidence in the literature of any investigations to mcasurc horizontal stresscs in, or
lateral stiffncss of, in situ household waste. Thc small sample sizcs which can bc
scnsiuly obtaincd, and the inevitablc 'Iisturbance which will be caused, has lead to
the development of an in situ testing techniqil" bascd on the pressuremeter to
measure these important parameters.

Pressuremeter testing
Justification
An approach based on in situ testing has been devised, due to the difficulties of
obtaining representative laboratory test samples described above. In situ testing
has been carried out using commercially
available Cambridge
type
pressuremeters.
A pressuremeter is a cylindrical device designed to apply a
uniform pressure to the walls of a borehole by me:lIls of a flexible membrane. This
membrane is expanded against the wrrounding mat~rial by means of gas under
pressure supplied from the ground surface. Outward radial deformation of the
waste occurs as the membrane expailds. The object of the test is to obtain the
relationsh!p be':ween the applied pressure and the deformation of the soil, and
from this information the in situ stress condit;ons and de~oril1ation properties cf
the m1teriai surrounding the pressurcmeter can be obtained. Pressuremeters were
used for this study for thefollowirg reasons:
The device measures the average stress acti:~g on the mcn,brane and hence any
large variations [:1stress d;.;e to the heten'gf''lee~:s :lature of the waste will be
averaged. While th:s may be urdesirabte when using the s~'stC!-:lfor <l:::curate
measurements i:1 naterials with al~isotro;:ic horizontal stre~ses, it ;s an
advar.tage in this stedy w:lere the material is ''In unifJrm and av~ragd values
of st'ess and stiffness are pref~rable to the present lack of infoPllation.
;(e1atively large strains can be achieved, with strains typically in the order of
10-15% being ootained usin6 ~he standard equipn~ent. Measurement of thp
large strain behaviour is imoortam because of the high compressibility of
waste material, and the pre-failure strain hardening behaviour which has been
observed in laboratory tests (Jess berger & Kockel, 1993).

Pressuremeters involvc a relatively large volumc of material in each tesl,

which is again imp0l1ant due tf) thc variable nature of the Ivaste. Tests in soils
have indicated that malerial up to 40 times the pressuremeter diameter can
intluence the results (Clarke, 1995).
Borehole Formation
A crit ical clement of pressUrCll1ekl' test ing is the insertion of the instrument to the
desired test depth. Analyses of the test results are based on an assumption that
minimal disturbance is caused Iw thc inscrtion pr~cess. Given Ihe heterogencous
naturc of w:lste therc was initially somc uncertainty as to the preferred method for
introducing the prcssurclllclcr to the required depth, while causin~ minimum
disturbance to the surrounding waste body There are four potential ~li'thods for
installing the pressuremeter, which arc outlined below:
i) A self boring pressuremeter (SBP) can be used to fom1 its own
borehole from ground level to the required depth. The borehole is not cased and
relies on the "reinforced" nature of the waste to prevent collapse behind the
advancing instrument (a beliaviour which has been observed in many boreholes
and steep excavations formed in w(l~te). This test method should produce the
minimum amount of disturbance, and does not require t:-Jepresence of additional
equipment on :;it~ (e.g. a cable percussion or rota~1 drill rig).
ii) If the self boring method works in waste but drilling rates are slow, it
may be preferable to fom1 the main borehole using a drill rig, and then install the
P:'cssuremeter by sel f boring from the base of the hole such that it fonllS its owr.
pocket.
iii) If the self ~oring technique does not perfom1 satisfactorily in certain
wastes, an alternative: method entails forming a borehole to the require depth as
outlined in ii) above, and subsequently fornling a pocket at the base of the hole for
the prc:ssuremeter using i\ thin wa!1 shell, barrel auger etc. The ain, is to form a
pucket with the same diameter as the instrument. A. pre-bored p,'essuremeters
(PBP) is inserted into the pocket and a test performed in the same manor as the
SBP.
.
iv) An alte!':lative approal-:J is to push the pressuremeter into the waste,
either rrom grou'ld level 0 . from the bottom of a borehole. instr'lments of this
tYI'e, w!-.icL rcsult ir. the host 1l13teriaibelllg cOlllpletely d;splac~d, are knowr. as
full displace'llenr pressuremeters (FOP), ,,,ilh the most commonly a,ailable being
the cone pressuremeter. Duo:: to the material around the in<trur,lent being dist:.rrbed
by the insertivn proccs3, it IS cummon for FDP to have a large strain capacity (i.e.
t1~::membrane can be expanded ta a larger d;amtler thus straining a larger volume
of material, including undisturbed gloc,nd).
It should be noted that when using any of the four methods it may be
necessary t6 abandon some test le:::ations due to the presence of obstructions.
Initial fieJd trials have been conducted using methods i) and ii).

SB? test method

The SBP is about 83 millimetres in diameter and 1.2 metres long, and is a
miniature tunnellin' machine, the central part of which is covered with an elastic
membrane. This nv'mbrane is in two parts. The inner layer, which is sealed, is
made of polyurethane and is about 1.25 mm thick. This inner skin is covered by
an outer layer, known as a 'Chinese Lantern' (CHL), which is formed from
stainless steel strips bonded to a thin rubber skin. The CHL is used to take the
frictional forces that occur when the instrument is being bored into the ground,
and to provide some protection from inclusions that might otherwise puncture the
inncr tllClllblclllC. fhc lattcr function is particularly important when using the
instrumcnt in wastc. The foot of the instrument is fitted with a sharp edge. When
boring, the instrument is jacked into the ground, and material is removed either by
siicing it into small pieces using a rotary cutting device (soft materials) or by
grinding the material using a rock roller bit (hard materials). The instrument is
connected to tl',e jacking system by a drill string. This is in two parts, an outer
casing to transmit the jacking force and an inner rod which is rotaterl to drive the
boring device. The cutting material is flushed back to the surface through the
annulus bet" ee:~ the rods and outer casing. Water is the most common flush fluid
used. Disturbance is :llillimised by optimising the boring method, flush fluid
pressure and jacking force. A schematic of a SBP is shown in Figure 2.

expressions for the expansion

conventionally. quoted in terms
material tested; specitically shear
The above description of the SBP

e,f a cyli:ldrical cavity.

The solution is
of strength and stiffiless parameters for the
modulus, shear strength and in situ lateral stress.
is based on that of Cambridge Insitu (1998).

Field trials
Site details
Sclection of all appropriatc tcst sitc was an important consideration. as Ihe aim was
l'l devclop a tcst procedure at the samc time as obtaining pr'climinary d:lla. /\ sitc
with a well known construction history and 1't~lali\'cl\ uniform W,ISle typc was
I'cquircd in order to minimi,,: the nutllber of factors affecting thc results. The
l'ollowing criteria were used f0r site selection:
Only sites which were formed {i'om household \\aste were considered. Sites
where co-disposal with commercial or industrial waste had OCCUrlcd were
avoided due to possible difficulties drilling through such mixed material (e.g.
building rubble).
The construction history needs to be well documented including information
on the history of phased filling, placement and compaction methods used,
thickness of waste layers, material used for daily cover and distance between
cover layers.
/\ minimum thickness in the order of20 metres of wastes was required in order
to assess the performance of the pressuremeter over a range of stress levels.
. The ,ite should have areas of waste of different age~ to enable :he effects of
degradation to be investigated.
Tile site selected was Calvert, which is locakd equidistant from
Buckingham and Aylesbury, and operated by Shanks & McEwan (Southern Waste
S"rvlces) Limited. LanJfill 0peratio'ls, which sta;-~ed in 1980, are bJck-filling an
old brick pi~ fonned in the Oxford Clay. W?ste from collection rounds is
delivered to site by train from the Bristol and London areas, aild this results in it
beiiis almost entirely househ01d household material. The maximum depth of
waste is in excess cf 20 metres, with each cell taking approxima,ely one tv two
years te fi;l. Waste is comracted using a Jead-'veight rlJlIer in c:pproximately cne
mE'tre thic;';' layers, with typically two such layer, p!:Ic~d before USl: or' a, 0.3 ~o 0,5
metre deep clayey ~oil cover layer. Tne final capping system is a 1 to 2 metre t:lick
compacted clay layer.
Testing schedule

Once inserted to the test depth the pressuremeter membrane is expanded

and readings of d'Jp!(!cement against applied pressure are logged, and plotted as a
loading curve. TI-Jis loading curve can be solved directly using mathematical

In September 1997 the self boring technique was used to insert the pressuremeter
from the base of boreholes formed using the barrel auger drilling technique
(method ii). Tests were conducted in both recent (1 to :3 year old) waste at depths
of 3.5 to 10.7 metres below ground level, and one test in partially degraded (II
year old) houc,ehold waste at a depth of 11.7 metres below ground level. A second

trial was cO~lducted in May ; 998 using a SBP which was operated from thc
ground surface (method i), with tests carried out in 2 year old waste at depths of
1.7 to 3.5 metres.
The composition
of the fresh waste (1994 to 1996) as retrieved during
borehole
formation
was approximately
40% plastics; 40% paper and organic
material;
10% textiles; and 10% timber, metals and brick. The material obtained
from the test depth in thc partially degraded
material (1987) consisted
of
approximately
20% plastics:
10% paper; 60% degraded
material:
and the
remaining
I O'~" \\'as textiles. brick and metals.

Analysis

methods and preliminary results

In ordci' to carry out analyses of the data it is necessary to determine the origin
for l' pansion of the cavity (i.e. to take into account any disturbance).
For the
SBP I( is assumed that some stress reiiefwill
occur and the origin is taken as the
point where the in situ conditions
are restored to the cavity.
It is possible to
recngnise the in situ lateral stress by inspection (the lift-ofT method). as bein!.!
thl' prCSSllrc required to cause movement of the membrane.
Where disturbanc~
is more p['()Jlounced it is taken as the pressurc to cause significant movcment.
;\s
indicatcd by an abrupt change in the slope of the PI'cssure/radial
strain curvc
/\pplicdtinn
or this technique to thc waste test data has becn pwhknl;ltic
as d
l'cslIlt nr the significant
degree or disturbance
caused by inserting thc Slli'
I'hcl'cll rL', a second method developed
by Marsland & Randolph (1977) hds
also bcr:n used.
This method
employs
an iterative
approach
b;lsL'c! nil
identif\ing
the onset of plastic behaviour.
Although
this mcthod can bc
considered
more robust than the lift-off approach
i: is still influenced
b\'
dlsturuance,
An introduction
to both these methoc1s is provided by Mail' 8:.
Wood (1987).
l

Results from a pressuremeter

test are presented
as plots of pressure against
radiill displacement
(i.e. pressure vs radial strain) for each 0:' three separate
sensors used to measure expansion
of the cavity.
However,
the values of
displacement
obtained do not necessarily
give the correct deformation
of the
expanding
borehole Willi ilt the sensor location as the ilxis of the instrument can
move.
Therefore,
it is standard practice to use plots of pressure vs average
strain. This is also required due to tl'e analyses method assuming
isotropic
material surrounding
the cavity. Figure 3 shows a typical pressure/displacement
plot, which is for a test in one year old waste at a depth of 5.5 metres below
ground level. It should be remembered
that to date pressuremeters,
and hence
the associated analyses methods, have been developed for use in soils and rocks,
c;;1d therefc;'e ~~e apiJlication of tl-je standard analyses techniques
to the r~sults
of tests in waste material is ope;l to debate.

Ave of 3 ArMS us Total

Pre:.sur-e

.. '

I
I
I

.... ,

in situ horizontal stress

The estimated
values of in situ horizontal
stress
calcu latE' ccefficients
of earth pressure at rest (Ko) where:

(JIJ) Ciln be used to

Using an assumed bulk unit weight of 10 kN/m' lor the waste and a bulk Ullit
J
weight c:' 20 kN/m
for the compacted
clay cap, values of Ko have been
calculated and plotted against depth in Figure 4. It can be seen that there is n0
clear relationship
between lateral stress and vertical stress.
It is considered
(Cambridge
lnsitu, 1998) that the heterogenec~ls
nature of the waste tested
resulted in the SSP b2ing ove:' drilled.
This was probably caused by items 01'
waste such as pieces of wr-,od, metal cr briCk being pushed ilhead of the SBP
(i.e. into tIle underlying
compressible
waste) hence resulting
in a -:avity with a
larger diameter than the instrument. This has resulted in the calculate0 values oi
Ko showing consider::b!e
scatter, ~nd has lead to conilJence
ill tile values heille(
low. However ')f some interest is the olle test in the partially degr"ded wasl~
whicl1 indicates a higher vaiue lhan the fresh waste. AI, f'xplaniltion could be
that ilS the was,c degrades and settles it Jecomes
den,er With an .associated
:ncrease in horizontal
:tress, al,hough <1ny conclusions
will remain speculative
until fllrther tests 'Irf' undertake:l.

Coefficiei1t of Earth Pressure at Rest (Ko)

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

08

1.0

1.2

I:;.

I
ill
>

(l)

II:;.

-l

is

(5

II:;.

(l)

0.

1:;..

1 to 3 year old

(l)

11 year old

a
2

I
ill
>
(l)

----

15

20

25

30

I:;.
--_.~---I:;.

-l

:J

(5

I:;.

6
I:;.

ill
<Xl
.r::.

0.
(l)

Stressing the nlaterial surrounding

the instnli11ent enables infc:'matiun un shedr
modulus (G) to be obtained I.lsing a number of techniques, from elemel,ts ('f the
pressure 'IS radial str;::in curve. The preferred method, and the one used in this
study, calculates the slope of the cord bisecting s;11all unload/reload
cycles (see
Figurp 3). This method allows the calculated shear modulus to be related to the
mean strain and pressure, and the ranges of strain and pi'essure, during the cycle.
It shOuld be noted that there are a number of definitions of shear modulus.
The
values
presented
here are spe~ific
to the 'llethod
of measurement
and
r:a!~'Jlatiol1.
In order to invescigcte 2:1Y trends of shear mod,i1us with depth below
ground level it is first necessary to use tl~e resul:s from unload/reloaG
loops,
c~rried out at rJifferent strain leve:s, to values at a reference strain.
Mnsured
shear modulus values '"ere plotted :tgain')t the average radial st:'ain during each
loop. For a given test an approximate
linear relationship
was iound Detween G
and strain. This line was then used to outain the shear modulus for a cavity
strain of I %. Figure 5 is a pl0t of shear modulus at I % strain against the test
depth beI0\'1 ground level. It can be seen that there is a relationship
between G
and depth for the fresh waste. The shear modulus decreases with depth betwc~n
1.7 and approximately
4.5 metres below ground level and then increases below
this d~pth, except for the test at 10.7 metres which indicates a very low stiffness.

10

I:;.

U
C

Stiffness parameters

of
of
in
of

Shear Modulus, 1% Cavity Strain (MPa)

__

-~I~------t

<Xl
.c

~_~_~~_~

Whether this value is due to a general trend with depth, an isolated area
compressible
materia! VI' a function of the tesi method (I~.g.the introduction
water from the boring which has caused 10cal softening),
is IInclear. The test
partially degraded waste indicates a relatively high shear nh,du!us at a depth
II metres.

10
I:;.

12

-+1

_J

It is possible to explain the obser'/C'd G vs depth relationship

in the
fresh waste by considering
the influence of c"p for'nat;on
The amount of
compaction
used durii~g waste piace':Ient
is relaci'/el)
light compalcd
to thai
used ~o form a I to :2 mecres thick low permeability
cap.
It is likely that
for:nation of the capping laver would aiso result in Jdditional comp~ctinn ot'the:
top few metres of weste, hence increasing the density and theref0re sti~fness of
this upp<.r layer.
Below this modified zone the density and sti'lness of waste
would be expected to increase with depth due to the ;ncrease ;n vertical s:ress
(i.e. overburden).
However, despite the very clear relationship
between G and
depth it must be remembered
that considerable
variation
in G ')hould still be
expected due the heterogeneous
nature of the material (e.g. as demonstrated
by
the 10.7 metre test).
This additional
compaction
would also be expected to
increase the horizontal stresses in the layer of waste beneatr the cap. Although
there is considerable
scatter on the Ko 'IS depth plot (see cigure 4) it is possible

to Interpret the plot as showing this general trend (i.t:. higher Ko values in the
upper layer of waste).
.
In laboratory unconfined
compression
tests on milled waste it has been
observed that the stiffness increased during application
of stress as a result of
the waste compressing
(Jessberger
& Kockel, 1993). This is consistent with the
stiffness
increasing
with depth (Figure
5), but in addition
means that a
r-elationship
would
be expected
between
the mean
pressure
during
a
unload/reload
loop and the measured shear modulus (i.e. it' the waste behaves
simil,lr to a compressible
fully drained soil) The inlluence
of incre;lsing
stiffness with depth is represented
by the test pl'essure because the deeper' waste
wili in general require larger pressures to delc)["Ill the material.
Figure 6 is a pl"l
t"or the fresh waste of shear modulus
against average pressure
during the
unloadheload
loop used to calculate the G value.
Despite there being SOlll"
scatter of the data a clear relationship
of increasing
shear modulus
with
pressure, and hence lateral stress, is indicated. However, this trend may not be
su pronounced
for more degraded
waste with higher density and moisture
content, as behaviour
may be closer to that of a low comfJressibility
partially
d(ained soil 9uring application
of stress.

Comparison with values from the literature

The results obtained from the small number of SBP tests indicate relationships
betwep.11 stiffness and depth, including effects of construction
processes,
and
stiffness with stress level. However, it must be appreciated
that ihe results relate
to mainly fresh household
waste at one site. It is important
to compate
the
results from this investigation
with measurements
of waste stiftness described
in
Ihe literature.
The problem in undertaking
such a compar'ison
is thai a number
of
c1ilTerent forms of stiffiless arc reported.
The main rlJrJmetel's
hcmg
Y (lung's
modulus
(E) from
laboratol"\
triax ial comlxe" ion tests.
and
cOllstrained modulus (I) (ie. one dimensional
compression)
"!'".rincd I'rom hnth
sl11<ll1and large scale laboratory tests and lield studies.

Shear
0

Shear
0

Q..

Modulus
5

~
12

15

Q.

Ll:.

0
0

-l

U
C1l

u;

--

er::

u
C1l

:::,.

OJ

'C

::l

::l
(f)
(f)

OJ

cl:

--t--I
I

:::,.

:::,.

:::,.6-

:::,.

OJ
C1l

(jj

150

-:J

D.

co

100

6-

Ui

g::
u
co

II'!

52
C

:J
OJ
C
C

20C'

::J
0

,I

"J

:5

<J)
<J)

---

f:::,.

120

c:
:>

:::,.

I
90r---

0
0

-l

:::,.

60

C
:J

0.

30

:::,.

<J)

:::,.

(f)

40

30

O.-

(MPa)
9

(MPa)

20

()

c;;-

co

Modulus

10

~)

et
<1l

300

OJ

-,- ~-r-~~

:::

'"'

>
-.(

tr

400

I.

,-

!
r

I
Figlll-e

Comparison

of stiffness

values

from

SSP tests

and the literature

In order to compare
t:le n;sllits from the various sources the stillness
values
Inve been converted
into shear modulus
values.
Based on an assumed
Poisson's ratio for househo"1 waste of 0.1 (Jessberger & Kockel, 1993) it can be
shown that constrained
Illouulus (D) is approximately
equal to 2.2.G. Van lmpe
& Bouazza (1996) sUllllllarised stiffness values available in the literature and
produced
lower and upper bounds
for the relationship
between
stiffness
modulus (E) and vertical stress.
It should be noted that the valul'~ from the
literature cover a range ofwaqc
composition,
age and incilldes reSII', uhlained
IIsing in situ and laboratory leSl ICClllllqll';~. I h<;~c uplJcr ,1I111
lu\yel ""lll'd.)
,ii,
c()lnp,II\;d to the Sill' values in Figure 7. Although
thcre is a reasonable
agl'eelllent
for tll<' lowl'l' Stresses it can be seen that the SI3P tests indicate
signilicantly
higher stilTIH.:ss values for the higher stress rallge. This could be
explained by difrerences
in the waste type, although it is probable that the 1ll0jt
illlJ1fJrtant factor is tllat laboratory test results were used to deline the boundaries
at the higher stresses, and these could have been influenced by variations in the
density and structure of Ihe test samples resulting from re-compaction
and in
some cases pre-treatment.
This would tend to confirm that in situ measurement
of stiffness parameters
is :he most appropriate approach.

Summary and future work

Opti:l1isalion of landfill barrier design can not be achieved without information on
the mcchdn iC'l1 prop::11ies of the waste, specifically
in situ horizcncal stresses
within the waste body, latepl stiffness of the waste and the time dependent
variation of these p8lumete(s as the waste degrades.
The assessment of cxist;'1g
ane ne\;! barrier designs for steep side slopes which rely on waste to provide lateral
suppOl1, will be limited without this knowledge.
While
there
is a growing
body
of information
on waste
compressibility,
permeability
and shear strength
there is still very limited
information
on in situ st;'esses and stiffness of as placed ma:erial. However, d
method
of measuring
these parameters
has been developed
basecl on the
pressuremeter
Prelilllil1?ry results have been obtained for household waste, and
tnese demonstrat~
th~.t the te:hniql;c
is \'iab!~. Measurements
01' in situ stress
and horizontal stiffness have I)een nlade in both recent (! veal' old) and partially
dp.graded (II ye,,;' oiLl) household
waste at dep(hs of 1.7 to 12 metre~ below
ground lev,::!. A self boring p:'essun'meter
was Lised to ootain tht parameters
with shear 'nodulus values c'!!c'llated from unload/reloaJ
loops.
For the fresh waste the SBP tests indicatE' a trend of initially
decreasing
(1.7 to 4.5 metres) and then increasing
stiffness with depth. The
higher stiffnicss in the upper !lve . of waste is be1ievea to be due the compactive
effort used to cOI~struct the low permeability
clay capping layer. Although there
is no clear relationship
between
horizontal
stress and depth, there is an
indication
that there mav be higher stresses
in the zone affected
by cap
formation.
A general trel;d of increasing stiffness with test pressure has been
found which confirms
that the fresh waste is strain hardening
(i.e. this is

consistent with the gene,'al trend of increasing stiffness with depth of burial). As
only one test was carried out in the pal1ialiy degraded waste it is not possible to
draw any significant
conclusions
Oll the effect degradation
has on the
mechanical
properties.
Obviously
because
of the heterog..:neous
nature of waste, some
abortive tests are inevitable
due to obstructions
such as pieces of metal and
masonry, and the values obtained from successful tests provide only a guide to
the Illagn itude of the parameters.
However,
measurcd
against thc previous
,';Ickgruum!
of limited laboratory
and field testing on disturbed
and often
processed samples of waste, this study is valuable and unique.
The only cost effective mcthod for assessing the performance
of a
range of barrier systems applied to dif,erent slope geometries.
and subjected to
""rying waste SUppOl1 conditions
and construction
sequences,
is to develop a
numerical
mode!.
Based on the success
of the preliminary
investigation
described
in this paper it is planned to extend the pressuremeter
test programme
to obtain the range of parameters
required
for use in numerical
modelling
studies.
It is proposed
to extend thc use of the SBP test method to waste of
different age and depth of burial, and pre-treated
wastes.
This ongoing research aim~ to obtain relevant waste material properties
required as input parameters
for numerical models, to assess current steep side
slope landfill barrier designs using num:.:rical modelling techniques,
to validate
the model by the instrumentation
of barrier systems, and hence to produce
gllidance for designers.

Ac,,"nowlodgemer.ts
The work described in this paper was funded by a Research Enhancement
Fund
Grant from The Nottingham
Trent Universi.y.
Cambridge Insitu v,-cre responsible
for callying out all the pressuremeter
testing, and the initial processing of the test
data. Special thanks are Jue for their active SUppOl1 of the project and their many
suggestions
both durin!:; the initial planning stage and on site. Shanks & McEwan
(Southern
Waste Services) Limited through Dr Jf)seph and the staff at Calvert
made a si.snilicant contribution
Ly allowlIlg fre:.: access to th~ test area, and L~'
pro'!iJing
supp0l1 during thE' field work. :-inally thanl-.s are due to Ed Fara3her
who was responsible
for running the first field tria!.

References
R.P & Powr:e, W. (1995). Determination
of the hyerogeological
and
geotechnical
pro}-!erties of refuse using a large scale compression cel!.
Proc. 5th Inl. Landfill Syll7p., Sardinia (ed. T.H. Christensen, R. Cossu
and R. Stegmalll;), 2, 745-760.
Cambridge
Insitu (1998). Report on Calvert pressuremeler tests (Ref. CIR
1031/98), I, AI-A6.
Beaven,

Clarke.

B.G. (1995). !'resswcllleters i/1Geotechnical Design. Pub. Blackie

Academic & Professional.
Gilbert, R.B. & Byrne, R.J. (1996). Strain-softening
behaviour of waste
containment system interfaces. Geo.lynthe/ics In/emational, 3, 2, 181203
M. (1997). Structural analysis of steep slope sealing systems
supported by waste. !'roc. 6/h In/. LandjiIIS)III1p., Sardinia, October,

Heltweck,

507-516
Jessberger, ILL. (1994).
Part 2: material

3.

Geotechnical aspects of landfill design and construction.

parameter,; and test methods. I'mr.:. Imtll ('il'. ElIgrs

Geotechnical Engineering. 107. 105-113.

H.L. & Kockel, R. (1993). Determination and assessment of the
mechanical propel1ies oh\'aste material. Proc. Geotechnics l<.ela:ed to the
Environment,
Waste Disposal by Landjill, Bolton, UK, 313-322.
Jones, D.R.V. & Dixon, N. (1998a). The stability of geosynthetic landfill lining
systems. Proc. Geotechnical Engineering ofLandjills Symp., Pub.
Thomas Telford, (In press)
Jones, D.R.V. & D::;on, N. (1998b). Landfill side slope stability: modelling
waste/barrier
interactio;l. On prep.)
Kolsch, F. (1995). Material values for some mecha."ical propel1ies of domestic
waste. Proc. 5/h Int. Landfill Sym/J., Sardinia (ed. T.I-I. Christensen, R.
Cossu and R. Stegmann), 2, pp 20.
Landva, A.O., Clarke, 1.1., Weisner, W.R. & Burwash, W.J. (1984). Geotechnical
engincerin!O and refuse iandfilb. 6th National Cut,/ on Was/e
Managemen/ in Canada. Vancouver, Nov., pp 57.
Mail', R.J. & Woed, D.M. (1987). Pressuremeter testing, methods and
interpretation.
Construction Indu.;/Iy Research InJorma/ion Associa/ion
Projed 335, Pub. Butterworths.
Marsland, A. & Randolph, M.F. ~IY77). COlolpariso:l of the results from
pressuremeter
tests and large insitu plate tesb in London Clay.
Geotechnique, 27, 2.217-2":3.
Powrie, W., T~ichards, C. & Beaven. R. (1998). Com;xession of waste and
iltlplications for praLtice. Proc. Geotechnical i:.-ngineeril7goj !.-andfills

Jessberger,

Reddy,

SYI1l/'., PIIU. Thomas Tel!'xd, (1;1 press)

K.R., Kosgi, S. & Mutan, E.::; (1996). InterfacE; shear behaviour of
landfill composite liner systellls: a finite elenlenl analysis. Geosyn/hetics

illtema:innal, 3,2,247-275.
Van Impe, W.F. & Bouazza. A. (i996). Gcotechnica: properties ofMSW
Proc.
2nd 1m. Congress 0/1 EI1\'irolllnen/al Geotechnics, Osaka, Japan, pp 30.
Watts, K.S. & Charles, 1.A. (1990). Settlement of recently placed domestic refuse
landfill. Proc. Ins/n Civ Engrs, Part 1,88,971-993.

Th,' paper,; ill this section deal with the selection, lIse. pe!'tonnanc..:. testing and
validatiol1 oj' mineral
liners which are designed
and constructed
to act as
proteCl<Jrs oj' the aquatic environment
surroundlllg
landfill depositories.
Mineral
lin..:r, pl'llvide a relatively cheap, robust system which it may be argued have a
proven track record.
They may be constructed
using traditional
earthworks
plant to have a low pernleability
and are natural attenuators of contaminates
in
leachate.
On the do\\n side they require careful selection, pre-treatment
and
compaction
in order to ensure that the design requirements
are achie'/ed.
The
roles of clay mineralogy,
soil structure, and the sensitivity of lining material are
also important issues, as is the adequacy of the acceptance criteria. The control
of muisture content and the conditioning
of the materials, which might include
the need for screening
or comminution,
are further matters that need to be
carefully appraised.
It is essential to always bear in mind the purpose Jf liner construction.
In this respect tl:c- wider issues of evalu~tng
the potential impact of contamina:lt
escape )11 the surrounding
environment,
the identification
of sensitive receptors,
and the mechanisms
of contaminant
migration
and attenuation
all need to Le
understooci.
These have implications
for the techniques f)f risk assessment,
and
highlight
the necessity
of a wide apnrecia~ion
of a number
uf scientific
disciplines
f~om geotechnical
efi/?,ineering
and geology
to chemistry,
hydrogeology,
hydrology and environmental
engineering.
All these factor~ and
riisciplines are significant to a full appreciation
of the potential ris!:s to man and
tl~~ en\;~oni.lent
from the dev~lonment
of landfill sites.
In th first p~per, MUITav addresses
the properties
<.nd testing of
milleral li:les.
Though a low perr.leabi!ity
a:ld thus ad'lecLve movcment
of
con tam inates is usually jeemed to be the cverridi"g
requiremcI~t of" '11incral
liner. a discussion
is p .esented on t!~e signific:mce
of diffuse contalT'inant
m;gration
whi(,h "Iso needs careful consideration.
It is stressed that there: are
man\' l;;lcertaint;es
relating to the laboralory
a"d fielci testing whicl. are
undertoken
to establish
design
parameters
a:ld to give confidence
in
i1erformance
in tl~e field.
Differences
of behaviour
between laboratory
test
samples and full scale material masses lead to uncertainties.
Additionally
the
environmental
influence on lining materials and the liner/leachate
compatibility
cast doubt or the meaning of the test results and question whether the design
parameters
are achieved in the construction
lining.

The paper by HiI'd, Smith &- Cripps continues the theme of the
difficulties associated with natural mineral liners to the use of colliery spoil, and
exemplifies the above points. The properties of spoil from different mini~g
processes are described and factors influencing permeability are addressed, to
relation to both field permeability
testing using ring infiltrometers
and
laboratory testing using flexible wall permeameters.
In particular, the. size of
test sample and the need to repliC1te in laboratory tests the likely con.dltlons 10.
situ are highlighted, and issues relating to the specification and validatIOn ot
such materials are outlined.
.lelTeris covers the engineering of bentonite enriched soils. Bentonite
exhibits a vcry low permeability and for this reason is an 'attractive' material
for enhancing the properties of other'vise llOsuitable materials.
However, the
swellinlJb characteristics
and the influence on such materials of the prevailing.
environment
has cast doubts on the long-term performan-:e of bentoll1te
enriched soils. In this paper a simple two phase model is used to represent the
bentonite enriched soil, to highlight important parameters for control of the
material on site, and to identify situations which may lead to significant increase
in its permeability on exposure to aggressive chemical environments.
A major conclusion
from the papers presented is that, although
advances are being made in our understanding of the efficacy of mineral liners
to prevent contaminant escape, there are still many uncertainties which are the
subject of current research. SUC') research must not only aim to provide a better
understandino b of the behaviour of mineral liners and to improve on the
protectio'l afforded !:Jut shodd also, where possible, aim tv reduce the ccst to
those c'eveloping

I<:ndfills.

Properties and testing of clay liners

E.J. Murray
Murray Rix (Consulting Civil and Geotechnical
Hinckley, Leices/ashire. UK, LIO OAD

rngineer.\),

Introduction
Indigenous clays are the most widely used materials for the protection of
g;oundwaters
and surface waters surrounding
landfill depositories.
A
considerable amount of practical experience and experimer:tal understanding
has been built up on the use of such materials.
However, many uncertainties
still remain in their utilisation as either the so!;: protector of the aquatic
environment
or in conjunction with proprietary lining materials.
A major
difficulty with the use of clay..; is the significant variation in permeability which
;:;an occur with reI?tively small changes in other properties, ad a change in
moisture content of only 2 or 3% call result in a permeability variation of an
order of magnitude or more.
All clays hwe a finite permeability
and potential to attenuate
contaminants,
and even with a well designed and constructed
system,
cOi.taminant migration from landfill will occur, be it gradl'al. Leabge rates in
the field are generally recognised as greater than the design rates because scale
and structural defects are not wholly represented in laboratory testing (eg.
Parkins )l1, (991). The acceptability of sue:l e3c:apes must ':>e b?lanced 'lgains:
the potentially prohibitive cost of attempting perfect cOI'tainment.
For this
reaSOli DOE (1996) advo;;ates the cO:lcept of 'environinentali)
safe' :andfills
based on riSK assessment of individual sites and the determiliation of safe
enginperir.g If':akage crit:::ria.
fhe potential of a clay to form a landfill illling is defined nerein in
terllls of 'material suitability'.
However, suitable materials may not be capable
af achieving the desired permeability without conuitioi,ing and a clay is Gnly
defined as 'acceptable' following any pre-treatment and CQA testing necessary
to establish and prove its compliance with the design requirements (Murray et
al. 1996). To this end the testing undertaken may be divided into the following:
f

Matcrial
Material

Suit3bility TestingAcceptability
Testing-

f= -c.k.

where,

These distinctions
have been found useful and are introduced
to
comply
with the generalised
staged testing and reporting
procedures
in the
investigation.
design, specification
and construction
of landfill linings and also
to facilitilte an appreciation
of the role and significance
of the dilTerent tests
undeltakcn.
Table A I appended details thc testing both in common ust: and
other testing sometimes deemed necessary.
The CQA Plan forms a vital component
in the construction
of a lining
and detai Is the checking
procedures,
testing and means of ensuring that the
emplaced
lining achieves
the desired
standard.
At an early stage 01
development
it is also necessary to evaluate the risk and potential impact of
pollution
migration
on the surrounding
environment
(NRA,
1992) and
Regulation
15 of the Waste Management
Licensing Regulations
(DOE, 1994)
require: th:tt a risk assessment
is undertaken
detailing the potential influences
on groundwaters
"rum the discharge of List I and List"
substances.
NWWRO
(1996) addresses
this regulation
and suggest that it is likely that the Waste
Regulation
Authc;'ity will require the risk assessment
report to deal with the
wider issues of cor.taminant
escape in assessing the influence of the proposed
design on the environment.
This will necessitate
an appraisal of the pot.ential
r~ceptors, their se'lsitivity,
pcllution patilways and the likelihood of pollutants
impactlllg the receptors.
In order to appreciatc the significance
of the testing undertaken on cluy
lining material in developing
a landfill site, it is first r.~cessary to outline the
mcci,anisms
of contaminant
rr,igration 3'1d the roles played by a soil's physic<J!
and chemical properties.

MovemEnt

of contaminants through clay liners

For clay I:ner"

the two ;Jrime mechanism

(i) Advection
(ii) Difiusion

(mcvell1e.,t
(co:ltaminant

of contaminant

migratian

db
e1z

Physical Design Testing

Chemical Design Testing
CQA Testing

are -

of contaminants
2.S a re~l'lt of permeati'Jn
of water)
migration a~ a recult of concentration
gradient)

The iniluer.:e
0; dispersion is usually deemed negligible for a clay lining '!nd
Rowe ~1994) presents an ap;Jraisal of the relative importanr.e of advection and
diffusion
based 0n simplistic
assumptions.
It is concluded
that for many
practi~al situatiqps,
for the typical range of penneabilities
of landfill liners of
I x I 0- to 1:\1 0- mis, both advection and diffusion are important with diffusion
becoming
tl-.. dominant mechanism at lower permeabilities
and advection being
dominant
at higher permeabilities.
For advection,
the mass of contaminant
II ar:3ported per unit area per unit time (ie. the mass flux f) ;s given by:

k is the permeability
c is the concentration
dh/dz is the negative

of contaminant
hydraulic gradient

In accordancc
with the foregoing argumcnt,
for the normal range of
design pcrmeabilitit:s,
advection
is reduced to the same order of magnitude
ilS
diffusion and a relatively slow migration 01' contaminants
into the sUITounding
environment
ensues.
For this reason. advection
is usually deem cd the primc
mechanistic
I'isk to groundwatcrs
and surfacc
waters surrounding
landjlll
depositorics,
and low permeability
is considered the overriding requircment
of a
clay liner. However, diffusion may be the prime :r.eans of pollution migration
not only where the lining is of very low permeability
but also where there is net
inflow of water into a landfill as diffuse migration
resulting from chemical
potential
can occur against
the net permeation
direction.
The mass of
contaminant
transported
by diffusion per unit area per unit time is given by:

:'= -nDedc
dz
where,

n is the porosity of the clay liner

De is the diffusion coefficient
dc/dz is the negative concentration

gradient

Equations
(I) and (2) are additive
and constitute
the advectiondiffusion
model
in the absence
of those
mechanisms
which
remove
contanlinants
from
leachate
or otherwise
reduce
the concer.tration
cf
contamination
(eg. Rowe, 1997).
Clays can no' only be 'desi~ned' to have a 10\" permeauility
but can
also act as an important
mediur.l for the attei;uatior.
Of diffuse
r.ontaninant
rncv~ment.
Such bu~fcring pruc;e~ses may be chemical
physicd and biotogical
with o','erla~ between the reactions
involved.
The folhwing
mechanisms
:>f
contamincnt
attenuation
are ;del~tifiable bLll they present only a finite buffering
cilpacity and s2turation and breaktilrough
may u!:irna(ely occur:

(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Sorption by ion exchange (major ions pilrticularly heavy metals)

Sorption by partitioning
with organic matter in the soil (heavy metals
and organic contaminants
such as benzene and toluene)
Frccipitation
(heavy metals)
Oxidation/reduction
(or redox reactions)
Organic transformation
(such as biodegradation
or biological decay)

(vi)

Dilution (di .ect re'ilill p, ':iipersion ofsoilltes within pore water and
intluences all contaminants)

The efficacy of a clay to attenuate and retard the migration of

contaminants is influenced by the pollution pathways and residence times and
thus by the soil micro- and macro-structure. The ability ofa clay liner to retard
the physical passage of the leachate not only reduces the advective movement of
contaminants but increases the residenCt' time of the permeant within the liner.
This can enhance ,\".
, I"
, tillle dependent.
Although the
majority of attenuation i, likely [0 be iUIl <.'xchange, which is rapid, it is
generally accepted that the organic strength of the leachate reduces by
prolonged residence in a Iiner material.
J\lthough subject to uncertainties with respect to the penneabllLly and
potential attenuation propnties in the field, experience would suggest that with
good engineering practice and quality control, low permeability barriers can be
constructed and prove effective in protecting the environment surrounding
landfills. The role of soil testing is to ensure an acceptable end-product with the
desired permeability and attenuation potential.

Material suitability (or identification

material for a landfi:l lining)

,0

of possible source

Material suitability relates

the material type and whether it could potentially
form a low-permeability barrier. In order to achieve this it is usual to spe~ify
the Lise of a clay with suitable 'materiai characteristics' (B.S.5930: 1981) as
defined by its plasticity, material variability and clay content (see Table A I
appended).
Fine soils (clays and silts; are defined as having less than 65%
coarse materiai (sand, gravel and larg~r :naterial) based on the observatio!1 that
materials with more than 35% fines behave more as cohesive soils than as
granular soils. The diviSion between clays and silts or' a plot of Plasticity Index
(PI) against Liquid Limit (LL) is gl\en by the A-line as shown in Figure I. Silts
plot ':Jelow the A-line and ~re generally deemed unsuitaLle beC'lUse of the
difficulties 'lssoci,,-ted with handling and wurking su:h materials, their
slisceotibility to significant deterioration in p"operties as a reslJlt uf w<:ter
conteI1l changes, their high dispersivity and their likely frost susceptibility.
As shown in Table 1 various cite,ia have been proposed in defining a
clay suitable to form a minerai linillg. Fr"In al] examination of the ta1:>lea
reasonable picture emerges of the properties cf a day for it to be considered
suitable There are, however, some poi~ts of !lote. In particular, the NRA
(1992) set upper limits on clay Flasticity based 0,1 criteria defined by the
Department of Transport (1991) for compaction using ea;thworks plant. These
limits preclude the use of extremely plastic clays which would exhibit very low
permeability characteristics but can give ris. to problems with stability,
deformation, shrinkage and compaction in earthworks.
Figure I, based on

Murray el al. (i 992), incorporates the NRA criteria and may be used to
distinguish between sllitable, unsuitable and marginal materials; the latter
classification including the Gault Clay and, in their more weathered states, the
London Clay and Fuller's Earth where they exceed the NRA limits.
Table I also presents limits for the minimum plasticity index of a
suitable clay. This is a direct consequence of a marked increase in permeability
at low PI. As shown in Figure I, this might influence the selection or clays such
as those derived frolll the Mercia Mudstone and Coal Measures.

PROPERTY

I~EFERENCE

LIMIT/CRITERION

Plasticity

01' (t 9,)5a)
!)anid (1')93)
NRA (1992)

Murray 1'1 (I/. (1992)

Gordon (1987)
Williams (1987)
Danicl (1993)
NRA (1992)
Gordon (1987)
DOE (1995a)

3o 'Yo > PI > 10'1.,

1'1 > 7-10%
LL < 90%
PI < 65%
PI> 12%
PI> 15%
1'1> 15%
clay and silt ..>20-30%
clay partic'es :..-10%
clay and silt> 50%
> 0.3

Daniel (1993)

gravel (>4.76ml11)< 30%

j'>JWWRO(1991)
Daniel (1993)

size must not affecl liner integrity

< 25-30mm

Percentage
fines
Activity
(P[fclay content)
Percentage
gravel
Maximum
particle size

l)f

(Notc: there 2re SO;'.C difference.; between the ASTM :,nd DS test melhJds used '0
determin~ the suitability critc:-ia in Table 1 bpt these do not precludc comparison of the
proposed criteria)

The variability of a deposit alsC' iflfluer.:es its suitabiLty. Fc:- example,

gl~cial till whilsttJredomin:mtly
clay may exhibit ~ignificaw 'variations ii.
plasticity over short distances and contain pockets of sand, silt or other
unsuitable materials whicn may not be easily segregatec during excavati0n.
Care ['Hlst be taken when collating laboratory test results on a oeposit to ensure
that preferential sampling and testing is taken into account and the influence of
material variability is fully assessed.
The influence of gravel content on
permeability has been examined by Shakoor afld Cook (1990) and Shelley and
Daniel (1993) and both report a rapid increase in permeability where the gravel
content exceeds a critical value which appears to be around 50% to 60%. As
shown in Table I, Daniel (1993) suggests that the percentage gravel should be

less than 30% with a maximllill particle size of ~5 tv 30mm although NWWRO
(1996) allows larger particle sizes provided the:. are not likely to prejudice the
integrity of the linp.r. The prime requirement is that there is sufficient fines to
fill the pores ben,yeen gravel particles with low permeability material.

C(\I - Coal r\'l~asllr~s:!"t.: - Fulkr's 1'::11111: <.iC- (i;lltlt

el.l:.

I.C - I .olldoll CIa::

Lie - Lias Clay: ~1i\1- f\kl\:ia .dudslnfl(,: (h~' - (, ....

Ii.Hd("\:1\'

Figure 1 Material suitability with typical plasticity ranges for clays from
s~lected strata

The requiremen' of ensuring a thoroughly compacted, uniform.

hOillogeneous liiling of low pClIlleability will necessitate detailed testing. sill:
monitoring and compaction gcncrall\ in excess of normal earthworks levels.
Acceptability testing encompasses t Jse tests listed in Table A I appended and
which are deemed necessary for desi""l purp;Jses and CQA control.
The following discusscs thc significance and some important aspects of
specific soil tests. and the links betll'cen measured properties, which need to be
lInderstood by those designing <lIHIcontrolling the emplacement and validation
of lining pl'operties

It is important that laboratory Cl1nlp,Iction tests are reasonably n::prescdtatil e of

thl' compaction which can he achiel cd in the field. Most sites are controlled hy
the iindings from 8.S.1377: 1990 ~.5kg r<lmmer compaction tests or kss
frequently by 8.S. 4.5kg rammer compaction tests. Alternatively, compaction
in accordance with the Moistur:.; :::o!ldition Value (MCV) test may be used
(Parsons and Boden, 1979). Figures 2 presents the results of laboratory
compaction tests on a high plasticity clay and indicates that the degree of
compaction achieved during the MCV test lies benveen that achieved by the
other two methods. The B.S. 2.5 kg and 4.5 kg tests are based upon applying a
given amount of compactive effort to a soil sample whereas the MCV test is
based 011 cOl11jJacting a soil sample until no further change in density occurs.
The general forms vI' t!'e comli,lction curves are, however, similar but optimum
moisture content (OMC) ill the MeV c~1l1paction test tends te 'Je closer to the
zero air voids line. txperi~lIce suggests that more consistent results are
obtained usii~g the MCV test than the B.S. compaction tests.
2
r;;E 1.9
0))

Acceptability

of materials

(or approval of lining material)

Phvsical cesign testi"g

A penneabi:ity of 1x 1U-qms-I cr less i~ usua lIy 3pecified i1S the uverriding
requiremem for a ~Iav lining. A claJ' Iday !1a"e suitable 'materic:! cfJa:'actcristics'
but the variation of permeability \Vith moistur~ cO:ltent, (legree of r.ompaction
and SOil structur~, defined ;:~ Ij.S.5930: 1981 as the soil's 'n',ass characteristics',
'llUSt also be taken into aCSOl!!'t. ,Accept~bility rplates to the excavation,
handling, tr"ffickability, conditioning and compaction of a m~terial wh:ch is
required to achieve the desired low permeability. The definition of acceptahi!ity
is comparable with that adopted by the Department of Transport (1991), this
specification often being used as a guide to the compaction requirements for a
clay lining.
It is apparent that a material which is unsuitable is also
unacceptable but a material which is suitable II'ill not necessarily be acceptable.

;;
~

>f-

1.8
1.7
1.6

iJ)

z
~5
Lo.l
Ci

1,4

>-

ex: 1.3
Cl

1.2

15
MOISTURE

25
CONTSNT

(%)

The degree of compaction ~~hieved in a laboratory 4.5 kg rammer test

is often difficult to replicate in the field and in many cases provides an

unnecessarily strict requirement.

For the higher plasticity clays the 2.5kg
method is likely to be adequate but for low plasticity clays a greater degree of
compaction may be required in order to achieve the permeability criterion
consistently.
If: this latter case, compaction in accordance with the 4.5kg
rammer method may be necessary.
Densities obtained using the MCV test
provide an intermediate level of compaction which should be achievable for
most clays.

~
0
N

I-

v;-

1x10- 9

>-

I-

()

:::J

(ij

0::

l-

2.15

(/)

::':
1x10-10
LL

z
c

:z
0

<5

M
E 205
.

:z
:::J
:z
x
:z

CD

10

12

14

16

MCJISTURE CONTENT

(Results are compalible

'\.

"

1.95

;/)
z,

1.9

f-

22

('!oj

with those from Fi\;jure 3b)

>0:::

,/

/~
ff"1 CCEP

1.85

against in-siLl compaction moisture content frO!'1core

As indicated in Fit;ure 3a by the pe,me"bility design curve, for a ;ive'l

cumpaclion criterion, dr/ of the GMC ther..: is a rapid increase ill permeability
reflecting the lack of remoulc:nf: of a clay and the presence of fissures resulting
:n preferential seepage paths IMitcheii el at., 1965; Mur,ay el at., 1997 amongst
other~).
Obviously, greater sOlllpaction at t'lese relativel~1 low moisture
contents would result in a reduction in permeability, but this is not al\vays
achievable in practice. The identification of '::;Iod' size as being a major factor
in the presence of disconti,luities or fissures goes a long way to explaining why
there are often large discrepancies between in-situ permeabilities and the lower
values obtained from laboratory prepared samples. Benson and Daniel (1990)
show experimentally that for a soil compacted dry of optimum, the clod size

E_~

?~

1.8

I
5.0

7.0

:>

-.

-,).

0% MI XIMUM DRYD

1.75

-'
0..

~'"

.7

:<'igure 3a Permeability
samples

< ~-~~~

AN

~
"-:
~

I'\.

5%AIR VOIDS',

>-

20

,J

2.1

::>

ffi0..

significantly influences the fissuring present and thus the permeability. while
wet of the OMC the clod size is unimportant.
The itcceptable lower limit to
moisture content should therefore not be significantly less than the OMC f~'r the
compaction criterion expected to be appropriate under site conditions.
An argument may also be put forward for specifying the PL as the
lower limit to moisture content for a clay as this is a measure of the onset of
desiccation cracking in a clay subject to remoulding (Murray I'{ (1/, 1998).
Indeed the PL often corresponds closely to the OMC in the BS ::>5 kg method
where a 'clean' clay is being tested.
IlowevC!'. the test for PI, precludes
material retained on the 425~m sieve and for a clay with mudstone I'I'aglllenls or
gravel, or for greater compactive effort, the plastic limit can he signilic<ultly
wet of the OMC. This is shown in Figure 3b where the material was compacted
using the B.S. 4.5 kg rammcr method and comprises an intermediate phsticity
clay containing a proportion of fr~gmented mudstone.

Nsm
'-."

"-

..

9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 17.0 1gO

MOISTURE CONTENT (%)

21.0

23.0

As liner earthworks cannot be controlled dire..:!ly b;' p::rmeability

measureme'lts, it is necessary to set upper and lower ooullds on ether maTerial
propertie~ determined at the design stage in order to control on-site ope:-atiolis.
The limits at'e usually based on 1ll01sture content determinations. If the bounds
on moisture content are added to a compaction requiremel1l of a low air VOIGS
content (generally 5 to 10%), an envelope of acceptable material and
compaction is defined though it is necessary to ensure that at the maximum
allowable air voids that the permeability requirement is still met. Fig re 3b
indicates a typical acceptance zone. Test results indicate that the accentable

lower limit for ~he moisture content should be dictated by the pcrmeability
requircment. However, the upper limit to the moisture content may be dictated
by the shear sl 'ngth of the clay because although the permeability requirement
may be met, hilndling. compaction and trafficking become more difficult. This,
in conjunction with stability considerations, dictates the requirement for a
minimum shear strength. Typically an undrained shear strength (cu) of no less
than 40 to 50 kN/m2 is required in earthworks.

Tests to assess permeability and advection properties

Of particular interest in permeability testing are the tindings such as those of
BrulH.:lk: c'I (//. (1987). Their results indicate no notable differcnce between
pcrmeabilities using water or leachate (from an active landfill), but do indicate
significant differences between the permeabilities from the three different
permeameters
used.
It may be concluded that, in general, fixed wall
permeamelers (such as the falling head method of Head, 1986) give higher
penneabilities than flexible wall permeameters (such as tbe constant head
triaxial test of B.S.1377: 1990) because of side wall leakage and the influence of
confining j.Jressure. Amongst other factors, the size of the sample tested also
influences the measured permeability, and Rarden et al. (1969) report on the
influence of unsaturated conditions and the significant increase in permeab;lity
as saturation is approached.
In practice ~he leachate le"els and thus hydraulic gradients in landfills
are kept low by pumping from wells. In laboratory permeability tests the
hJ'draulic gradients are usually significaptly higher ~han in practice for reasons
of practical flow measurement. There is an argument as to whether Darcy's law
is applicable at low hydraulic gradients and Mitch~1l and Younger (1967)
present results which suggest a deviation from Darcy's law at a threshold
hyuraulic gradient of about 6, whereas in landfIll cells the hydraulic gradient is
typically around I. This deviation may in a la,ge part be a result of the high
viscosity of the ad:,orbed water attached to clay particles. Other factors being
equal, some comfort may be gained from the inferred greater laborato"y
permeabilities
under elevated ,",ydraul;c gradients compared
to those
permeabiliries which rr.3Ypertain in the field unde~ Ic'ver hydraulic :leads.

Tests to mitigate physical darrage

Post-construclio:'n (before, during and aftel lilPdfilling) the performan\..e of a
::Iay lining may be influenced by a number of physical factors i'1cluding:
Hydrostatic uplift
Instability of oversteep side slopes
Settlement of the ground below the basal lining
Desiccation due to drying out
Sof~ening due to uptake of water
Freezing

Disturbance due to mechan ical plant

Punching ofwastemateriab
into the lining
Erosion/suffusion due to movement of free water
These potentially disruptive influences have to be addressed at the
design stage and where deemed necessary investigation and testing should be
carried out to facilitate a ouantitative appraisal and to evallJ(~tc the inherent risks
associated with the various factors .. This might inclllo<? such testing for the
lining as detemlination of the total and cfkctive str<?ssraramctcrs. the inllu<?nce
of moist lire content changes and thc potential for frost he;i\'c.
.Jcssberger
(1994)
suggests
the
erosion sul'l'usion
pl1tcntial
(dispcrsivity) ofa clay also warrants careful considcration. ThL:sCinflucnc:s arc
more pronounced in the low plasticity, friable and fissile clays such a, thosc
derived from the Coal Measures, Mercia Mudstone and Etruria Marl. Emsion is
the removal and transport of particles as a result of liquid flow whereas
suffusion is the transport of the fines only. leaving a coarser skeletal structure.
Three types of erosion :mj suffusion may be defined:
External:
Internal:
Contact:

due tv liquid flow along external faces of the clay liner

due to flow along internal flow channels such as fissures
movemen' of particles from the liner at the contact with
coarse grained strata such drainage layers

Tests to evaluate the potential degradation of a ciay under conditions of

water movement are given in Table A I. These teStS were vriginally devised to
address problems with earth dams, river bunks and the like where wai"r
movements are likely to be far more pronounced. The tests provide a guide to
material dispersivity in li'lldfiit engineering but with ,t'itable de"ign features and
precautions, such as the use of protective membranes. the detrimental effects of
erosion and suffusion may be avoided.
Chemical desiy:: test:n~

Tests to ass~ss ditfusic.7 and attr-:nuation propertips

In landtills somprising predominantly domestic waste it is the dissolved
contaminants in t!'e leachate that are considered of Drill1e concern." However,
clays have the potential to adsorb catiolls ad anions from leachate, particularly
the ions of heavy m~tals. Clays are generally deel'led net negatively charged
and attract positively charged cations within an adsorbed layer on the particle
surfaces, the so called double layer. Rowe et at (1997) sugaest that the
exchange rr.a) ;nclude the cations K+, Na+, Pb2+, Cd2+, Fe2+, Cu2+ etc which
replace other cations in the adsorbed double layer 9uch as Ca2+, Mg2+ etc.
Other researchers (eg. Dearlove, 1995; Bright et at, 1996; Mohamed and Yong,
1996) rep'Jrt the preferential sorption of certain cations and that an alkaline pH

presents a favourable environment.

Conversely, at low pH, soil particle
surl~lces can revert to a 'net positive charge and may not in this evel~t attenuate
posi:ively charged heavy metal species..
The pH of till' system not only
influences cation exchange but also the precipitation from solution of many
metals as hydroxides and carbonates onto soil partiele surfaces and into pore
water (Bright el aI., 1996).
NWWRO (1996) suggests tests should be carried out to provide an
undcrstanding
of how leachate will interact with the lining and propose
determinations of Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), Aninn Exchange Capacity
(ACC) and Partition Coefficient (Kd) as appropriate.
The CEC and AEC are
measures of the abundance of exchangeable ions required to be adsorbed onto
the clay platelets to render them neutral, while Kd may be viewed as a global
measure of [he sorption and precipitation attenuation potential of a clay. Kd
may be incorporated within a linear model to predict pollutant attenuation,
where,

where,

S
c

mass of solute removed from solution per unit mass of liquid

equilibrium concentration of solute in pore fluid

=
=

Other more complex partitioning relationships have been proposed but

seem unwarranted for general design purposes.
Kd m<:y be determined from
leachate column tests (eg. Rowe, 1994) or batch tests (ASTM, 1979; Griffin el
u/., 1986, DOE, 1995b) which should irleally be cilrried out us:n~ a leachate of
known properties or for a range of ;ndividual potenLal contaminants possibly
with different concentrations.
At ,he present time such tests are generally
deemed research tools rather than tests in everyday usage although where
special ised wastes
are proposed,
or for pilrticularly
sensitiv~
sites,
measurements from such ttsts provide diffusion coefficients (Equation 2) and a
measure of the partiti"oning effects of the clay.
In practice, however, the
leachate will not be available at the desi~.l stage, tile composition of the
leachate wiil vary appreciably with time and :-:'d fo;' a siven contaminant is
likely to be influenced by the preStllce of other cuntaminants
which may
preferentiall) b~ attracted to the soil particle surf'lces. There i~ no agreement at
this time on what might COr:stilute &n 'indicator' soiution to yield a cop.~parative
measure of the attenuation properties of a cia;. [t is al50 important to appreciate
that there can be a marked change in the oehtivio~lr of some pullL.tants ifthere is
sufficient loading Oi~ the system t::Jbring about changes in clay behaviour.
For
metal contaminants, Kd estimates are highly variab!~ and are sensitive to soil
properties including pH, clay content, organ ic matter contel.t, tTee iron and
magnesium 0xide contents, and particle size distribution. The values of Kd for
metals are thus often presented as a range. Dragun (1988) and Rowe el af.
(1997) presents Kd values for a number of inorganic contarr ;nants.

For organic contaminants,

the organic carbon (or octanol-carbon)
.partition coefficient (Koc) is used as a measure of a soils adsorption potentia~.
There is a close relationship bel\veen the adsorption of organic pollutants 'to sot!
organic matter and the amount measured by partitioning and almost all of the
adsorption of organic chemicals by soil is governed by the organic carbon
content of the soil (eg. Hines and Failey, 1997). Koc is the ratio of the amount
of chemical adsorbed per unit weight of organic carbon to the cl1emical
concentration in solution at equilibrium and is given by.

It is far easier to calculate the partition coefficient for organics than the
partition coeftlcient for metals as the former is largely independelll of soil
properties.
Kd and Koc for a range of organic contaminants are presented by
Hattemer-Frey and Lau (1996) and Rowe el at. (1997). Clays derived :rom the
Coal Measures, Oxford Clay ami similar strata are likely to have relatively high
organic carbon concentrations which would be conducive to the attenuation of
organic contaminants
in leachate.
In a complete formulation of the risks
associated with contaminant migration the influence of biological degracation
of organic pollutants should also be taken into account (German Geotechnical
Society, 1993).
This process results in analytical difficulties as it varies
throuahout
the
life
of the landfill and is depndent
on the presence and survival
b
of suitable rr.icro-organisms.
Though ciay barriers are capable of sorption of chemical species frem
le:.:chate over considerable periods of time (Davies el a/., 1996), the ir.teraction
of leachate and clays pre~ents a complex p~oLlem and even wit!~ det3.iled site
specific testing the situation will be far :rom determinc'e.
Yet the protection of
the groundwater is ef prime environmental concern and aquifer vulnerability is
a key facto; in any assessment cf landfill dev~lopment and design (eg Foster,
1998).

Tests to cssess the influence of lear-hate chf:misiry

The influenc~ uf the leachate chemistry
arguably produces ;he greatest
uncertainty
to !0ng tam performanc~
of a clay bilrrier.
A number ::Jf
investigations have shown that cenain organic chemicals can ca~lse shr:nkage of
the Jiffuse double layer which affects the soil structure leading tu aggregation
or flocculation of the clay and increased permeability (Ql:igley and Fernandez,
1994; Dilkin el aI., 1997). NWRRO (1996) and DOE (1996) suggest that the
chemical impact of leachate on mineral liners may be assessed by carrying out
testing in accordance with ETC 8 (German Geotechnical Society, 1993). In
laboratory
determinations
of the influence
of leachate
chemistry
on
penneabi;ity,
most research seems to have been carried ::Jut uSlllg artificial

le;jchates with high chemical concentrations, well in excess of those normally

encounten::d in landfill. Although there appears to be no unaniinity of view 'at
this time on the influence of organic contaminants on the permeability of clays,
there seems to be a consensus that the influence is small at concentrations in the
leachate from normal domestic waste (DOE, 1996; Brunelle el af.. 1987; Daniel
and Liljestrad, 1984). Nevertheless, the influence or the leachate chemistry
presents uncertainties which cannot be fully addressed without further research.
Of some com fort is the suggestion by farquhar (1994) that liner
permeability often decreases with time as a result or scaling due to precipitate
formation, sui ids accumulation and biomas growth along the upper surfacc of a
liner and within cracks and fissures. Dakin el 01. ( 1997) appear to support this
contention but also highlight the uncertain innuences on permeability of aerobic
and anaerobic ~nvironments.

Correlatioris

between

physical and chemical tests

In soil mechal,ics terms, the greater the plasticity of a clay (the greater the LL
and PI) the greater the quantity of clay particles and the higher their surface
activity (defined as PI/clay content after Skempton, 1953). These mineralogical
properties are closely related to the physio-chemical prope,ties of cation
exchange capacitj (CEC) and specific surface area (SSA) (Yong el aI., 1997)
where SSA is a measure of the surface area of soil particles per unit mass of
solids (or sometimes defined as ~he snrfar;e area per unit volume of solids).
Generalised relationships can thus be exr~cted between rlasticity, ~he chemistry
of the clay particles and permeability. The more highly plastic the clay the
greater the CEC 31,::1 SSA and the less t"~ pel meability and tile advection
potential. Such relationships have been shown experimentally by a number of
researchc~s including Lai.lbe (195d), Mesri and Olsr,n (197 I) ar.d Benson el af.
(1994).
Thus, clays comprising mainly kaolinite (as determineC: by X-ray
defraction) are of relatively low plasticity, CEC and SSA, and generally have a
greater perme~~ility than clavs comprisir.g illite, which in turn have a .::,reater
perm~ability than clays c0l1lprising smtctite ('..:h'ch includ~s mvntmorillonite
and the gen~1 ic minerai species bentun;te) whir:h exhlLit the hig'lest piastir;ity
and a high CEC and SSA (Yong anrl Warkenin, 1<:'7'<;).
CQA testing
There have been a number of reported illstances of fai lures of comp~cted clay
linings and Farquhar (1994) suggests these have usually resulted from
inadequate design and installation procedures.
Adequate Quality Control is
essential to satisfactory performance and NWWRO (1996) indicates the scope
of Quality Assurance testing normally required for each layer of a clay lining.
In the field a number of key factors influence permeability and hence
the acceptability of a compacted clay liner during the construction stage (eg.
Elsbury et aI, 1990). These factors need to be adrlressed ill compaction trials

which should
construction.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(i:,)

be designed

to simulate

as close

(1S

possible

proposed

Conditioning or preparation of the clay (eh, addition of water,

screening)
Compliance with the design parameters
Destruction of clods and elimination or associated fissuring
Interlift bonding
Liti thickncss
Type and weight or roller, number ur passes and coverage
Degree of compaction and saturation
!'ossiolc construction, sampling, testillg ;llld validation difficulties
Adequacy of the CQI\ Plan

The close control of clay moisture content is particularly important in

lining construction and often presents diffiCL:lties.
Wetting up, or less
frequently dying out, is sometimes required so that the clay moisture' content
lies within the required range. When water is added it is necessary to ensure a
re!atively uniform distribution and this may be achieved by spraying dispersed
water from a towed bowser possibly fo1l0wed by hoeing, rotivating or other
mechanical means to mix the nlaterials. In practic~ it is necessary to leave the
material to stand in an uncol'lpaded condition. possibly overnight or longer, to
allow added water to soak into th.:: mRterial b2fore compaction. Drying is more
difficult and should be avoided if possible, but may be achieved in dry weathp-r
uy spreading in thin layers which are periGdical;y turning to allow natUlal
aeration. Subsequent to liller compaction, dry or windy periods may result in
desiccation of the clay and periods of precipitation may result in wetting up of
the materials. In either e.ent preventative or corrective me1Sures need to be
adopted.
Tamping (pad foot) vibrating rollers are often recommended for
compacting clay liners because of the gre:lter moulding effect achieveJ.
H,YNeVer, there are benefits in emplo~'ing a cO!~'bination of both tamping and
smooth whee!.::d rollers: I""ini:::!lingoff the l!PPS surf<::ce wit!-, a smootl: whe~led
rol!-::r allows a beller visual indication of variatior.s in iayer thickne~s; the
presence of zones 01 fraglllented or gravely material with a lac:k ot clay become
m0re apparent; and sealing the upper surface helps to ixotec' the materiai and
encour:lges run-off in times O! indell1ent weather. 'he tamping rollei' may
subsequently be useG to achieve ~he neCf'ssary sC;jrification ')f the layers
between lifts.
Earthworks are generally ';ontrolled by n:0islure content a:ld dry
density determinations.
Figure 3b shows the results of nuclear density meter
(NOM) testing against a laboratory determined compaction curve for an
intermediate plasticity clay. The NOM (see Figure 4) is in common use as a
means of determining both dry density and moisture content in tile field as it

provide, immediate results as oppo~ed [0 core sampling and sand replacement

density determinations.
However, bec;;use of inaccuracies in NOM moisture
content determinations (and thus in the conversion from bulk density to dry
density) normal practice is to recover soil samples to check on field
measurements. NevertheiL:ss, it is essent ial to undertake very careful instrument
calibration for individual soil types. The instrument should preferably be
calibrated against accurately measured densities in the laboratory container
method (B.S.1377:1990 Part l), Clause 2.5.5.3.1) but more frequently it is
calibrated against in-situ cores or salld replacement density determinations
which ill themselves Illay he suhject to nrms

laboratory permeability tests on e~re samples recovered from a clay lining

(compacted in accordance with I:igure 3b) confirming the acceptability of the
construction.
Ide1i1ly:in-situ permeability testing as detailed in Table A I should also
be carried out but such testing suffers from the disadvantages that it is time
consuming, does not reflect the true confining stress conditions imposed by the
landfill and can result in prolonged expose of the lining to the elements.
Consideration might be given to the use of carefully prepared trial areas,
isolated from lining construction, where in-siw permeability tests could be
carried out prior to or at an eady stage of development. Such testing would
provide valuable information on the larger scale performance of
lining
material.

Conclusions

The MCV test provides a,l alternative rapid means of :Jssessing a clays
acceptability at SOI.lrce and proves partiCUlarly usef .JI where the source clay
shows a jegree of v1riability. For clay:; of differing plasticity, 'he acceptable
MCV's show far less variability between clays than do the moisture contents.
Murray el af (1992 and 1996) and Jones el af (1993) describe the use of the
MCV apparatus in establishing acceptance limits. Measurements of moisture
content (or MCV) and density cannot, however, be taken as precl~ding the need
for further permeability testing on the compacted lining material as an assurance
that the control criteria are adequate.
Figure 3a presents the results of

The design and construction of landfills requires a detailed appraisal' of site and
environmental conditions encompassing a broad appreciation of a number of
engineering and scientific disciplines.
In assessing the risks to the aquatic
environment it is necssary to have an understanding of the mechanisms by
which pollution associated with leachate can escape through clay linings and an
al:;preeiation of the Iimitations of Fning system~ and the construction difficulties
encountered in practice.
The physical migration of contaminants due to
permeation through a clay lining is generally accepted as greater than predicted
from laboratory tests and advecticn is usually deemed the main mechanism of
C'1;ltan~:nant escape. i-!owuer, fOi low permeability bJrriers, or in the case of
net inflow into a b:ldfill, diffusion cannot be ignored in assessing the influence
of landfill on the aquatic environment. The current state of knowledge allows
analysis of the mechanism of cuntaminant movement cat the significance of
such analj'sis is gre"tl~' restricted hy the uncertainties inherent in testing and
actual field performance.
Analysis at tltis time is probably Dest limited to
sensitivity studies, in particular, to determining the significance of variability in
test parameters anri design features.
In selecting ane approving clays f0r land:ill sites, the aUthar f.nds the
definitions 'material suitability' and 'acceptability of mater;als' liseful in the
diStinction betw<::en ~Ollrc': material for possibie %e as a liner and ,ho~e
materials approved, conJitioned and c0mpacted in the lining constructon
during c staged approval of landfill linir.g material. The acceptability testing
may be further sub-divided iilto Physical. Chemical and CQA testing.
Careful drafting of a testing regime and monitoring of the earthworks
operations is essenliai in endeavouring to ensure that the clay selected and
emplaced satisfies the design requirements. It is stressed that the purpose of the
physical and chemi..:ai design testing is to gain an appreciation of the overall
perfomlance of the landfill in relation to the surrounding environment, and to
this end far more information is required on the actual performance of landfills
in relation to that predicted :::tthe outset of landfill development. CQA testing

allows validation of a clay lining to the sati~:factjon of the regulatory authority

and provides a check that the de,ign parameters are achieved
With the inherent de:;ire of thc EI1\'i-"'nl11ent Agency to improve
standards and provide pressure on the industry to uevelop a better understanding
of the potential influence of landfill on the environment, more detailed and
increasingly intricate testing and analysis will be Iequired. This must, however,
be tempered with the recognition that a landfill presents a complex
thermodynamic system not readily amenabk to analysis, though the principles
of thermodynamics are appropriate as they apph Gqually to solids, liquids and
gases. Such principlcs as the c0l1servaliol1 llf energy apply to the chemical
reactions within the landfill, the heat and ~a,e, generated, the stresses and
volume changes, permeation and the advecti"n ,1Ild diffusion of contaminants.
However, detailed analysis of il landt! II as a the! l1lodynamic system, where the
energy levels within are balanced with IhG Gnergy exchanges with the
surrounding environment, are beyond current capabilities.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Dr Stuart Guy of Birmingham University and Mr
David Rix of Murray Rix (Northeru) Limiled for helpful discussions.
Appreciation is also extended to Global Environmental for allowing results of
field and laboratory testing to be made available for presentation.
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Publication No.130, Grollnc!lvuler PO//lllion, Aqllijer Recharf!.e and
Vulilcru/>ilil\', Ed Robins, N.S., The Geological Society, London. 7-22.
German Geolcchnical Society for the international Society of Soil Me~hanics
ailli I:oundation l':ngineering (1993).
Geotechnics oj" Laneljill Design
und Remedial/on Works Technical Recommendations - GLR, Ernst and
Sohn, Berlin.
Gordon, M.E. (1987).
Design and performance monitoring of clay-lined
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R.D., Geotechnical Special Publication No. 13, ASCE, 500-514.
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Hatte:ller-Frey,
H.A. and Lilu, V. (1996).
Chapter ii, site-specific
considerations
in risk assessment.
Environmental
Impact of
Chemicals.' Assessment and Control, Ed. Quint, M.D., Taylor, D. and
Purchase, R., The Royal S'lCiety of Chemistry, 120-146.
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Ground: Fate 0/ Pollutants and Remediation,
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Mesri, G. and Olson, R.E. (1971). Mechanisms controlling the permeability of

clays. Clays and Clay Minerals, Pergamon Press, J 9, 151-158.
Mitchell, J.K., Hooper, D.R. and Campanella, R.G. (1965). Permeabilit .. of
compacted clays. Jnl. Geotech. Engrg, ASCE, 91 (SM4),41-65.

Mitchell, J.K. and Younger, J.S. (1967)

Abnoll~lalities in hydraulic tlow
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C;eoenvirunJllentul
Engineering
Nemee!ia/ion,

Contaminated

Gl"lllInd

rOle

0/

Po/llltal7/S

aile!

Proe Conf., LJni\crsity ot" Wales. Cardiff, Ed. Yong,

R.N. and Thomas, !I.R., 229-239
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Quigley,

Supplem..;ntary

Reporl 522

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E;-{ect of organic liquiris on the
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cranspon of pollutants througil clay liners.

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Landfilfing

Diifusion

of Was/(~: Barriers,

Triaxial

Shakoor, A. and Cook, B. (1990). The effect of stolle content, size and shape
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Engrg. Geologists, XXVII(2),245-253.
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Containment applications for earthen liners.
In
Proceedings
Engineering.

of the 1987 Speciality

Conference.

Constant

Ilydraolic

Ikad

(:ISI,7i:1990

Cflns"lidation

TI iaxial Constant

Pan61vlclhod

Cdl Constanl

and r:tlling

6)'

1kau (BS 1377: 11)<;;)Pan (> Metho:l4)

I kad (Head

1986 Tests 20.'1.1 to 20.4.4)

Falling
railing

Head I'erm~ameter
(Head 1981 Test 10.7.2)'
Head Test in Sample Tube (Head 1981 Test 10.- 3)

Falling

Head Test in Oedometer

Falling

Ilead Test in Rowe Consolidation

(Head

Cell (Head

1981 Test I" 7.4)

Cell (lillfizontal

and Venieal

Pe~meability)

1986 Test 24.7.2 and 277.3)

on Environmenta.'

Ed. Dietz, J.D., ASCE, 122-128.

Yong, R.N., Tan, B.K., Bentley, S.P., Thomas, H.R., WIIlI,'".
." '., Pooley,
F.D. and Zuhairi, W. (1997). Attenuation characteristics or natural
clay materials in South Wales and their use as landtill liner~.
Geoenvironmental
Engineering.
Contaminuted
Ground:
Fale oj'
Pollutanls and Remediation, Proc. Con f., University of Wales, Cardiff,
Ed. Yong, R.N. and Thomas, H.R., !61-169.
Yong, R.N. and Warkenin, B.P. (1975). Soil properties and behaviour. 2nd

Tests to mitigate physical damage

She:ir Strength

(nn rewmpaeted

Il;lI1d Shear

samples):

Vanl' (lIS 11,77: I 'N() I'art 7 \lctlmd

lJndrained Tria"ial
Shear nn\'

Strength

Large (IJSI377:Il)')()
Cnnsnlidated

lJndrained

Consnlidatcd
Disp,'rsivity:

Drained
Pinhok
Crumb

ed., Elsevier Scientific.

Encctive

I'art 7 ~lcthlld

Triaxial
Tria"ial

Test (BSI377:1990

5)

Stress

Stress
Part 5 Method

6.2)
6.3)

Test (1351377: 1990 Part 5 Method

h.))

Chemical Tests (I-lead 1981 Test I 0.X5)

(I3S I 3 77: 1990 Part 2 Method 65)

Linear Shrinkage

Table A 1 Testing of clay liners

Erketive

Test (IJS 1377 .1990 Part 5 Method

Dispersion

Oedometer

.1)

(1ISI377:II)'I()
I':irt 7 ~lcIIH,d ,:)
SII1,dl (I\S 1;77: Il)<)() I':lfl 7 Methnd-1)

Consolidation

Test (on reeompaeted

samples)

(IJS I J 77 1990 Pari 5 Method

3)

Chemical Design T8sts

Suitability

testing

Tests to assess diffusion and attenuation properties

Plastic

Limit (BS 1377: 1990 Pari 2 Method

Liqoid

Limit:

Plasticity
Particle

5.3)

rour Point Method (I3S 1377: 1990 Part 2 Method 4.3)

Single ,)oint Method (BS 13 77: 199G Par! : Me!'lOd 4.~

Index (CSI3Tt:1990

Part 2 Method

Size Distribution:

Batch Tests (ASTM

Leaching
I

5.4)

Wet Sieve (BSI377:19,0

Part '2 tvI~thod 9.2)

Dry Sieve (BSI377:1990

Part 2 Method

Pipette Method
Hydromcter

Cation

(BSI377:1990

Metnod

Mess Loss

9.4)

(BS 1377: 1990 Part 2 Method

9.5)

011

1994)

Capacity

Anion Exch~nge
Carbon

1979)
Tests (Rowl'.

Exchange

Organic

93)

PJrt 2 Method

Column

Capacity
Content

Ignition

(measured

by CO2 infra-red

spectl"vmeter)

(BS 1377: 1990 Par, 3 Metllfld 4)

Carbonaceous
Content G;' High Temperature
Clay Mineralogy
by X-R::y Dei'raetioll

Loss cnlg!'ition

(Avery

and Boscomb,

Tests to assess the influence of leachate chemistry

Acceptabili~y testing

Tests i:~ accordance

Physica! des:g,) tests

with ETC 8 (German

Geotechnical

Socioty.

'993)

to characterise

and in accoruancc ',vi.h ot~ler tests :-.ere::l to assess the innucl1 :c.
f

Tests for const.-uctiorJ ccntlOl

CO!'lpaction

Se,ies:

Ligh'

Hammer

(2.5kg)

I-Ieavy Hatn'ller
MC"" Compacliun
Partie:e
Moisture

Density
CC:lIent

.-ammer (bS 1377: 1990 t)art 4 Meth"d

(4.5kg)

rammer

(RS I3n:

1990 Part 4 Method

(BS 1377: 19,}0 Part 4 Method

(3S I 377: I Q90 Part 2 Metha:!

(BS 1377: 1990 Dart 2 Method

8)

3.3)
3.5)

5.5)
.

32\

CQA tests
Tests to check on material suitabilit..,.
Plastic

Limit (BS 1377: 1990 Part 2 Meth'ld

Liquid

Limit:

Four Point Helhod

Single

Tests to assess permeability and advection properties

Fermeability
by water on laboratory prepared samples (leachate tests may also be carried out in
general aec0rdance
with the rollowing.
Other test methods are available.
* indicate, those tests in

more common usage)

1974)

Plasticity
Particle

Index

5.3)
(BS 1377: 1990 Par, 2 Method

Point Method

(BS 1377: 1990 Part 2 Method

(BS 1377: 1990 Part 2 Method

Size Distribution:

1.3)
4.4)

5.4)

Wet Sieve (BS 13/7: 1990 Part 2 Method

9.2)

Dry Sieve (BSI377:1990

93)

Pipette

Method

Hydrometer

Part 2 Method

(BS 1377: 1990 Part 2 Method

(BS 1377: 1990 Part 2 vlethod

9.5)

9.4)

the leachate

Tests to check on material acceptability

Mev
Shear

(BS 1377: 1990 I'art ~ Method

5.5)

Strength (in-situ or on undisturbed

Sal'lpIeS)
Hand Shear Vane (nS 1377: 1990 Part 7 MethQd 3)
Undrained

Triaxial

Strength

Shear Box:
I'ermeability

(I3S 1377: 1990 Part 7 Method

8)

Small (BSI377:1990
Part 7 Method
Largc (nS 1377: 1990 Part 7 Method

4)
5)

by water on uudisturbed

samples

(' indicates

those tests in more common

Triaxial Constaul I lead (BS 1377: 1990 Part 6 Method 6)'

Il\'draulie
COllsulidalion
Cell Cnllstant Ilead (BS 1377: 1990 Part 6 Method
T;iaxial Constallt and Falling I lead (I lead 19X(, Tests 20A.I 1020.4A)'
"allingllead

l'ermeamcter(llead

usage)
4)

1981 Test 10.7.2)'

I'allins I lead Test in Sample Tube (I lead 19X I Test 10,7.3)

1 ,ill ille: I lead Te,t in (kdollleler
Cell (I lead 1981 Te~;( IO.7A)
Fallill~~ I lead TeSI in Rowe Consolidation
(I lead 1986 Test 24.7.2
l'erll1eabilit\,

Cell (ilori ~ont::: and Vertic<,ll'erllleability)

(eg ASTM

c.c

HiNf!),

Cr. Smith(l) and J.C Crippi1;

I) Department oj ( 'ivil and Structural Engineering, Uni\'er.l'it)' oj

Sheffield, S1 3JD.
2)Department oj Earth Sciences, University of Sheffield, S1 3JD.

and 27.7.3)

(in-situ)
Ponding Tests
Ring Infiltromeler

Issues related to the use and

specification of colliery spoil liners

05093,1990)

LvsimClcr
Density

in si;u or

011

undisturbed

Sand Replacement

samples

(' indicates

tests in l110re common

(I3S 1377: 1990 I'art 9 Method

Cores (I3S 1377: 1990 Part 9 Method 2A)'

Nuclear Density Measurements
(I3S 13771990

ParI 9 Method

Rubber l3alloon Method (ASTM Test 0 2167)

Immersion in Watcr (I3S1377:1990
l'art2 Melhod
Water Displacement

Method

usage)

2.1)'
2.5)'

7.3)

(I3S 1377: 1990 ParI 2 Mcthods

7A

Introduction
Engineered landfills require the design and construction of reliable liners
capable of containing leachate, and a compacted mineral layer genl'raliy forms
part of the lining system. There is a trend towards the use of composite liners
comprising a geomembrane laid directly on top of a mineral layer.
ClayS are tile most suitable IT.inerals for liners because, with good
prae:ice, low permeabilitics (hydraulic conductivities) are readily achievable.
They may also possess good contaminant absorption or attentuation properties,
However, natural clavs are not always availabie on site ilnd other ;naterials may
neeci t') I)e cOl1sider~d, These include bentonite modified soils and, in some
parts of the UK, colliery spoils. The use of coiliery spoil may be especially
attractive where a plentiful local supply exists, or where a liner is b~ing
copstructed as pJrt of restoration works fer abandoned collieries with associate':!
coal by-p:'oGucts pla:~ts. In such cit'cumstances, the constructive use: of a waste
material may yield significant econo;nic awl er,virol1lnenta: benefits.
l\ ItllOugh some colliery spoils have been uStd 5uc:cessfully, by
con,parisoll with clay liners, relatively little research has been conducted on
colliery spoil liners and pUJlished experience :s sparse. [n this paper, bllo',vin3
a backf'round section on the engineering characteristics ot collIery spoils, the
findings of a research progri1mme at the University of Sheffield are slJlIlmarised
and a practical approach to specification and quality control is discussed.
The paper is primarily focussed on the issue of permeability,
notwithstanding the relevance of diffusion and attenuation processes, Several
factors influencing permeability will be considered, as well as testing methods.

Engineering

characteristics

of colliery spoil

Colliery spoil heaps may incluuc both coarse rock discard, arising from the
construction of undcrground :ccess tunnels and galleries or opcncast workings,
and finer slurries and taili.ngs separated from the coal in washery plants.
Materials such as furnacc ashes and a grcat variety of other solid and liquid
wastes may also have bcen disposcd "I' \\'ilhin d spoil ':l. All the lithologies
within the Coal Measures sequencc are usually present within tips. Taylor and
Spears (1970) report that in the East Midlands, for exam pic, thc sequcnce
comprises the following lithologies: siltstones 40%, mudstone and shale 30%,
seat earth 10-20%, sandstonc 5-10% and coal 2-7%. In tips from underground
workings there is li:lble to be a predom inance of shales and seatearths and older
tips usually contain a sign ificant proportion of coal. Taylor (1984) indicates
that the average organic carbon content (mostly coal) for English and Welsh tips
is 13.3%, although in some old tips it may be as high as 47%. The variation in
coal content, and also the variable presence of ironstone,'
explains J
considerable variation of specific gravity (see Table I below).
The geotechnical properties of colliery spoils are very variable
depending upon the l:th0logies present, the extent of weathering and, more
particularly, the grading. The gnGings of spoils span a large range as shown on
Figure I. Taylor (1984) notes :hat coarse discards range from silty sand to
coarse gravel and cobbles, whc;eas fine discards range from clay to sandy
medium gravel. The properties pre~ented in Table I also show large ranges.

100
90
80
Ol

c
'iIl
(/)
ro
Q.
Q)

i'0
60

g.

SO

Q)

40

c
0

1;

-1-

a..

30
20
10 0
0.01

0.1
0.063

Because weathering action is a significant cause of variation in the

geotechnical properties of colliery spoil, mainly through the resulting reductions
in particle size, it is heipful to understand the processes involved. This is
especially true in the present context, since permeability is strongly linked to
particle size.
Type or

.Liquid

Plastic

Specific

Moisture

Optimum

Maximum

spnil

limit:?

gravity

content
('Yo)

moisture:

dCl1sit~

(",,)

limit1
('Yo)

.;('.X

21.4

231

120

(6.lJ)

(020)
1.94

(60j

~R.X

(4.0)
23.5

13.2
(4.2)

34.R

No data

(7.6)

(4.5)

(0.24)

(12.9)

( 'oars...:
Fine

conlclH

dry

(Mg/m',

I'J/))

!I/!

I .7-l

13 _"',

(0.16)

It

'!
!(,)

No da"

Noll: I standard devlallons arc given in brackets.

Note 2: or Illateria'

passing

a 0.425mm

sieve.

Note 3: It)r standard Proctor (2.5kg rammer) comp~ction

(4.5kg rammer) compaction
in second column, in italics.

in lirst column

and modilied

Proctor

Table 1 Mean values ur sume geotechnical properties of UK spoils

(from Taylor, 1984)
Although weathering effects in a tip might be expected to be most
pronounced near its surface, tips may contain material that has been exposed to
weathering for protracted periods of timp before being subsequently tipped over
or capped. Also, the upper parts of the sequence stripped in the course of
opencasting o;;erations are liable to ha','e suffered some effects of weathering,
de;;radation in situ. The more vulnerable lithologies, such as the mudrocks, are
liable to show evidence of sllrfac~ derived weal;lering action down to depths of
7m ar so (Taylor & Spears, 1972).
A reg;oual variation of tho::geutechnical -:haraccer of co!liery spoii
occurs in r~spor,se to diff~rences in the materials originally ceposited and also
because of differences in the depth of subsequent burial. Geothermal heating
and ::1Creased p;'essure lead to increasts in the der.:ity of the aeposited
m2te"ials, [he precipitation of !~'ineral ce'1lents in pore s::,aces and the
cc:wersion
of swell;i,g
clay min('rais,
il1cluding :n mudrocks
any
montmorillonite and mixed l~.yer iliite-smet::tite, to more staole illite '1nr mica~.
Hence ,he rOCKSbecome strong.,r and more resistant to degradation. In parallel
with these changes the vegetable mJterial bec'lmes trar,sfor::1ed, a; volatile
components are driven off, into so?1 of successively higher rank.
Tay;or (1988) notes that, alihough some COals in Scotland have low
rank, the mudrocks contain fTlore kaolinite and less unstable mixed layer clay
than is found in the Yorkshire and Midlands coalfields. \;Iudrocks originating
from North Derbyshire, Nottingham and the Western Region, which includes
the South Staffordshire coalfield, dre of lower strength than those from
Yorkshire, Scotland, South Wales and North-East England.

Coal Measures rocks may be subject ta degradation due to strcss n:lief

and other physical weathering processes but, .as most of the mineral components
were de~ived by weathering processp.s, they are quite stable chemicallv in
present day weathering environments.
However, certain minerals, of which
pyrite (FeS2) is the most important, are unstable in such environments.
Pyrite
occurs most comPlonly in coals and dark coloured shales and constitutcs about
2% of fine discard (Taylor, 1984); traces, at least, are usually prescnt in coarse
spoil. Slow chemical oxidation can be considerably accelerated by the activities
of bacteria, leading to the rapid removal of pyrite and the production of acid.
The laller may att,:ck carbonates, clay minerals and other components, and give
rise to sulphate rich solutions. In engineering operations the possible generation
of aggressive sulphate bearing solutions due to weathering of the material needs
lU be borne in mind.
On the other hand,
."w permeahility is achieved, the
processes will be limited by the ra:es at which reactants can be transported to
and from reaction sites. Furthermore, it is reported by Taylor (1984) that 71 %
of the unburnt spoils he studied possessed water and acid solublc suiphate
contents of less than 2.0g/l and 1% respectively.
It may be possible to encourage degradation of an unweathered spoil
prior to placement in a liner in order to improve its performance.
The rapid
physical oreakdown of Coal Measures rocks is favoured by the presence of
swelling clay minerals, including mixed layer illite-smectite, and small-scale
compositional
laminations.
The latter may include slight changes in the
composition or texture of the rock. However, CzereV/ko (1997) has snown that
these factors aJe not the sole controls on the heakdm"n of such rock. In SOi<lC
cases, degradation due to shrink-swell effects only occurs after the ,emoval of
cements by appropriate weathering action. Breakdown due to slaking action
typically produces coarse sand or gravel sized partides which then undergo
sbwe. disintegration.
r',s mentioned above, the coal ccntent of spoil can be appreciable.
Depending on coal rank and the extent of weathering, humic and non-humic
substances with a capacity for ccmplexation with leachate C0'11ponents may be
present. T:lis, coupled with the capacity for cation exchange pvssesscd by some
clays, can render spoil ca~able of attenuating contalllillants in le"chates. This
ca;Jability is liable te decrease: in highe~ r;lnk and les~ weath~red spoils In a
study on spoils from "orkshi~e, Couser.s & StJdds (1996) observed rather
limited attenuation of various cations commonly found in slJoil btlt CI", Na+ and
were h::ashed from the material.

sot

Testing

methods

for permeability

Laboratory versus field testing

Most permeability testing on mineral liner materials, certainly in the UK, is
conducted in the laboratory using rigid or flexible-walled permeameters.
.:hese
test methods are reviewed by Daniel (1994).
Laboratory tests can be well

controlled and, in gcner,,\. are rclati~le!y easy to intelpre!. Unfortunately, the

results may not provide a reliable measure of field permeability
for the
following reasons:
(I) a nominally undisturbed specimen taken I'rom the field for testing
in the laboratory may be disturbed or damaged by the sampling process.
(2) an undisturbed specimcn tested in the laboratory may be too small
to represent the fabric (i.e. pore structure and hydraulic defects) of the soil in
situ.
(3) a laboratory compacted, or recompacted. specimen ma>; have a
significantly dill;;rent I"abric (and perhaps grading) frol11that of the soil in SiIU.
(4) ;lrlitlcially high confining pressures and hydraulic gradients are
often uscd in laboratory tests to reduce ksl durations.
Experience with clays (e.g. Daniel, 1984; Elsbury .1 (//.. 1(90) has shown that.
for one or more of these reasons. the field permeabililies are likely to be higher
than the laboratory values, and the differences
can be very substantial.
Evidence is presented below to show that similar differences are potenti'lily
observable for colliery spoil. Therefore, field testing should be contemplated at
some stage in the verification process for mineral liner performance.
This is
well recognised, for example, in the USA where field testing of a test pad,
constructed in the same manner as the actual liner, is a regulatory requirement
(Shackleford, 1994).
Generally,
field tests are harder to control and more difficult to
interpret than laboratory tests. The available methads are reviewed by Sai &
Ai;ders(lIl (1990) and Trautwein & Boutwell (1994). Some, though not all, of
the field tests overcome the above limitations of laboratory tests. The single
most important factor influencing leliat.ility is the scale of the test; j'l order to
obtain representative measurements, a sufficiently large volume of soil must be
t~sttd. The sealed double ring infiltrometer (SDPJ) has gained wide acceptance
in the US /\" and SDRI tests on colliery spoil will be desci ibed oelow.
Large scale field tests, such as the SDRI, are time consuming and illsuited for use as a quality control tool during the :onstructior: stage. in most
cases, during construct::Hl a direct asseSS"'lent OF pe,mcability
must rely 0'1
iaboratory testing, with all :ts potentia! errors. Experience with cby L<lers (e.g.
Tra,ltw,;:n & Williams, 1990; Benson et al., 1994) suggests that, if :l,e iiner IS
well construe-ted, small (SJy IGOmm diameter) unJisturbed specirl1ens cuu ld
g:ve r,,:liabl.:: results but, for a pcorl~' const~ucted liner, undistnbed
block
sl1ecimens of about 300mm diamc:ter would be required.
Some upward
adjustlnent of these sizes 111ightbe lcqaired for colliery spoil, depending on its
maximum particle sizp. On the basis of the above experience, which is <;uite
extensive, the use of the smaller specimens can only be defended if there is
other evidence of good construction (e.g. consistently high dry density and
degree of saturation).
Ideally, a correction factor for the results of small scale
laboratory tests should be established from comparisons with larger scale tests.

Comparison of testing methods

Some research into the effect of testing 11Iethodon the measured permeability of
colliery spoil has been carried out at the Univcrsity of Sheffield. The spoil
tested was from a deep anthracite mine in South Wales and had been stored for
over 10 years iil a tip. However, the spoil was relatively resistant to weathering
and the fines (silt plus clay) content had remained very low at 4-11 %. The mean
grading is indicated by the curve labelled "Spoil A- ungradcd" in Figurc I.
Two test pads were constructed, one f!"Om ungradcd material (with
some particles in cxcess of 50mm) and one from material which had been
crushed and graded to less than Gmm, so Ihat its lines content was incrcased to
I 1-20%. The mean grading curve of Ihis material is labelled "Spoil A processed" in Figure I. Compac;ion data for each test pad are suml11arised in
Table 2. Test Pad 1 was fcrmed by compacting the ungraded material at its
natural water content in six 150mm lins using a smooth vibrating roller. This
produced fairly good results. Test Pad 2 was formed by spreading the crushed
and graded material, mixing it in situ with II'ater to bring the moisture can lent to
slightly wet of optimum, and compacting it in a single 150-200111m lift on top of
a base of coarser compacted spoil. A smooth vibrating roller was 3sain used
but in this case the compaction was relatively poor and also more variable.
Test
pad

~
2

Water
content
('Yo)
5.5-7.5
6.0-8.0

Dry
density
3

(Mg/m )

2. T3 2.21
1.69-206

I ~~Ximum

I
I

Optimum
moisturt:
1

density]'

contt:1lt

("1g1m )

(%)

2.22
2.14

60
6.0

Relalive
compaction

Degree or
saturation

(%)

(%)

(%)

%-tOo
79-96

75 94
34-68

7-23

Air
voids

1+5

On each test pad a sel of three SDRt tests was carried out in
accordance with ASTM D5lJ93 (1990). T:le infiltrometers were of a circular
share with inner rill!:. d;ametrrs of 0.5m, 1.0m apd 1.5m. The tt:sts lasted for 4
to 8 weeks and employee a llydra~t1ic head. :tp;Jlied at the g,round surface, or
between ().7.lm and 0.34m. L1nfortunately. bel.au~e of eith~r the ~oarSt particles
present in the spoil (Test Pad I) ar its limited depth (Test Pad 2), it wa~ nOl
pr<'cticable to insta!! teilsiometers ~o monitor thc depti, of infiltration. From
each test pad unuis,t!"bed olock s:tmples were extracted 'iiJd tes~ed it, l::lrge
flexible-welled perm.:ameters.
The 30umm diilJneter by 200mm high blocks
were carefully ,rimmed down to 250lllm diameter to form the test specimens.
Low effective confining pressures of aJout 20kPa were applied and back
pressures were used to saturate the specimens. The I'tydraulic gradient was
initially set to I I but later it was changed to 16 and 21, and then back to II.
Finally, in some tests the direction of flow was reversed. Full details of the
experimental kC.;"liques are given by Norton (1998).

In addition to thc these test~. small scale permeability lests were carried
out b~' commercial laboratories on 100mm diameter specimens in flexiblewaileD pcrmeameters. Disturbed samples werc iaken from Tcst p. I I, graded to
20mm. recompacted and tested using a hydraulic gradient of about 90 and an
effective confining pressure of about 60kPa. It is likely that the fines content of
these test specimens was increased as a result of the recompaction.
Tube
samples were taken from Test Pad 2 and tested using a hydraulic gradient of
about I I() and an e1fective conlining prcssure of about 190kPa Back pressures
II'ere cmployed to ensure saturation of all the specimcns
The results of thcse various tests \Vere Ilrst prescntcd hy Ilird ('1 01.
(1997a) and are summariscd here in Figure 2. Thc tcs' data \vCI'C rcprocessed
and rcinterpretcd by '-Jorton (19()8) but. although some (If Ihc permeability
valuc's dillcr from those given prcviously, tht' nUl11crieal difrcrences do not
affect the overall research findings.
Ff'r the SDRls thc permcability was
detcrmined using the virtually constant rate of infiltration achieved after a
peri.,.j uf54 or 14 da:, for Tcst Pads I anu 2 respectil'cly
It 1\';15dssumcJ that
the tlow had thcn penetrated the whole thickness of Test Pad I or ihc single
linal lift of Test Pad 2. This was consistent with the traT"sit times of flow in
laboratory infiltration tests which were also carried out (Hird et 01., 1997a); on
Test Pad 2 flow was actually observed emerging from the basc of the pad.
When calculating hydraulic gradients in ordcr to apply Darcy's law, the
influence of suction was therefore ignored. In the large scale permeameter tests,
th(: permeability was usually observed to decrcase markedly (by an order of
mab;:i;~de or more) in the early sta13es of the' test. This was attribulcJ (Hird et
d., 1997b) to particle migration and clogging of pores I\'iti,in thc spe;;imen and
is discussed further below. The permeabiiity values sholln in Figure 2 were the
steady values attained under the initial hydraulic gradien~ of I I after a period of
about! (\ days.
The results of Figure 2 display some unexpected as well as some
c:.pccted features. Considering first the SDRI results alone, on both test pads
the smallest SDRl gave a distinctly higher permeacilily than either of the two
!~rger ones. This is against the expectation that iile measured pcrmeability
incr eases with the volume of soil tested and was attributed to the effects of
installation. Exc<tvotion of a circ.t1ar trench in the :poil to rec~ive the inner
ring,. achieved using ha1ld tools, was thought to have led to it p~riphtral
disturbed zone. Cracks in this zone could have rem~incd orcn even alter
ccment btntonite grout was pGured into the trench to sea! the ipnpr rlllg to the
siloil and could therefore have provirld preferential flail pdths. Thc effect of
suc!. disturbance would have increased as the sizc of the SC'RI decreased and is
considered to have invalidated the results from ~he smallest SUR!.
The
similarity of the results from the two larger SDRls suggests that the disturGance
was relatively unimportant for inner rings of 1.0m diameter or larger.

Large scale
permeameter
Small scale
permeameter

100E-11

100E-10

10CE-09
Permeability

100E-08

100E-07

1.00E-06

(m/s)

On Test Pad I the large scal..: laboratory penneameter tests yielded

values (4 results shown as a range in Figure 2) well above those from the two
larger SDRI tests. Clearly, this goes against the generally expected trend of
laboratory values being lower than iield values.
When the test pad was
dissected beneath the SDRI test locations it was found that, except in the
t:p;Jermost 250mm or so, no significant increase in average moisture content
had occurred. Certainly, no distinct wetti,lg fr~nt coulci be deiined. Howeva,
isolated pockets of moistu!-e arising from seepage \/ere set:n throughout the
thickness of the pad and, taken together with evidence from laboratory
infiltratj0n tests referred to above, this suggested that flow ha~ taken place to
the base of the pad via preferential pathways, leaving most of the material in its
original unsaturated condition. [n contrast, in the laboratory tests the spoil was
fUlly saturated.
The dim'rence in saturatiGn was considered to be mainly
responsible for the dis,:repancy h~tw;-:en the SDRI and large scale permeameter
results.
On Test Pad 2 thert: was mLlch better agreement between the tWI) larE'er
SURl tests and large ~cale p~rmeameter tests c'lrriea 0ut on blocks with
r~prts~ntative dry dc;nsities ('2 results shown 3S a r<::lge in Figure 2). However,
in this case the relatively thin spoil layer being testeJ became much wettel
benea~h the SDR[ tt3t locationo ilnd, at the time of the permeability
measurement, was probably approaching full saturation, although accurate
measurements f)f moisture content proved difficult to make.
The close
agreement between the above test types is therefore understandable and also
demonstrates that the scale of the laboratory tests was sufficient. Two other

large scale permeameter tcsts wer~ carried out on blocks \Ihich appeared te'
have unrepresentatively high dry densities and these measured significal1tl:
lower permeabilities (Hird er af., 1997a).
Finally, as expected, for each test pad the large scale perrneameter tests
gave higher permeabilities than the small scale permeameter tests (ranges of ~ I
and 3 results shown in Figure 2 for Test Pads I and 2 respectively), the
difference being over an order of magnitude. The use of higher confinin~
pressures and hydraulic gradients in the small scale tests would have contributed
to this; for Test Pad I an additional contributory factor would halc been the us:
of laboratory recompactcd material with a different grading (20mm dO\IIl. morc'
fines) in the small scale tests. In both cases there may have been a large scak
fabric which was present in the 250mm diameter specimens but which was Il(\:
represented in the IOOmm diameter specimens. It should be noted th"t t':,
SDRI tests on both test pads also gave significantly higher permeabilities thar:
the small scale permeameter tests, despite the lack of saturation on Test Pad I.
As already mentioned, there was a substantial reduction of
permeability in the early stages of the large scale permeameter tests.
Subsequently, increases of permeability occurred when the hydraulic gradient
was increased or when the flow direction was reversed. Sometimes the changes
were temporary or reversible, but not always, and hence the behaviour was
complex. Kenney & Lau (1985) proposed a cderivn based on grading for the
internal stability of granular (or cohesion less) soils. While the spoils from the
test pads would not be described as cohesion!ess, their fines content was loll'
and it is interesting that they classified as unst':lble l1(;..:ording C" !1:e Kenney and
Lau criterion (Hire: et a,'.. 19lJ7b). It was tnerefore concluded that internal
particl..; migration was responsible fu, the above ..:hanges aud that such effects
may complicate the interpretation of permeability tests conducted on similar
colliery spoil. On the basis of limited evidence (Norton, 1998). it "Ippears that a
modest increase in the fines l:ontent ce . pnmote st'lbi!ity.
Parameters

influencing

permeability

It is ge:1erally accepted that major tactcrs influencing th::: penllt:ability or

cumpacted
mineral liners are: grading, compaction
moisture cont~nt.
compa.::tive effort ana confining stress (~.g Daniel, 1984 and 1993; E!sbury er
af., -1990; 1'lJitc:lell et aI., 1965). Studies f)f these factors for colliery spoil
permeability have been carried out at the University of Shef;jeld. as repGrted u:.
Smith et al. (1991) and Norton (1998).
The colliery spoil investigated by Smith et al. (1997) originated from
an open cast mine in South Wales. The sitt was mined during the 1970's and
back filled in 1980, leaving the surface material to weather for over a decade.
The spoil was initially sieved to remove particles greater than 50mm, resulting
in a mean fines content of 20%, as indicated by the curve labelled "Spoil B" in
Figure I.

Parametric studies were carried out on specimens of this spoil

compacted in a CBR mould and subsequently tested in a triaxial cell with back
pressure saturation and a hydraulic gradient of 16. Each parametric "tudy was
conducted using material quartered and riffled from a bulk sample. Material
consistency may be assumed \vithin each study but not necessarily across
studies. Spcimens with a maximum particle size of up to 50mm were prepared
and tested, notwithstanding the usual limit of 37.5mm for compaction in a CBR
mould (BS 1377, 1990)

! Dp'vlationof t:ompacti~

1.20E-Q9

~ 110E-09 .
-S
100E-09
~
:.0
ro
w
E

'"

E
rn 2.05
EC
l:J

~ -.-_:_---~I:.2~~ - 9CJOE-10

- .-I

800E-10
700E-10

2.1

'iii
c
w

moisture content relat~~~.t~~I

optimurylprinted adjacent to
test result.

130E-09

0..

2.15

4OE-09 .

_~_~~

600E-10

- -2-.5 2.4

~6-

-~2

, - . - - - . +2.4% wetter than

optimummoisture
content

~-J = - ~-

r.3-

1-1

1.4
;Error bars are shown,
Iindicating experimental
Euracy.

500E-10

- +1.4% wetter than

optimummoisture
content

1.95
1.9
1.85
5

8
9
10 11
Moisturecontent (%)

C.>mpaction: standard Proctor

Average confinin!t stress: 20kPa

12

13
. - - - - 0% Airvoids
(G=2.61)
.5% Airvoids
IG=2.61}

....

-..c

1.00E-07

Effest of grading
The effect of adjusting maximum particle size only was investigated.
The
com;:>action curves Tor four different particle size ranges are g;ven in Figure 3.
The evident insreas~ in dry density and reduction in air voids a! uptimum
mcisture content witl, increasing p.1aximum particle size indicates that ihe large
particl~s are repiClcing clusters of smaller p2.:1:icles without particle interferer.ce,
whici1 would otherwise generate additional voids. n,is is refler,ted again in the
permeahility test results, shown ::1 Figure 4, which iildicate that the i,1a>..imum
part;c1e size has an insignif;cant effect en the measured pen~leahilities.
The
same conclusion was reached independently by Norton (1998), Data presented
in the current paper for the various spoils whose gradin::;s are shown in ?:gure I
indicate that, not surprisingly, the fines content strongly controls the over'lll
permeability of the material. The coarser material can be expected to pack
efficiently regardless of its maximum particle size as long as the s"oil is well
mixed and well graded.

~
-S
~
:.0 1.00E-08
ro

-)(- Pprrneabilitvat 20KPil

effectiveconfiningpressure

206 ~

\.-

Permeabilityat 200KPa
effectiveconfining Pi essu,-e

Z
'J)

'"

~-

2.04 ~
/'

0..

1.00E-09

Compaction: standard Procto,

~
-1.0'lE-10
7

Max. particie size' 37.5 mrr. _

L-.....:.

Effect of compaction moisture content and compactive effort

~he variations of permeability with compaction moisture content at two
different (average) consolidation pressures are presented in Figure 5. These
results, and similar ones obtained by Norton (1998), indicate that the lowest
permeability is achieved at moisture contents 0-1.5 % wetter than optimum. If
these data are compared with r1ata for clays (e.g. Mitchell et aI., 1965), the
trends are similar but the permeability of spoil appears to be less sensitive to
moisture content changes. Despite this, as the compaction moisture content
falls below optimllllL large increases in permeability still occur in compacted
spoil.
Smith cr (// (1997) report laboratory studies into the effect of different
compactivc dforts. I\s would be anticipated, maximum dry density increases
and optimum moisture content reduces with increasing compactive effort.
There is limited evidence, requiring further experimental support, t1lat there is a
modest reduction in permeability with an increase in compactive effort for
comparable moisture conditions wet of optimum (that is at a given deviation of
moisture content from optimum).
Effect of confining stress
Consolidation of cumpacted colliery spoil under a confininr; stress wili result in
a decrease in permeability.
Figure 6 indicates significant rductlons
in
permeability with increasing confining stress, particularly at the lower stress
le'/eis.
The range of pr..::~s~::es,20kPa to 200kPa, might be considered
representative of the overburdens experIenced by a typical liner at the start and
finlsn of landfilling. Permeability data for several clays given by Trast and
Benson (1995) display a similar degree of sensitivity to confining stress.

Approach to specification and quality control

A general framework for the specification of compacted day liners has been
established involving consideration of shear strength, desiccation shrinkage and
permeability (e.g. Daniel, 1993). Acceptable combinations of dry density and
compaction moisture content satisfying all three criteiia must be identified.
This framework can equally well be applied to colliery spoils, although colliery
spoils are less susceptible to shrinkage than most clays and the strength and
permeability criteria are likely to be dominant. Attention here is focussed solely
on pemleability.
The accepted compaction target for achieving the lowest permeability
of a given material is the zone lying roughly between the line of uptimum
moisture contents 1'0; different compactive efforts and the zero air voids line on
the diagram of dry density versus c0mpaction moisture CClllent (referred to
below as the "compaction diagram"). As shown in figure 5, it is advantageous
to compact colliery spoil at or a little above the optimum moistun; content. At
the design stage a combination of laboratory compaction and permeability tests
can be used to define the limits of this zone that will satisfy the design
requirement (usually that the permeability is less than 1O~m/s). Assuming that
sufficiently low permeabilities can be achieved '.JI1d:crfavourable conditions the
limits will be dict,,:ed by the increases of permeability at compaction moi~ture
contents dry of optimum and at low dry densities.

10%~5%""

Typical
compaction
t3stresLiIt
(modlfiec
Proctor)

.c:-

wc
-8

Compaction: stand<:rc Proctor

Maximum particle size: 3/.5 m,n

1.8

1E-09

Q;
Q

1_-

==-=

2-5E-10
5-9E-10

1-2 E9
2-5 E-9
5-q E-9
1-2 to-8
2,~ E-8

Perme3bilities
(m/s)

-===-=

-==---======-=-

1.5

1E-iOI

100
150
Average effective stress (kPa)

_ __ ~L\3~4:-.... --

1-2 E-10

6.
()

OJ

rv:s

~~=25)

o
o

ro

0%

_.. ~.~,.
' ,

II

6.

""'e..A

.,~
~

~.

~
:0

..,

200

' '.,

' ,,

'-

' , , ,
.. ------..

I ' ...

f]

6.

I'

I
Design limit

In order to illustrate this approach, figure 7 sho'.vs an example of a

compaction diagram for a freshly dug spoil with a maximum particle size of
30mm and a fines content of between about I a and 20%; its mean grading curve
is labelled "Spoil C" in figure I, The permeability data shown in Figure 7 were
obtained in flexible-walled
permeameters on laboratory compacted 100mm
diameter specimens with an effective confining pressure of 250kPa and a
hydraulic gradient of either 9 or 18, On the diagram a boundary has been drawn
to the zone where the measured permeability is consistently less than 2x 10'''m/s,
which in some circumstances might be considered acceptable.
Howevcr, this
[cntative design limit may not be reliable, in view or the likely difkn:nces
betwcen these perlneabilities and large scale measuremcnts discussed (amI
illustr:lted) ill this paper. Therefore, if this ty~e of approach is adoptce!, it is
reconlillendee! that all allowance for the effp.cts of scale is made. In viell of the
results shown in figure 6, it is also important that the confining stress chosen
for testing is carefully justified with respect to the field conditions. It should be
noted that the data shown in Figure 7 were obtained for an unconventional
engineering application and that the design limit shown was not actually
adopted.
At construction
stage, the ccmpaction
parameters (density and
moisture content) must be kept withll1 the limits of the acceptable zone as
defined by the preliminary laboratory testil.g. In addition, it is desirable to
monitor permeability directly.
Figure 8 shows an example of permeability data obtilinerl during
constructic~l Of a line:' by testi'lg IOOlllm diameter thin-walled tube s~mples in a
flexible-walled ;->ermeameter. The effective confining pressure ranged betwc;en
150kPa and 300kPa anc~ the hydraulic gradient was 10. The spoil user1 in t:1e
liner had weatherf'd in tips on site over many years. It was passed through a
40ml11 screen prior to placement and initially harl a ;;nes cOI1tt"ntof between 24
and 44%; its mean grading curve is labelled "Spoil 0" in Figure I. Upon
rompaction, the coarser particles broke down readily, so that it was not difficult
to take tube samples. It can be seen that all the data il1 Figure 8 cor.lf0l1ahly
romply \\/ith the Ilsual requiremc:1t that the p'~rmeabiiity is less than IO'''m/~ <!'ld
that the cClmpaction states lie in or clost:' to the aesirec region, inuicating a ~ood
quality of onstruction.
The limits adopteci for control puq:OSp.s are also sho'vr.
in ~he figure. [n this case one can bve reasonabie confidence that, under a
cOITfsponcling confin;ng or overburden stress, th~ real (large scale) j:'crmeability
will illso be less than 10'~ m/s. Nevertheless, ideally such l11..:a~uremeJlts should
be supported either by large sca!~ :ield penneabilit~' testing on a test pad or
large scale permeameter test~ on blocks taken from the liner. For SDRI tests on
colliery spoil, the present research has highligh~ed two potential problems
Firstly, ,he equipment is not necessarily easy to install and disturbance effects
may be significant if the diameter of the inner ring is less than i m. Secondly,
the saturated (or near saturated) permeability may be underestimated
if the
infiltration takes place lilroc:;11 preferential pathways and leaves most of tile

spoil in an IInsaturafeLl conditiun. Therefore, it is recommended that only inner

rings of more than 1m Lliameter arc employed ,:nd that the condition of the SP,)I:
beneath the SDRI is c-are(ully cstablished after the test. This may also be
important for deciding on the appropriate depth of infiltration when intp.rpreting
the results in terms of permeability.
1.85
10%
1.8
Compaction
test result
(modified
Proctor)

ME

rn 175
~
.c

'(jj

c
Q)

'0

5%

/!.

1.7

C
0

1.65

--'

16
0

'

...,
.It.

11

1.
X

0.75-1.0
1.0-1.5
.It.
1.5-2.0
20-30
X
3.0-5.0
X
50-7.5
Permeabilities
(,,10"m/s)

0% air voids (G=232)

Control
limit ~

~I \.\
'-

.
I

I
..I

10

..J\

,,

15

20

Moisturecontent (%)

The above comme,lts '\ssume that a source of reasonably consistent

spoii is available.
In practice, natural variation in the spoil may introduce a
variabilicy of the optimum moisture content with a given compaction method.
with potentially severe consequences if the spoil is unintentionally compacted
dry of optimum. Also, variation in the mineral composition may lead to a wide
v2~iation ill the average s;Jecific gravity (se~ T:lble I) '.vhich ;s used to calculate
dry density and the position of tbe zerCl air voids line 0'1 the compaction
di'lgram.
it is il'llport:1l1t to measure the specifIC gravity adcquately and it is
i"llI1damentally better to us<: void ratio rather than cry density when comparing
compaction stat~s (although dry jensity has been used in this paper).
The
var;ation of'the coat content could also affect the l-alibi'ation ofa nuclear densi"
gauge, if such an instrument were being used to monitor compaction.
These
effects :llay make the determination and operation of design and :ontroi limits
such as those in Figures 7 and 8 difficult and may justify the use of an
alternative indicator of compaction such as the Moisture Condition Value test
(Murray et al., 1992). However, the Authors have no knowledge of other
approaches having been tried for colliery spoil.

Because permeability is scnsiti'/c to the fiues and especially the clay

content of a spoil, even a limited amount of natural variation can obscure the
expected trends for the change of permeability with dry den.sity. and c.omp.actlO.n
moisture content. Thus, in Figure 8 no particular pattern IS discernible 111 this
respect. In Figure 7, a specimen with one of the lowest densities and lowest
compaction moisture contents had the lowest permeability; specnnens wIth
closely similar compaction states (dry densities
1.95-2.00~g/m3
and
compaction moisture contents 5.5-6.5%) had very different permeabl!ltIes. ThiS
variation further complicates the problem of dctining suitable design or control
I im its

In the face of material variations aill] the dirtlculties that they cause, it
IS possible that a statistical al'Proach to quality control might be devised.
Howevcr, this wOldd depend on gencrati,]!' sufficient test data to support the
statistical model and in practice an engineering judgement of risk is likely to be
made instead.
With reoard to the initial selection of materials for liner construction,
the wide variation in the' nature and properties of colliery spoils roakes
oeneralisation difficult and ouidelines based on index tests (Daniel, 1993) are
'"not necessarily reliable. Howeva,
'"
. d
the research described above has e~tab.lIshe
that the maximum particle size, up to 50mm, does not have a slgl1lfir.an~
influence on the permeability, given good mixing and compaction and a well
graded material with an adequare fines content. Where such largep~11icles are
not screened out, field trials are needed to ensure that adequate mlxmg occurs.
Lower permeabilities are achieved as the fine fr_action increases an.d t~~ data
given in this paper, for spoils witil a vJI'lety ot fInes contents, provide .Imlted
guidance on this trend.
On present evi";ence, It appears unlikely thai
consistentlv . satisfactory results will be obtained with~ less than 20% fines, when
t~le requirement is for a permeab:litv of less than 10 m/s.
Conclusions
I) Colliery s['oils vary ill tl',eir suitability for use in landfill liners, depending
upon their history of forma~ion, r.iterat:on, ex:radion
and stora.gc, an.d
individual spoils must be ;nvestigated in d~lail in order to determme their
suitahility. This must be set against the ::cnnom ic and cnvirunmental benefits
that can be rc;alised by using colliery spoil.
=) Colliery spoils which do not degrade easily or initially comain at le'lst 20%

of fines (silt and clay) are unlikely to prove suitaoie in normal circumstanccs.
3) The permeability of
the maximum particle
material is well graded
particle migration, with

compacted colliery spoil is not significantly affected by

size, providing the fi,les content IS adeqllate and the
and well mixed. Unfavourable gradings can lead to
uncertain consequences.

4) The permeability of compacted colliery spoil reduces significantly

increasing confining pressure in a similar manner as it does for clays.
should be recognised when specifying and interpreting permeability tests.

with
This

5) For colliery spoils, a compaction moisture content slightly wet of optimum

secures the lowest pernlcability. Although the permeability may not be as
sensitive to compaction moisture content as it is for clays, large increases In
permeability are still possible if the spoil is compacted dry of optimum.
6) As for clays, the testing method has a profound influence on Ihe measured
permeability of colliery spoil and the results of conventional small scale
laboratory tests may be gro:,sly misleading. Therefore, large scale tests, eilher
in situ or on undisturbed samples in the laboratory, are recoillmended as pan of
the validation of liner performance.
7) The same framework for designing colliery spoil liners and controlling their
construction can be adopted as that established for clays. However; variability
of grading and mineralogy may make this difficult in practice and careful
engineering judgement may need to be exercised.
Acknowledgements
The research referred to in this paper was sponsored by Shanks and McEwan
(Southern) Ltd, the Cynon Valley Waste Disposal Company Ltd and the
Universi~y of Sheffield.
Dr Esther Norton and Mr Michael Wymer are
gratef"lly acknowled;ed for ccnducting the research anu [;Ie Authors wish to
thank Mr Peter Cham ley of Ove Arup for providing the data shown in Fig~lre 7
T/Ie AuthClrs are also grateful to English Partnerships and Waystone Ltd for
permission to use the results in Figure 8 and to Mr Peter Sobczynski of Scott
Wilson for his he!:} in collecting and presenti'lg the data.
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of
infiltration rJte using (' doub:e-ri'7g infiitrometer with a s~aled-inner
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siLe for hydraulic conductivity assessment of compacted soil Imers.

Hydraulic Cund7lctii'lty a'7d Waste Contaminant Transport in Soii,
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The design and control of bentonite

enriched soils
SA. Jefferis
Golder Associates, Moorbriclge Road Maidenhead Berks, L K

Introduction
Bentonite enriched soil systems are used as landfill liners because they are
economic and they work. 40wever, it is well known that bentonite is a swelling
mineral and that its swelling is strongly influenced by the local chemical
environment.
This has lead to regular concerns about the long term
performance of bentonite enriched .;oil systems.
In this paper a simple two
phase model is used to represent the bentonite enriched soil (BES), to highlight
important parameters for control of the r.1ateri'll on site anc! to identify situations
which may lead to significant increase in its permeability on expos!'re to
aggressive chemical environments.

Permeabil!~' of bentonite enriched soils

Typically mineral barriers to contaminant migrat;on are required to have a
permittivity of 10'9 S,I that is to have a barrier performan:::e equivalent to one
metre of mattri?l of p.:rme~bility 10,9 m/s. Thu~ a 300 mm t!1ick iaver of <1
ben!onite enrich<.d soil (BES) cClUld be requited to have a permeabili~y of
3.3x 10,10 o/s.
!n .practice this permeability may be furt1er reduced
!Jy
regulatory requirements
to peri1aps 10'10 mls or lower.
BES materials are
therefore likely to be ~ubjcct to stringent permeabiJty
controls which san
require cunsiderabie design effort prior to the start of construction wori<' on site.
Furthermore
relatively
large inrrea,es
in the bentonite
content
with
c0rresponuing
significant increases in co,t may be required to compensate for
modest deviations from a design permeability and thus the mix design nepds to
be robust.

Fines in soils
Before considering the propertie~ of BSS it is instructive to consider briefly the
properties of soils in general. Geotechnical engineers are familiar with the use
of ~he 010 (the particle size for which 10% of the soil is finer) as an indicator of
soil behaviour. A material with a DIU in the clay range might be expected to
behave rather like a clay and have a clay type permeability.
Though when
applying such considerations the whole particle size distribution for the soil
necds to bc considercd cspccially for gap grad cd materials.
I\s a more general approach than the adoption of Dl<j as an indicator
parameter consider a soil arbitrarily divide'u into tine and coarse fractions with
p% fines. It follows that 0" is the dividing prticle size between the fractions
and if it i, assumed that all the moisture in tilc suil is associated with the fine
fraction so that there is a f'ines paste filling tht voids between the coarse grains,
then:
wr= w / p
where wr is the moisture content 01' the fines paste and w is the normal moisture
content of the whole soil, that is the weight of water divided by the sum of the
dry weights of the coarse and fiile fractions. The dry density, Pd of the whole
soil is given by:
Pd = [Pw (I-A,)] / [w + p / Gr+(1 - p) / Ge]

10% lines

"'\ '\

___

'

,I

'f.-

!'

'\.
'\.
'\.

" "-

"""-

"-

"-

"

"-

"'-

""

r
I
"--

",

I,

-, ,l
I

where Pw is the density of water, A, the so;1 air void ratio and Gr and Ge the
specific gravities of the fine and coarse fractions respectively.
Figure I shews the rela~iG.1s"ip between mcisture c0ntent of the fine
frastion (the paste) and dry density of the ,,;hole soil. It can be seen that the
saturated moisture content of a paste formed from a soil containing 10% filles
must be in the range f.om 289% to 77% for dry dCllsities of the soil from 1.5 to
2.2 Mg/m' (assuming that the average grain specific gravities of me coarse and
fine fraction~, Ge and Gr are both 2.65). Thus for r.atural s0ils the paste
moi3ture content actually may be substantially greater than the liquid limit if the
soil is saturated and the paste fills all the voids between the cuarse particles.
ihe.e is ~ittic risk that the paste coulc be extruded from a soil at such a
water contenr (extruded as in the sense of squeezing toothpaste fr::>ma tube) by
typical in-situ hydraulic grudients (e.g. Jefferis, 1972 reported i,l X'1rth::kos,
1979). E"en a weak paste can resisr extrusion bj substantial gradients.
Howtover, there is a severe ri~k that there cLluld be erosioll of the fines
from a soil with a 010 in the clay rang~ and a lov: Gry density if the soii w~re
subjected to a sustained hydraulic gradient. Erosion is danger')us. as it will
cause a rapid and substantial increase in permeability. Even foi' 20% fines the
'paste' moi~ture content may be unacceptably high unless dry densities in
excess of perhaps 1.8 Mg/mJ CJn be achieved. These calculations show that
although 010 is often used as an indicator of soil properties, these properties
may not always be as robust as anticipated and natural soil liners should be
analyscd with just as much caution/suspicion as BES liners.

. 20% fines

. ~

'" "1-' '-'"

!.70

""

"

'1t

'-I __.;
"-',- - -,

1.60

"-

-_ .... __ -----:-

-'---

" I ....
"- " "

1.80

-1----_-

-1- - - -

-1.
,

1.90

2.00

- --

- ..

2.10

Dry density of whole sail, Mg/mJ

The bantonite enriched soil system

A RES will contain bentanite, a seledec soil (usually a sand though other
materials such as pulverised fuel ash may be used), water and air. Tile benton;te
enrich~d soil system i~ no different from any other soil system except ,hat it i<
likely to be: markedly gap graded unless the soil used to prepare the I3ES is velY
'.videly graded. Thus the cOilcept of op can be crucial for BES design.
As bentonite has a very strong affinity for water, it is likely that most
I)f the water will be associated with the clay and thus the paste model described
above can be lIsed to describe a BES with, p, the fraction of fi~1es now

representing the bentonite cun~ent (or if th~ soil contains clay sized filles, the
bentonite plus clay fines content of the soil).
Typically the bentonite content ofa BES may be in the range 5 to 15%.
Below 5% the BES is unlikely to achieve the required permeability and may be
sensitive to erosion (unless the 'soil' contains a significant proportion of fines).
Above about 15% the strength properties of the material may be undesirably
dominated
by the sort bentonite paste and it may show little sand typ~
behaviour. Furthermore other materials may be nHlrc economic.

Applications

of bentonite

enriched

soil liners

There has been a significant anlOl1nt of'vork publis1led on the properties 0fB8S
systems and outline design r~Jies exist (see for (:xamr-Ie Kenn"y at aI., 1992 and
Mollins et aI., 1996). Rather less work has been published on the significallce
of the soit propert:es.
In SJ:lle insta ces the type ('f <oil 'J~:d to prepare the BES may be
dictated by what is available but it SI'0Uld be !'~cogniserl th~t a po~rly selec:ed
soil may douJle tile bentonite demand b,' a BES and ~ti1! give a :m.terial of
puer permeability ane: c;henical resistal1c.
In :he design proc~ss it will be
necessary to balance the C0StS of obtaining an appropriate soil against the extra
costs of bentonite if a locally available but poorly graded material is used.

for bentonite

enriched

Swelling
I,iquid limit

Unfortunately
there are many different procedures used to determine the
swelling o[ soils and there is little consensus in the literalure as to thc preferred
procedure lor bentonites.
The following sections givc a brief outlinc of some
test procedures:

Supplier's literature for bentonites may include a slVeliing volumc. The test
procedure is to very slowly sprinkle 2 g of the bentonite po" der on to the
surfz.ce of 100 ml of water in a measuring cylinder, allowing each portion of
bentonite to settle before adding the next. The volume of swullen material is
recorded at 2 hours. Typically specifications may require a final volume of
greater than 24 m I per 2 g of bentonite powder. If the initial moisture content of
the bentonite is II % by dry weight (10% by moist weight - NB in the bentonite
literature moisture contents often are reported by moist weight) then the
moisture content of a material swollen to 12 nl1/g will be 1313% - mor~ of a
thick slurry than 2 soil. It is important to Ilote that the test effectively measures
the volume of water that can be retained by a bentonite.
A dry bentonite
powder will not swell to this volume if exposed to water.

Water absorption
AST:A E946-l/3 (re-approved 1987) gives a procedure which more realistically
represents the swelling of a bentonite powder when exposed to water. In this
~)rocedure a sintered aluminium oxide plate is flooded with water in a dish to
within 0.25 inch of the surface of the plate. AS cm diameter ring is placed on a
dry filter paper and 2 grams of oven dried benlullite (at 10SoC) are sprinkled
OlllLJ the paper preferably
using a /ibrating spatula. The paper is then p!aced on
the sintefeJ plate and the water temperature m:::a~:.Jred. The dish IS then covered
and afte;' 18 hours the waleI' temperature is re-measured and the bentonite and
paper remuved alld .veighed. f' filter lJa~er without bentonite is suojc:cted to the
same pro:::edure to deter.nine tLe water t1ken up by the p?per alene.
The
sili~ered plate is desi~ned to be large enough to allow up to four samples to be
tested ilt once. The ~bs('rptic:1 is calculated as follows:

soils: The bentunite

Factors that will need to be considered wilen designing

source of the bentonite and its properties including:

Swelling

Swelling volume test

13LS systems will Iind applic;,tion as landlill liners where no suitable natural
clay is available andlor the increased air' :'ace tbat can be achieved with a thin
BES liner is significant.
Fundamentally the selection of BES as against other liner systems is
likely to be dominated by cost rather than technical considerations.
The
bentonite component of a BES will make it substantially more expensive than a
locally available natural clay liner material. Thus tor a BES the design brief is
likely to be to use the lowest bentonite content consonant with achieving the
required technical performance.
When designing a BES it will be necess~ry to
consider not only the cost of:he bentonite but also:
the required in situ permeability
the required chemical compatibilities
the properties of the bentOl~ite, liquid limit, per!'leability, swell etc.
the grading of the soil(s) that couki ~e used to prepare the BES
the cost of the soil(s) t:13t c;Juld oe used to prepare the BES

Materials

Ion exchange capacity

For the present discussion swelling is perhaps the most Important parameter.

a BES include

the

where W w is w~ight of hydrated bentonite in grams, W d the weight of dry

bentonite at the start of the test, and Ta the average of the initial and final
tem peratures of the water.

Water intake test

!\ similar type of test to the above absorption test is referenced in GLR, German
Geotechnical
Society (1993).
This follows the Enslin procedure
(see the
German standard, DIN 18132) whereby water is drawn from a capillary tube
into bentonite
powder suppol1ed on a small sintered disc. No limit value is
;~rescribed in GLR (1993) but a plot is presented showing sorption up to 700%
moisture content.

Settling test
Sridharan & Prakash (I Sln) propose a settling tcst and a flce swell index test.
80th tests involve s~ltli!1g behaviour
and therefore
arc mCZlsures of water
retention
rather than free swell.
Although
in theory water retention and
swelling tests may converge to a common value, in practice. because of the
inevitable
differences
in the finai degree of dispersion
of the clays in the
different procedures,
the results will be different.

Consolidation tests
Swelling
behaviour
under one-dimensional
stress has been measured
by a
number of authors (see for example Studds el al .. ;998). Such tests give useful
1I1formation Oll the behaviour
of bentonite
but have the disadvantage
of
requiring a significant amount of labratury
time and e!]uipment.

'-iquid limit
Although
swelling
can be a useful parameter
w;len attempting
to identify
limiting
values
for bentonite/soil
ratios for BES systems,
it shoulrl be
remembered
that a bentonite
at its swelling lilT'it will have effectively
zero
~trength.
In this state it will be very sensitive
to erosion and che!TJical
interaction
effects which -::ause Shrinkage (e.g. ion exchange
of sodium for
magnesium
or calcium or increase in the ionic strength of the pore solution).
It
is appropriate
to consider as a possible reie"ence point a moisture content at
which the bentonite still retains some soil type prGpenies.
The mcst ",'idely
know:! pa~ameter of this type is tile liquid limit.
The liquid li'Ylit has tile
advantage ,h<:t there is a stilndardised meaSUfe!:lent procerlure which is straightforward alld indeed som~ supplied include the intormation
in their literature.
From a standpoint of engineering
practi~e tile liquid limit is prob~bly
the most useful parameter with which to lefer~nce bentoni,e-water
interaction.
Typically the liquid limit of a sodium bentonite may range frem less than 200%
to :)Ver 700% depending
on the source of the raw naterial and the procp.ssing
prior to supply.
It ~hould be noted that some bentonites are strongly polyn~er enhanced
and this may increase the liquid limit. These bentonites should be treated with
some caution.
They may be appropriate
in short term applications
such as
slurries for excavation support but in long teml applications
such as liners it will

be necessary to consider the consequ~'lces

(this need not be damaging).

of any degradation

of the polymer

The soil used to prepare a BES can have a substantial impact on the mix design
as the permeability
ofa BES will be intluenced by:
The permeability
of the bentonite
'paste'
in the pores betwccn the soil
particles (this will be a function of the bentonitc content and the porosity of
the soil grains)
Thc cross-scctional
area available 1\)[" !low - this will be a function of the
porosity of the s0il grains
The soil packing which \':ill incrcase the 110w path length because the
pcrmeating fluid must follow a tortuous path between the grains.
Mollins
cl a1. (1996)
found a single straight
line relationship
between
permeability
and void ratio on a log-log plot (NB overall void ntio and not
belltonite void ratio) for two BES mixes (10 and 2tJ% bentonite) and a pure
bentonite mix. Such a relationship
is not unusual for a single soil when subject
to increasing c')nfining pressure, however, it seems somewhat
surprising
that
they found a single relationship
for what were in effect three distinct soils. The
finding suggests that the three soils effectively behaved as a single soil.
Mollins el al. then went on to develop a procedure to account for the
effects on BES permeability
of both the reduction in flow area oLle to the soil
grains and the tortuosity they introduce.
The effect of the reduction in flow area
;s well known and is simply equal te the pc~osilY of the sc,iL Ti,us a BES w;th a
soil porosity 40% will, in theor)', have a permeability
of 40%
that of the
bentonite paste in the pores (assuming there are no preferential
flow paths at the
bentonite-soil
grain contacts).
Mollins
c! 01. suggest
that the effects
af
tortuosity can further reduce the permeability
of a BES by a factor of 10 to 20.
This seems to be a relatively
lar;e effect - especially
as an a;:alysis of the
problem of t0l1uosity basp.d on the Carman-Kozeny
equation suggests that the
effect of tortuosity ;s limited to a permeability
reduction of about 1.6 times.
Kenney ci ai. ,: 99'2) c')n:~arerl pi'edicted and measu;-~d pei meahilities
of BES ~ystemo.
Their procedur.: used the simple porosity correctio'1 noterl
a~ove, tI-,at is:

G:

where kill is the permeability

of the BES, k" that of the bentonite water paste in
the pores of the BES and n the porosity of the soil (excluding the bentonite).
Thus Kenney el 01. took 1~0 account of t0l11l0sity. Their predicted and
experimental
results showed reasonable agreement (though it must be allowed
that both the data of Kenney et at. and Moilins el al. show some experimental
scatter) as is expected for permeability
data and without more detailed analysis

it is not to possible resolve the connict between the two procedures and to
assess whether tortuosity has the substantial impact suggested by Mollins ('[ (/1.
lt is important to recognise that the BES, as tested in the labbratory, is
likely to be in a slightly different state from that in the field after compaction. It
will be saturated at the effective confining stress of the test (it is important that
th is is related to the design effective stress in the field).
Figure 2 shows a typical set of results for a range of bentonite contents.
It can be seen that there is a general trend of decreasing permeability with
decreasing bentonite moisture contenl. However, there are outliers, particularly
for the lower bentonite contents in Ihe l3ES, where the moisture content is high
and markedly above the liquid iimit for the particular bentonite, Il'hich was
about 2XO%. The ~Ivera!-,-eporosill uf the soil in the l3ESs shown in Figure 2
was 0.4 I with a standard deviation uf on Iy 0.024, Thus the porosity showed too
little variation to enable valid investigation of its effect. This demonstrates a
typical problem - field mixes are likely to show only very limited ranges of
benton ite moisture cuntent and soi I porosity. Thus investigation of the effect of

looE-09[.
-- 0 5.7%

bentonite'

_.6.5%
'07.4%

- -- .8.3%

I.OOE-II

L~
300

1-

~__~
320

these parameters in the field is difficult.

It should also be remembered that the bentonite content in the BES is
fundamental to its cost effectiveness (e.g. a 0.5% increase from 8% to 8.5%
bentonite will be significant). Designers must be aware (), the need for tight but
robust mix design \vhich is difficult given that Figure _ represents a typical
scatter of results from BES testing,

The behaviour of BES in-situ

Typically in the tield a RES will be mixed and slt1ckpiled in advance of its
placement as a liner. The moisture content of the as-mixed l1ES wilt' be
designed to be appmpriate to the compaction regime to be employed when
laying ii on site, If the BES stockpile is exposed to rain, a skin of wetter
bentonite will form at the surface but tile moisture culllent of the mass of the
material will be little changed pruvided suitable storage times are respected.
Once compacted and covered with a further lining system (e.g'. an HOPE
geomembrane), if moisture is available from below, the bentonite will slowly
swell and expand the BES (provided there is sufficient bentonite in the voids) to
achieve equilibrium with the overburden stress (N t3 tile overburden stress will
change with time as a landfill is filled and thl!~ the moisture content of the
bentonite in the BES will also change over time). As will be shown below it is
very important that the bentonite in the iJores of the soil used to prepare the BES
should behave as a coiled spring (that i5 the overburden stress should be born",
at least in part, bj' the bentonite and not wholly by intergranular stress between
the soil grains) at least at the low effec;ive str-:sses, fo; example, when
landfilling stal1s. This cail be achieved only by proper design of the BES and
matching of the properties of the soil and the bentor,ite.
Po fundamental parameter for the soil will be the dry density that can be
achieved under the field compactive effort. This dry density can be regarded as
the baseline. It is likely to be ,he maximum tllat can be achieved in a BES
system - the addition of bentonite is likely to significantly reduce the dry
density th'lt can be achieved. NB it is important to Ilote that the reference state
is ~he dry dtnsity of the soil ,,::thout the added benton ;te pa:ticles. Tht.
bentonite and assoc;aled \'1a[er must fit! all the voids in the ~f)il at "n acceptable
bentonite moisture coroteil!.
Figure 3 shows the bentonite moistUle contents nec,:ssary to fill the
voids for a :'ange of soil dry densitie~ and bentonite COlltent~ (a grain specific
gravity of 2.65 has been <lssumed for tht dry soil and 2.78 for rile dry
bentonite).
It can be seen that if the acceptab!e muisture content is greater than
about 300% then there is little constraint on the dry density of the soil (the
acceptable moisture content may be determined by reference to the liquid limit
of the bentonite).
For example, 6% bentonite with a soil of dry density of
1.7 Mg/m3 (a realistic field value) would give a bentonite moisture cont(:nt of
300%.

l
!

However, for a poorer bentonite this moisturc content might not be

acceptable; if only 200% moisture were acceptable, then the bentonito:: content
would have to be over 8% thus making the mix 8ignificantly more expensive.
20%

18%
16%

Field Control
In the field it is necessary to control the placemcnt of the BES. The bentonite
content of the mix can be controlled by good wcigh batching and check tests
using the methylene blue procedure - though this is of limited resolution. In
addition to bentonite ccntent, research by Golder Associates has shovm that the
density of the compacted BES is fundamental to both thc economy and
performancc of the BES.
Figure 4 shows a plot of moisture content of the bcntonite in a nES as
<lfunction of thc dry density for various bentonite conlcnts (this figure pr'cscnts
similar information to Figure 1 but is ti'<lllleddiffcrcnlly)

C./l
L:.l

::0

14%

~
~
OJ

12%

___
____

10%

_ .. _ 15% bentonite
......
20% bentonite
- __ overall B~S

>-.

.D

~
~
(5

c:

a>
..0

5% bcnwnitc
10% bentonite

8%

"-0

~
0

T)

6%

Lt'"

4%
2%

:0

>

I:

c:
OJ

co

0% ~,I"""",I,

T!~e message is simple, the higher the acceptable mois~u:'e content of the
bentonite the lower the acceptable bentonite c:ontent in the BES. Cost-benefit
all2.lyses may be calTied out to assess bentonites from different sources (with
differert liquid limits) using the data from Figure 3. Such analyses may show
that the importation of Wyoming bentonite is not cost effective but that the
. careful choice between sodium converted calcium bentonites from different
sources is cost effective.

~
~

I I
A number of points can be drawn from Figllr~ 4:
I. The moisture content of the belltonite paste in a BES reduces significantly
as
the dry de'lsity increases.
2. It can be seen that for 5% bentonite content .de moisture content is very high
exccpt at very high dry densities.
In gcncral Mediterranean
bentonites
will
be used for liners in the UK as the substantial
extra cost of Wyoming
bentonitc
can seldom be justificd (there may be no benefit - merely extra
cost).
3. For thc 5'% bcntonitc at thc IO\\'cr dry dcnsitics thc moisture content is likely
to bc ,Ibovc thc liquid lill1ll !\ltilOugh a mix at such a water content could
runction as a lincr thcrc \\(luld he: a scriOl~s possibility
of erosion of the
bentonitc
if ~Iny sigllilicanl
Il\draulic
gradicnt wcre maintaincd
across the
liner.
"I.

Low bentonitc contents can bc uscd if thc soil has a significant

fines content
and thus the statements
in (2) and (3) above should not be taken as barring
the use of low benton:te contents.
5. It could be al'gued that because Wyoming bentonites can have higher liquid
limits than Mediterranean
bentonites
they should be preferred
for liners.
However,
all sodium
bentonites
are susceptible
to chemical
interaction
effects and a higher water content material is likely to be worse affecteu.
Thus for real liners the use of Wyoming bentonite at a lower concentration,
but still at possibly bighe,. overall cost than Mediterranean
bentonite,
may
bring no benefits.

6.

Dry density can be increased by incrcasing

tile compactive
effort l'l't the
benefit becomes progressively
smaller <IS the effort increases.
Despite this it
will be very import:,nt properly to compact the BES both to reduce the air
voids r.ontent and to knead the bentonite
into the soil (in service the
bentonite
moisture content will be a function of the thermal, moisture and
stress conCitions within the BES pores).
7. The most effective way to increr,se the dry density will br:: by u~ing a well
graded soil
8.

9.

Increasing
the dry density can markC'dly reduce the hentonite
demand
as
there a,'e fewer voids t') be filled. fl. I C% bpntJnite EES at a ct;y dellsity of
3
:.6 Mg/m l',as approximately
the same moistl:re content as a 5% bentonite
at ~,O Mg/mj.

At ccnstant bentonite moistwe content. increasing the cry density 01 the s0il
'Nill reduce the permeaHit;,
of the BES as it w:1I reduce the area available
for flow and increase the tortuosity.
10. At constant
bentonite
content, increasing
the dry density of the soil will
improve
the resistance
of t!'e BES to che;~li<::ally induced
ir.crease
of
permeability
as it will permit a lower bentonite moisture content.

Chemical effects
Exchange
of the sodium
ions in the bentonite
with ammonium.
potassium,
calcium and magnesium
or other ions in a landfill leachate or 3n increase in the
ionic strength of the porewater (he mix water may have been tap water or good
quality ground/surt:1ce
water of lower ionic strength
than landfill leachate)
generally
will reduce the swelling
capacity
and liquid limit of bentonites.
Ilowever,
it is important to note that if the bentonite
is mixed with fresh water
before
it comes
into contact
with contaminated
water the effect of the
contaminants
is likely to be small (the quantity of water used to prepare a BES
ill the lield . typically to slightly above Proctor optimum
moisture content for
the mix will be surticient
to cause some swelling/scparation
of the bentonite
particles and thus reduce later chcmical sensitivity).
For example
Kenney el al.
(1992) found a less t!!:,, hall' an order of magnitude
increase in permeability
when bentonites
with void ratios between
3 and 10 were permeated
with
40 g/Iitre sodium chloride (i.e. a solution slightly stronger than s.ea water).
Gleason e/ al. (1997) found substantial
effects on a BES containing
5% sodium
bentonite (liquid limit 603%) when permeated with 0.25 moLl' calcium chloride
solution (a similar result was observed for a 15% calcium bentonite,
liquid limit
124%), These results are as expected
from the above disclJssion on bentonite
moisture content in a BES and merely confirm that daIllage can occur if the
fines in a BES are at an unacceptably
high moisture content in ,'elation to some
water affinity indicator such as the liquid limit.
It follows that a fundamental
requirement
of BES design is that there
should be sufficir::nt bentonite
p~ste (bentonite
plus water) to ensure that the
paste is under stres,
The paste should be the eqUivalent
of a coiled spring
between
the soil grains.
fhe soil grains may be in contact
if the external
effective stress is high (r::.g. from a substantial depth of waste). Ch~mical effects
mlist ilOt redlic~ the '~pring' in t!~e iJaste to zero other';/ise
damage will ensue.
Maintenance
of the 'spring' rcquirc3 a suffici~nt bentonite content.

Drying and freezing

'\Ithough
chemicaiiy
induced d3lnage sf]c,.!ld be ii:llited in a ",ell dcsignd
BES
,ubject to permeation
b;' most leachates, g~ec:ter dum age may occur if ,here i"
rlryin; or freezing
of ,he liner after a chemical
change in the poiewater
has
occurred
i.e. an effectively
dry bentonite
is hy':lrated
in a chemically
contamlllated
water.
Drying
may occur as a result 01 heat from the
decompQ~in~
waste.
For the maximum
damage the following
sequencp. of
events would bt ntcessary:
I. Placement of BES.
2. Permeation/diffusion
of a chemically
aggrts~ive
leachate
into the BES
leading to a slight increase
in permeability
(slight as the bentonite
was
wetted in fresh water).

3. Substantial drying 01' the bentonite: this requires heat but withollt any
leachate permeation.
4. Re-wetting of the dried bentonite with the aggressive leachate.
It is difticult to see how this sequence of events could occur but if a landfill is to
be designed or operated such that it is possible, then the BES would have to be
designed to withstand the regime (the simplest way to do this is to measure the
liquid limit of the bentonite when mixed from the dry slate with the aggressive
leachate and then design accordingly).
Freezing can have the samc effect ,IS drying. 110lI'ever, it is unlikcly to
occur in liners except prior to placemcl1l of the protection layers and wastc.
freezing at this time will have little effect on the liquid limit of the bentonite but
could disrupt its compaction.
Freezing could occur in capping layers but
chemical conditions are unlikely to be as aggressive as for liners, though it
should be noted that under low effective stress conditions the bentonite in a BES
may swell substantially and if there is later ion exchange (e.g. with calcium
from the cover soils) and the BES layer does not compress to achieve a new
lower equilibrium moisture content then the damage can be severe.
BES
materials must be subject to some effective stres: (as must geosynthetic clay
liners).

Bentonite enriched soil mixing

Good mixing c~ the bentonite and soil is essential to the perf0rmanee of BES
syst~ms. Haug & Wong (~99'2) slwwed t~~atprepu:'atiOl~ of BE~ dry of Proctor
optimum leads tn increased permeability. They attributed this to the difficulty
of mixing soil with a rather dry Lentcnite. Intimate mixing requires that the
jento:1ite is soft eno'igh to be spread over the soil grair-s. A particular
2dvantage of sodiun, bentonites is that they swell on conta-:t with water and t11U~
tend to absorb all available water (though of course up to J sweliing limit).
Other clays such as calcium bentonite will not so readily sorb water and thus
may require more mixing energy to homogenise their wilter content and soften
them to the state when they can be ~pread o\,er th" surface of the sod.

Conclusions
BL.ntonite ~nrichcd soiis are important m;neral lining materials. For ecoromic
c1~:ign it is necessary to cor-sider n0t oni) th" profJerties of the bentonite and the
effects of any chemical interac~ions but also to consider the pr)perti~s of the soil
and in particular the dry density that it can achie'.'e (without bentonite) under
field cOlT.paction conditions. The use of well graded soils which can achieve
high dry densities can reduce bentonite demancl, improve the permeability of
the mix and its chemical resistance. As dry density (or its equivalent, soil
porosity) is a fundamental parameter for BES design it would be useful if

publications on the subject providcJ dc:ta on this. Unfortunately it is often

om itted.
The permeability ofa I3E" will be a function of the pellneability of the
bentonite paste in the pores of the Inaterial and the porosity of the soil grains.
The paste must be at an acceptable moisture content if a low permeability is to
be achieved and also resistance to chemical effects, drying and freezing. It has
been suggested that the paste moisture content can be designed by reference to
some measure of the swelling (,I' the bentonite.
This may be acceptable
provided a substantial factor llf ,Ji'Cly is applied to the resulting moisture
content. "is suggestcd that a :,irllr;c~ prucedure is to consider the liquid limit of
the bentonite and apply a rllllrl' 'llL'lkst factor of safety, which should bc
oeterrnincd by further Iesearch.

References
American Society for testing mat:rials. E946 - 83 (Reapproved 1987), Standard
testlllethodfor \\later absurDtion of bentonite porous plate method.
DIN 18132, Wasseraufnahmeversuch.
German Geotechnical Society (1993). GLR, Geotechnics of landfill design and
remedial works, technical ,ecoml71endations, Ernst & Soh;:, Berlin.
Gleason, M.H., Daniel. D.E. and Eykholt, G.R. (1997). Calcium and sodium
benfonit..: for hydraulic containment applications, ASCE Journal of
geotech;:ical and geroenvirolllllenial engineering, 123, 5.
Haug M.D. and Wong L.c. (I 99~1. Impact of molding water content on
hydraulic
cunducti"ity
vf compacted
sand-benlonite,
Canadian
Grotechnical Journal, 29. 2.
Kenney, T.c., van Veen, W.A., Swallow, M.A. and Sungalia, M.A. (IY92).
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 29, 3.
Mollins, L.!-L, Stewart, 0.1. and Cousens, T. \Y. (1996). Pff~dicting the prop~rties
of sand-benton:te mixtures. Clay minerals, 31.
Sridharan, A. and Prakash, K. (1998). Characteristic water L.ontents of a fin:::
grained soil-w'lter systenl. Geotechnique, XLVIII, 3.
Studds, P.C. Stewart, DI. :md (c'.!sens, T. W. (1990). The effects of salt
solutior.s on the properties 0' bentvnite-sand mixtures. t::>be published
Gay Minerals.
Xanthukos, P. (197Q). Slurry Walls. \ lcGraw Hill, 82-83.

Geosynthetics In landfill Design

Geosynthetics, as defined by the International C,eosynthetics Society art'
"planar, polymeric (synthetic or natural) material L1sedin contact with soilfrock
and/or any other geotechnical material in civil engineering applications". The
definition is broad, as is their r;:;lge of uses; barriers, draina~e, filtration.
protection, reinforcement, separation and surfact erosion control are all
potential uses. Most of these uses have applications within landfill engineering.
i his section comprises
three papers that cover the stability of geosynthetics,
recenl testing developments and an overview of geosynthetic clay liners.
The paper by Jones & Dixon is concerned with the stability of
g-:osynthetic landfill lining systems, a subject close to the heart of many
geotechnical engineers. The stability of sllch systems are dependent on the
available shur strength between the various interfaces within tile system, and
the authors present a summary of shear strengths fOi' variClus geosynthetic/
geosynthetic and geosynthetic/soil interfaces. The data is produ-:ed from ,Ll
extensive Iitei'ature sei'rr:h supplemented by testing carried out bv the authors.
The authors also present a methodology for assessil:g the stability of it
cover soil ;'esting on an inclined geosynthetic lining system. The method is an
extension of the existing wedge method, and worked examples are given. The
authors do point out, that whilst values of interf;jce shear strengths from the
;Jarer may he '1sed for schematic designs, they recClll1mend site specific testing
for detail designs.
Further, they suggest that simply limiting equilibrium
analvsis may not be able to assess the stability of a geosynthetic lini!:.g system
that is subjected to waste compress:on, a topic considered further in the fir:t
sect'o" of the s~'mpos::Jm.
As well as ensuring the st"bility 01 an ii,clined geosvnthetic lining
systen~, the design enginee.- must s?feguard the integiit) (If the geomemb.ane
barrier. Darbyshire ['101. consider some the i~sues surrounding the performancf'
testing of geomembrane prc:ection male~ials. They track the UK ex;:,erif'nce of
protectiun syskms and highlight the nep.d for meJsuring the proteetiO!l
performance. A labor'ltory test, originally developed in Germany, can be used
to assess the performance of geomembrane protection systems by subleeting a
section of the lining system to a constant loading. The authors describe the
dir'ficulties associated with inconsistencies between testing houses. These
problems led to the development of the Environment Agency cylinder test
which is described by the authors and which will standardise this testing in the

UK. Interpretation of the results of the cylinder test is a topic of current debate,
and th is paper should focus future discussions.
Geosynthctic
clG'" liners (GCLs) are assembled pianar structures of
geosynthetic materials anu bentonite, and are used as primary and/or secondary
liners in landfill applications.
Gartung & Zanzinger present a comprehensive
overview of the engineering properties and use of GCLs. The function and
properties of GCLs, together with the importance of quality control are
'highlighted in the parer: which includes two case histories from Germany on
performance
observations from GCLs used in capping applications.
At the
Hamburg-Georgswerder
site, problems of root damage, desiccation and cation
exchange arose due to lac:': of sufficient soil cover. However, the second case
history, at Nuremberg, rcrorts a successful use of a GCL on a landtill capping
system. The authors conclude with advice on the use of GCLs ill landfill covas
given by the German Institute of Construction; if this guidance is followed in
the UK, desiccation can be avoided.

The stability of geosynthetic landfill

lining systems
Jones (/) and N. Dixon(2)
iJ Golder Associates, Lalldmere Lane, Nottingham NG 12 4DG
2) The Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG] 4BU

D.R. V.

Introduction
GeosYI~thetic materials
are now commonly
used in landfills for many
applications such as:

Geomembranes
used as primary liners as barriers to leachate and
landfill gas escape.

Geotextiles used as separation layers, filter layer~ and as geomembrane

protc~tors.

GC0synthetic Clay Liners (GC:Ls) used as primary fir secondary liners.

Geonets
and geoeomposites
used as leachate, landfill gas and
grour,dwater drainage layers.
e
Geogrids used for reinforcing applications.
The stability of <:geosynthetic landfill lining system is controlled by the
shear strength between the various interfaces, i.e. geosynthetic/geosynthetic
and
gCJsynthetic!i;oil interface shear ~treng~hs. Thi~ paper cOli3iders the stability flf
geosynthetics
on landfill side slopes and iil sloping ~apping applications by
nresentil1g ..I summ<:~y of available iute.face shear stren~til v::lucs fro;:) the
litp,rature, supplemented
by testing curried out at The Nottingham Trent
Univer~ity.
Design m~thods ;Jromoted by various authOls are discussed alid
mfldifications suggested.

Background
The ~hear strength developed at a geosynthetic interface is dependent
the normal stress applied to the interface and the displacement at the
Several authors (e.g. Seed et af., 1988, Byrne 1994 etc.) have indicated
geosynthetic interfaces (l[C ~train softening, i.e. they exhibit a reduction

on botr.
interface.
that most
in shear

stress at displacements beyond peak ~trengths. Typically for each nmmal stress,
Ihe shear stress increases from the origin with increasing dispiacrment until a
pea~ value is achieved. S~bsequent displacement results in a red'lction in shear
stress to a constant or residual value.
rf the peak and residual strengths are plotted against the relevant
normal stresses, the resulting failure envelope can be defined.
A linear
Coulomb-type failure envelope is usually ohtained which defines the interface
shear strength in terms of the friction angle (0) and cohesion intercept (a). It
should be noted that these paramctcrs only define the failure envelope for the
r,lIlgc of nonnal stresses lestt:d and that extrapolation of both frit:tion angle and
coht:sion int(~rcept outside tht: range lIlay not he representative.
These interface
sht:<lr slrenglh parameters C<ln he used to assess the stability of any slope
containing a geosynthetic, using a Lonvention<ll soilmcchanics
approach.

tests carried out at The Nottingham Trcnt University (Jones, 1998). Peak and
residual shear strengths have been plotted against the appropriate normal stress
(Figures I, 2 and 3) arid linear regression has been used to generate the failure
envelope for each interface. The peak and residual shear strength envelopes are
given, together with the correlation coefficient (i{2) which gives a statistical
determination
of whether the assumed linear regressIon is strong; a perfect
straight line fit giving an R 2 value of 1.0.

Smooth HOPE geomembrane

The results of testing on smooth HDPE gcomcmbrane,
and a summary is givcn in Table I below.

Interface

Measurement

of interface shear strength

The measurement of geosynthetie interface shear strength can be carried out by

three main methods; direct shear testing, ring shear testing and testing with a
:i1ting table. Direct shear testing can be carried out in standard soil shear boxes
with dimensions of 60 mm x 60 111mand 100 mm x Ion mm which can be
regarded as index testing, or can b~ more performance-related
~sing larger 300
mill x 300 mm and 300 mm x 400 mm direct she:ar aplJaratus. l.ll direct shear
apparatus have limited displacements and it has been shown (Jones, 1998) that
even displac~menb of 100 mmmay not mc~ilise the true residual interface shear
~treng'hs.
Ring shear testing can be carried out to investigate the true residual
strengths since the apparatus can produce unlimited displacements.
It should be
recognised, however, that the direction of shearing in a ring shear test is not
compa;abie to the field and [JUS true residual st:ear strengths may on:y oe of
academic l'lteres~ and the large strain strengths obto.lIled from a direct shea~ test
in a 300 mm x 400 mJl1 apparatus may be sufficient for design applications.
In
addition, ring shear testing should not bl.: used to measure peak inten-ace shear
strengths (Dixol' & Jones, 1995).
The third main melilod 0; measurerP.~nt is the IJse o~ a tilting table
'.'1hich has been used predominantly in Europe. The~e is currenlly no cvnsenslls
on Ihe size cf apparatus required to pr0vice per;0rmance results and its use is
limilcd to low normal stresses. It may be, however, that the tilting table l1uy 0e
more accurate in de~ermining the behaviour or geosynthetic intertaces at low
C:Oilfini ng stress.

Interface shear strength values

The following paragraphs summarise a literature search carried out to investigate
the range of shear strengths published for various geosynthetic imerfaces.
The
results of the literature search have been supplemented by over 200 direct shear

0()
Geonet
Non-woven
geotextile
Sand
Clay - undrailh,d
Clay - drained

arc presentcd

Interface she,H str~ngth parameters

Peak
Residual
R'
1) (0)
a (kPa)
a(kPa)
1.0

9.0
9.8

-0.8

26.9
10.3
21.5

-4.0
7.1
2.1

0.74
0.88

69
5.8

0.';0
0.48

16.2
2.3

0.86

17.1

1.8

in Figurc

R2

0.3

0.80
088

00
15.0
-6.1

0.95
0.09
0.97

The summary plvt of shear stres5 vs. normal stre~s for a smooth
geomembrane/geonet
interface (Figure la) shows a scatter if: data !J0ints with a
poor straight line fit fur both peak and residual conditions with R2 values of U.74
and 0.80 respectively.
This linear regression gives a peak friction angl~ of 9.0,
which reduces to 6.9 at large displacements.
This inle:face I~as low cohesion
intercepts for both peak (I.OkPa) and residual (1.8kPa) cOilditions.
For the
smooth beomembrane/no!'-woven
geolextile interfac~, a peak interface friction
angle of 9.8, reducing to 5.8 for residual conditions (Figure I b) is calcul~ted;
(I1e;'e is negligible cohesion intercept for this ;nter;3re. tl0th peale ar:d reSIdual
conciitions rive SiCOll5straight line lits bot!> WIth correlation coefficient values of
0.R8, however there is still a. degree of scalter in the results (Fi;:;t.:re.l J).
The smooth geomembraJlf~/salld interface has much higher shear
strength thr:n the two interfaces discussed aorwe. Thp peak interface shear
strength using ;inear regression is 0 = 26.9 and a = -40 kPa, and there is a
good straight line fit 'vitl, R2 = 0.90 (Figure lc)
The residual values give
slightly :ess scatter and thus a higher correlation coefficient of 0.95, and a
residual friction angle of 16.2.
Testing of the interface shear strength between geosynthetics
and
cohesive soil is more difficult than the testing of geosynthetic/geosynthetic
or
geosynthetic/granular
interfaces since there is the possibility of por~ .water
pressures at the interface during shearing. Such pressures may be posItive ur

negative (sllctions) and will le1d to a decrease or increase in effective stress at

the ..interface thus making the assessment of interface shear strength more
dl t hcult. The assessment of whether the resuits quoted in the literature are based
on llndrained or drained conditions is based on eilher the various authors'
descriptions or on an interpretation of the shearing rates used by the current
authors. It is considered that the results presented may not be true undrained or
drained conditions and thus caution is required when assessing the results.
For undrained tests it may be that the interface shear strength will be
dependent on the undrained shear strength of the clay. However, not all authors
reported the clay strength and this makes any accurate assessment of the results
(Iifficull if not impossible.
The scatter in results for smooth HDPE
gC(lI11elllbranL:lclay interface (Figurl; Id) is not unexpected.
Correlation
C:detTiciL:nts of 0.48 and 0.09 for the peak and residual envelopes respectively
demonstrate
this scatter.
There is a clear increase in shear strength with
increasing normal stress with a peak interface shear strength parameters of 0 =
10.3 and a = 7. [kPa.
However, the fj'iction angle of the residual envelope is
negligible (0 = 2.3) and the cohesion intercept is 15.0 kPa.
For the drained case the smooth geomembrane/clay
interface has less
scatter than the undrained conditio!':s (Figure Ie). This may be associated with
no pore pressures at the interface or may be due to the lower number of data
points available.
Both peak and residual envelopes have strong correlation
coeffici:nts of 0.86 and 0.97 respectively, and the peak interface friction angle
at 21.5 reduces to a reSIdual value of 17.10. The cohesion intercept reduces
from 2.1 kPa for the peak to -6.1 kPa for the residual shc.ll strength. Since the
resldu..ll envelope is on I) G<ls('d lln four dat, . points it is not consi<':er('d to be
repr~sentat; ve.

Textured

HOPE geomemb;-anc

The results of testing on textured HDPE geomembranes

2 and a summary is given in Table 2 below.

:nterface

0(0)

Geonet
!'ion-woven
geotexlile

I i.a
25.8

:::and

27.4

Clay - undrained
Clay - drained

4.4
J ~.7

;;re presented in Figure

Intprf:ce shear stren,gth pal'1meters

Pnk
Residual
0/')\
R"
a (kPa)
a (kPa)
\ )
3.0
0.98
9.1
9.2
- r6.9
a 88
13.1
J ..)
6.9
36.0
26.7

J.%
013
0.93

I
I

25.5
3.1

R'
0.96
0.88

15.5
34.0

0.90
0.21
-

The information available on the interface shear strength between

textured HDPE geomemb:':::les and geonets is limited and this may be because

IhL:increase in interface shear slrL:llglh over and above the smooth geomembrane
IS marginal.
Figure 2a summarises the available infonnation, although there are
unly five data puints fur the peak streilgth and three points for t~e residual
strength.
The peak interface
shear strength
based on this da.1 is
0= 11.00 and a = 3.0 kPa with a correlation coefticient of 0.98, which COIn'iareS
with a friction angle of 9.0 for the smooth geomembrane case (Figure Ia). The
rL:sidual interface shear strength for the textured geomembrane (0 = 9.1 and a =
').2 kPa) needs to be treated with care since it is only based on three data points.
Thc majority of data presented for the shear strength of lL:xtured
geolllembrane/l1ol1-wu"cn geotcxtile interfacL:s arc 1'1'0111
thL: results ,I tilL:lL:sting
carried out by the authors (Jones & Dixon. I <i9S). although other information
!'rum the literature has becn used to devclop Figure 2b. A peak I'ikLlon angle of
25.Ro is obtained togethc" with a cohesion intercept of 6.9 kPa. which reduces to
rL:sidual values of 0 = 13.1 and a = 3.6 kPa, although there is a significant
range of values with R2 values of 0.88 for both the peak and residual case.
The interface shear strength results for the textured geomembrane/sand
interface are shown on Figure 2c which give peak parameters ()f 0 =27.4
and a
= 6.9 kPa with a correlation coefficient of 0.96. This interface, although strain
softening, does not seem to exhibit a large reduction in shear strength with
increased displacement since the residual friction angle is 25.5 wi'h a rela~iveiy
hig'l cohesion ir,tereept of 15.5 kPa.
From the results of undrained tests (JI1texture1 HDPE geomembrane
against clays (Figure 2d), it can be seen that the dependency of shear strength on
nor'llal sl,ess is limited with peak and residual frictIOn angles of 4.4 and 3.1
resp:::ctively. Cohesion intercepts for both peak and iarge st,ain conrlitions are
similar with a peak value of 36.0 kPa and;; residual value of 34.0 kPa, however
both envelopes give poor linear relationships with R2 values of O.! 3 and 0.2 L
T!~e shape of the ell\':::lopes suggest that the shear strength beL"een textured
geomembrane and u day tested without an allowance for the dissipatioll of pore
pr~ssur:::s is almost independent of normal stress, ~.nd is likely to be related to the
undrained shear strength of the clay. Since the data shown on Figure 2d has
been obtained from eight separate references with differellt clay at different
remoulJil.g conditions, the ext~nt of the data scatter is !'ot surprising.
The results shown on Figure 2d campare well with the observations
n,ade by Orman (1994), who found that failure of a texlUred :lDPE
geo;nembrane/silt
inte~face occt;rred 'within the silt along Ihe. line of the
asperities on the geomembrane
sheet.
Thus it is 10 be exp::ckd that the
undrained
i::terface
shear strength of a textured
~eon .emt ~aw'/c Ia:;, IS
il'dependent of normal stress and [Jrobably eq'J,,1 to the undrained shear strength
of the clay.
There is little information on geomembrane/clay
;nterfaces tested "t
strain rates slow ellough to dissipate pore waters pressures although the available
data indicates that the shear strength of this interface is dependent on normal
stress (Figure 2e). Again the small amount of data available means that cution
is required when analysing the results, however, linear regression gives a peak
0

interface shear ~trength corresponding to 8 = 10.7 and a::; 26.7 kPa. Closer
inspection of the plot reveals that a non-linear fit may be marc representativc for
the peak shear strength envelope, possibly curving downwards at lower normal
stresses and passing through the origin. Thcre is insufficient data to determine
the residual shear strength for this interface, however, it is likely that the residual
interfacc shear strength will be the residual shear strength of the clay. The
asperities of the textured geomcillbrane arc very similar to the upper sintered
brass platten on the standard Bromhead ring shear apparatus (Bromhead 1979).

Non-woven

geotextile

JOO

r0o..
6

Vi

tOO

ro

OJ
.c
(f)

r0-

The results of tcsting Oil non-woven

sunlillary is given in T:.:ble :: bclow.

geotexliles

arc presented in Figurc 3 and a

200

Vl
Vl

o..

'"\

+--

200

Vl
Vl

(b) Non-woven
Geotextile

Vi
Interface
I) (0)

Geonet
Gravel
Sand
Clay - undrained
Clay - drained

13.1
35.0
33.0
25.3
32.5

Interface shear stren~th parameters

Peak
Residual
I) (0)
R
a (kPa)
a (kPa)
17.9
-1.0
-1.3
5.3
4.4

0.76
0.87
0.93
0.91
0.98

15.4
19.9
28.7
17.7

4.1

roOJ

(f)

R2

7.7
55.6

0.92
0.99
0.92
0.98

:VU

100

.c

JOO

r0o..
~

200

Vl
Vl

Vi

ro

./

! \

100

.c
(f)

Tile re:uits of shear s,rength testing or. non-wc,en geotextile/geonet

interfaces arc plotted j,] Figure 3a and line~_r regression of all tne data pcints
give peak interface shp.ar strengths of 8 = 13.1 and a = 17.Y kPa with an R2
value of 0.76. For the range of normal stresses cOI,:;idered, thp. residual envelope
is similar to the peak in terms of its mobi!ised shear strength, however t~e
friction angles and eol-.esion intercept are different. The best fit line through the
ie~idual data points is given by 8 = 15.4 and a = 4.1 kPa. i.e. a higher friction
angle but a lower cohesion intercept with a correliltion coefficient of 0.92.
The non-Nove" gentex,ile/gravel
intl'rfaee has a hig:] shear strength
with some values in the literature repoi":ed as high as 48. Most of the results
availaole are for tests carried out at norm:J.1 stres~es less titan 2.00 kPa (~igure
3b) and linear regression gives a frict.ion angle of 35.0 wi.tll a cohesion intercept
of -1.0 k.na. Thij reduces to a residual shear strength correspondi'lg tv 8 = 19.9
and a = 30.1 kf'a. The peak shear strength envelope shows a reasonable strong
straight line fit with a correlation coefficient of 0.94, while the residual envelope
has a very strong fit with R2 = 0.99, however the residual is based on a small
number of data points.
T:1ere is much more information available in the literature on :htinterface shear strength between sand and non-woven geotextiles, and this is also
a high strength interface with a peak friction angle of 33.0 and a cohesion
intercept of - i.3 kPa (Figure 3e). The residual shear strength for this interface is

300

\ I

ro.:L
~

20C

Vl
Vl

Vi

roOJ

'DO

.c

(f)

300

ron

200

Vl
Vl

Vi

roOJ

100

.c

(f)

100

200

300

400

Normal stress (kPa)

Figure 1 Smooth HOPE Geomembrane

500

J~O

ro

200

Q
.Y

U1
U1

200

U1
U1

u;
ro1)

U;

100

ro

.r::

100

OJ

(/)

.r::

(/)

300
300

_'~

<;;
Q

200

U1
U1

:,~
roOJ

I
100

~_!

(b) Non-woven
Geotextile

200

U1
U1

U;

roOJ

.r::

(/)

100

.r::

(/)

r'

300
300

200

U1
U1

u;
roOJ

200

U1
U1

U;

100

roOJ

.r::

(/)

100

.r::

(/)

300
300

2JO

..
. .

U1
U1

u;
ro1)

100

ti>

;:to
:ice

-,;;
o

ro

I ,

I:

200

VI
U1

t'

u;
roOJ

.r::

(/)

100

.-.'
200

300

400

Normal stress (kPa)

Fiure 2 Textured HOPE Geomembrane

100

200

300

400

Normal stress (kPa)

rigure 3 Non-woven Geotextile

+1
II_I '

I
reduced to a value of 8 = 28.7 and a = 7.7 kPa. The peak interf,lce shear
strength envelope has been generated from over a hundred data points and the
scalier is minimal with an R2 value of 0.91. Less data was available for the
residual plot, however the amount of scatter is less with a correlation coefficient
"f o();.;.
The results of undrained tests on non-woven geotextile/clay interface
shown on Figure 3d. Peak interface shear strengths of 8 25.3 and a
5.3 kPa
:tre "htained with a correlation coefficient of 0.91, which reduce to 8 = 17.7" and
<I. = )).6 kPa for large strains.
The residual envelope is based on three data
p\linlS, has an extremely high cohesion intercept and has an R2 value of 0.98.
The peak intcrfacc shear strcngth is pn:dOlninantly frictional in naturc however
[lil:
high cohesion intercept of thc residual envelope could be indicativc of
dependence on the undraincd shear strength of the' clay. [n particular it !ll<'y bc
that thc failure plane exists in the outer laycr of the geotextiles' fibres which arc
clay filled, and thus the shear strength is a combination of the fibrcs' frictional
(and possibly tensile) strength together with the clay's strength.
A higher shear strength is obtained for drained tests on non-woven
geolextile/clay interfaces, as shown on Figure 3e. The summary plot of all data
points gives a good straight line fit (R2 = 0.98) for the jJealc interface shear
strength with a high friction ::gle of 32.5 and a cohesion intercept of 4.4 kPa.
There is insufficient information to generate a residual interface shear strength
envelope.

O\:erview of stability <lnalysis from the literature

In considering ,he stability of a slope Iinf.;d with geosynthetics, several failure
Illecll'.lnisms ne~d to be assessed. Conventional limit equilibrium methods such
as Bishop (1955) and Janbu (1973) or aptJroximate methods such as the charts
proposed by 1&y101 (19J7) can oe used to assess the overall stabiUy of lhe host
slope. The use of g('osynthetics ;:>ftenIIltrod'Jce potentially weak planes into the
sys::::m and require special consideration.
The stability of a cover soil above the gevsynthetics was discu~s"d by
Martin & Kocrn('; (1985), and using an inli"ile slope approach ;,resc:ltcd lLe
factor of 3afety again't tile failure of a uniform cover soil as:

full depth seepage, Martin & Koerner (1985) s'Jggcst an approach

reduction in effective normal stress on the liner, i.e.
F =. Yb tan8
Ystan p
where

Note that Yb = Ys- Yw, where Ywis the unit weight of watC!". This is a
conservative approximation and assumes that the watcr pressures ;.,rc ,'alculated
using vertical depth helow ground Icvel.
Giraud & Beech (19S9) give two rcasons \\'hy a finite ,j, ;,C is more
stable than an infinite slope assumed in the analysis mcthod describ~J .lbove; the
prcsence of a geosynthetic anchorage at the crest, and the buttres'Jn~ effect of
the soil at the base of the slope. As s:ippage along the critical f~('synthetic
interface occurs, tensile forces are generated in the geosynthetics 3.bove the
critical interface, and these tensile forces contribute to the stability of the
potential sEding block. The authors summarise the three factors contributing to
the lining's stability as:

Geosynthetie tension resulting from the crest anchorage.

Silear resistance developed along the interface.

Toe buttressing effect.

In their limiting equilibrium method, G;roud & Beech (1989) pruposed

dividing the system into two wedges ~nd forces that ~re balanc-::d in the vertical
and ;lOrizontal directions.
This r.1ethod praviJes t\\u equilibrium equations and
three unknowns, and an iterative. process is required to provide; a solution. A
major drawback with this method is that the distribution of tensile stresses within
the gensynthetic layers cannot be dete'lv.ined. Koerner & Hwu (1991) proposed
a limiting equilibrium method al~o based Oil the two part wedge r..ethod, ('nel
considere~ sliding of the active wedge to be resisted by only the shear strength
along the geosynthetic/cover
soil interface and the passive soil wedge "uttress at
the toe of the slope. Tre factor of saf('ty (F) with respect to slid;ng of the systeD
is a sv;ution at th~ fc!lowing quadr:nic equation:
aF2 + b~ + c = 0
Equation 3

yhL . 2(21':'
1-')
2

--S1l1

wiler:::

8 is the friction angle between the ;;cosynthetic

p is l;le slope an;le.

and cover soil,

The above equation applies when the cover soil is dry or subjected to
an external hydrostatic water pressure distribution.
However, such conditions
where there is external water pressures are normally restricted to ponds and
reservoirs, and it is more useful to consider active seepage in the cover soil. For

Equation 2

Ybis the buoyant unit weight of cover soil

Ysis the saturated unit weight of cover soil

F = tan ()

tnr. p

t--Jscd on a

-[yhLcos2ptan8usin(2p)
+ auLcospsin(2p)
+ yhLsin2ptan<j>sin\2p) + 2chcosP .,. ~m2tan<j>]

and,
y
h
L

<1>
c
8"
ex"

unit weight
thickness of cover soil (measured perpendicular
slope length
~Iope angle
angle of internal friction of cover soil
cohesion of cover soil
interface friction angle at the upper inlerface
apparent cohesion at upper interface

r(l ~

to slope)

u. -ex ) +yhcos~
l

This approach assumes that the facIal' of safely is the S,lIl1e value al
every point along the sliding surface defined by the two wedge mechanism. By
default this means that the factor of ,aE:ty is the same with respecI to the
shearing resistance at the active wedge/geosynthetic
Intcrface as that wilh
respect to the shearing resistance of tile cover soil beneath the passive wedge.
Koerner & Hwu (1991) further proposed a model to assess the tension in a
geosynthetic due to unbalance interface shear forces.
By assuming uniform
mobilisation
of the interface shear strengths along the geomembrane,
they
deveivped an expression for the tensile force per unit width of slope as
follows:
T

[(exu -a,)+yhcosp(tan8u

-tanbl)].L

Equation 7

interface friction angie::at the lower interface

apparent cohesion at lower interface
This equation expresses the imbalance between the maximum shear
force that [(In :lct at the geosynthetic upper interface and the maximum shear
force al the lowc;f interfJce. When the upper shear force i~ smaller than the force
at the lower surface the: geosynthetic is in equilibrium and is not stressed.
Howeve:', when the upper shear force is greate~ than the lower, a tensile force T
is required in tht gefJlT''::mbrane to ensure equilibrium.
A major shortcoming
v::th this method is that the tensile [')fce ~omputed is independent Ot tIle level of
shear .;tress e~festively mobilised at the upper interface. The shear brce at ~he
L:;Jper ip.~elface in this equation shouln be the Ill')biliscc shear force. Bourdeau
el al. (1903) proposed a coupling between Equations 3 and 7 by replacing the
ultimate upper shear strength wiih a mobihsc:d value sa!culated by dividillg :he
ultim2te value by the factor of safety calculated if: Equation 3, ;.e.
replacing
au +yhcos~taTlbu

( ~-tanbl
tan 8

)] .L

For a multi-layered system, the limit method proposed by Koerner

(1990) can be used to determine the tensile forces in subsequent IOWl:[ layers.
This is a force equilihrium procedure which balances forces in the direction
parallel to the slope.
The shear force Illobilised in the upper surface of a
geosynthetic is transferred to ilS lower surface by shear until the maximu11l shear
strength of that interface has been reached. and thc remaining force will he taken
in tension in the geosyIllhetic.
The above methods do not consider lhe dfcct of seep,,=-.: forces on the
stability of a cover soil. Soong & Koerner (I ')')5) have developed a model that
considers seepage now parallel to the ~:Iope, i.c. a Ilow net within the cover so::
mass consists of flow lines parallel to the slope and equipotcntial
lines
perpendicular to the slope. They produce t\\'o models for stability assessment;
one for the case of a horizontal seepage build-up and one for a parallel-to-slope
seepage build-up. The second model only will be considered below.
The expression developed by Soong & Koerner (1995) for the factor of
safety against sliding of a cover soil on a geosynthetic can also be represented by
a quadratic equation (Equation 3) with the following constants:

-W A(sin2~)(tan<1>
)+Uh(sin~)( (;os~ )(t<:n<1>
)-NA(cos~)l tanb)
-(Wp-U,)(tan<!')
Equation

For the case ot parallel-to-slope

seepage

build-up,

"qu(ltions are given by:

[y whw eos~(2Hcos
sin(2~)

~ - hw )]

10

the const~~ts in the i\b')ve

<

Further, the stress normal to the interf:lcc used in the calculation of the
gcosynthetic tensile force (Equation 8) ~;hould take account of the piewmetric
surface. This equation now becomes:

Ywl

[( a;, -al

)+(y,,,,hw

+Yd(h - hW))COS0( ta~8t1 -tan81

)JL

~
tan0
when.:

WA

Equation
total weight of the active wedge
total weight of the passive wedge
resultant of the pore pressures acting perpendicular to
the slope
resultant of the pore pressures acting on the
interwcdge su; faces
resultant of the vertical pore pressures acting on the
passive wedge
effective force normal to the failure plane of the
active wedge

WI'
V"
Vii

NA

dry unit weight of the cover soil

saturated unit weight of the cover soil
thickness of saturated cover soil (measured
perpenclicular ;0 slope)

Yd
Ysa'
hw

It should be noted that for the case of parallel-lo-slope

up, the ratio of hjh can be defined by the parallel submergence

seepase buildratio, PRS.

Proposed stability analysis methodology

Soong & Koerner (1995) cons;dp,r a grill1lliar cover soil with an internal friction
Hogle of <1>, and in the consideration of secpage forces this is satisfactory. In
addItion, the IIlterfacp. shear strength bctwccn Ii,c upper geosynthetic and the
cover soil is olliy represented by a friction angle (8). In ai, atlt:lIlpt to make this
aj:.proach more generic, the effect of a "over soil wieh cohes;on (c) apd an
interface with a ;;ohesion intrrceot of a, the equati ...ns have bpen re-written to
indude these terms. The inclu~io" of :!1ese parameters will change tfJe b i:;i1dc
terms in the quarlratic equation as follows:
2

-[ W A sin 0 tan
-[ cos0((aL)

J+ [U

<1>

+ N A tan 8)] -

ll

sin 0cos

[(WI' -

P tan <1>]

v) tan -lr ~]sIn 0

<1>]

14

II is proposed thaI the stability of a covn

suil over sevcral layers of
gcosynthetics together with the tcnsion devl.:loped in the gcosynthetics car. be
cstahlishcd as follows:
I.
2.
3.

Calculate
approach
Calc:.Jlate
Bourdeau
Calculate

the factor of safe,] against cover soil sliding using thc

of Soong & Koerner (1995), modified to allow for c and a.
the mobilised tension in the upper geosynthetic
uSlllg
ef at. (1993) with the modification for Ys",a:1d Yd.
the mobilised tension in the remaining geosynthetics.

Example 1
This methodology is used ill thc following example. Consider the stability of a
landlill capping systcm comprising I m of gravely. cover soil resting or, a nonwoven geotextile protection over a I nun thick smooth HDPE geomembrane.
A
blinding layc; of sand I,as been olaced beneati, the geomembr..IIle.
The
maximum slope height is 7.0 m and the slope gradient is 1:3 (18.4).
The
following internal strengths dnd interface shear strengths (obtained from T~bles
1,2 and 3) apply:
Cover SOIl:
Cover s-:Jil/geotcxtilc:
Geotextile/~l1looth ge ...me.nbrane:
Smooth geomembrane/sand:

= 35, c = 0 kPa
8=15,a=OkPa
8 = 10 C' = 0 kPa
~ = 'L7c, C'I. =,) kPa

<1>

The cover soil has a dry unit weight o~ !g kNitro, and a saturated
11 kl'-I/m'. Consider a case of a parallel submersion ratio of 0.25.
The length cf tl1e slope i~ given by:
H

unit weight of

20
sin 18.4

Also, the height of water in the cover soil (perpendicular

hw
PSR x h =
0.25 x 1.0

to the slope) is
0.25 m

From Equatioll 14:

T

WA
18(1.0 - 0.25)(2x20

cos 18 4 - (1.0 + 0.25)) + 21 xO.25(2x20cos

tan 35
[ (0 - 0) + (21xO.25 + 18(1- 0.25))cos 18.4 ( l]9-tan

18.4 - 0.25)]

slIl(2xI84)

[49552+19795]
0.599

lr 18(1

WI'

tan35
(
[ O+17.79~-tanl()
1157.71 kN

10)] 63.36

)] 6J3(i

218.84kN

-0.25 )+2IXO.25
0.599

r IOxO.25 cos 18.4(2x2tJcos

0.599

30.36 kN
18.4 - 0.25)J _
-

149.32 kN

It is unlikely that thc [cnsilc strcngth of a nOIl-wovcn gcotextile will withstand

this tension and it will lead to failure of thc geotexlile in tension and sliding of
thc covcr soil a'ld geotcxtile on thc gcomcmbrane.
There will therefore not be
any tension in the geomcmbrane since failure will occur above il.

IOx025

Example 2

2
1157.7IcosI8.4
0.31

+ 0.31sinI8.4

- 149.32

949.30 kN
0.93 kN

From Equation 9:
a

I 157.7Isinl::;"+cosI8.4
~46.78

il

From Equation

+ 0.31
Since the upper g~osynthctic remains the same, In..: calculated factor of ~afety
relliains the same. The tension in the geolextile is obtained from Squation 14:

12:
- [lI57.71sin2l8.4t?n35J
+ [O.31sinI8.4cosI8.4tan35]
- lcos 18.4(0 + 949.30tan35)J
- [(30.36 - 0.93)tan35) - [OJ
- 732.03

b
FrUf!~

- 0.3Icos218.4

EquatiCJIl J 3:

c
c
Nn'v calculate

Now consider the same case as above bu' this time the smooth geomembrane is
replaced by a textured geomembrane.
The relevant interface shear strength
parameters ar::::
Geotextile/textured
geomembrane:
8 = 26, a. = 7 kPa
Textured geomembrane/sand:
8 = 27, a. = 7 kP~

sin 1!S.4t("-,35~0+ 949.30tan35J

146.91
fac.lor of saf<::tyfr0m:

~(-732.03)2
2x346.78

732.03 + 576.27
693.56
1.89

-575.63 kN

-tan26)]63.36

Since T is negative. the shear strength of the lower interface is greater th~n the
mobilised shear stress on the upper inte~face and there is no tension in the
geo'exti!e.
The mobilispd s:lear stress is thus t~ansferrect trom tht gpotextik to
the geom~r.lbra!1C with no tersion induced in the geotextik.
Now check if there
is any tensicn :n the geomembrane:
) +:7.79

l'

tan 26
---tan2/
1.89

)] 63.36

[-3.30 - 4.47J63.36
-492.30 kN

2a
-l-

[(0-7)+17.79C~n8~5

7
[( ---7
1.89

-b+Jb2=~
-( -73'7.03)

- 4x346.78x146.91
Bence the geomembrane
without any tension.

can also transfer the shear stress to the sand below

Discussion

:lCl,.nowledged. Materials uscd in thc tcsting progr;lml11e were prcl\"ided by GSE

Environ!1lcntal and Geofabrics Ltd, and thanks are due to thesc supplters.

Interface shear strength

The interfacc shcar strcngth parameters given in this paper have been taken from
technical papers available in the literature, in-house testing carried out by Golder
Associatcs in north AlIlcrica and testing carried out at The Nottingham Trent
University.
Thc testing was gcnerally carri.:d out in direct shear apparatus of
varying size. together with ring shear tcsting to obtain.some of the rcsidual shear
strength rarameters. The geosynthetics and soils used in the testing vary widcly
and caution should be exerciscd when using the data prcsentcd in Tahlcs I to 3.
It is suggcstcd Ih;\tthesc values may he used in preliminary designs, however the
authms strcss the illlportanct.: of site specific performanec testing In particular,
tht.: 1l1Can \alues of friction angle and cohcsion intercept presented arc takcn
from tests carried out at normal stresses over a range up LO 600 kPa. Tile valucs
prest.:ntcd in this paper may not be reliable for the design of landfill cappinb
systcms and othcr applications with low normal stresses.
The friction angle and cohesion intercept obtained from any intcrfacc
shear strength testing are simply parameters that describe the failurc cnvelope
for the range of normal stresses used. In other words, they describe the position
of the best fit Iir.e through the data. A reported cohesion intercept does not
necessarily in/ply that there is a she:r strength under zero normal lo:::d, although
some interfaces, c.g. texturcd geomembranc/non-woven
geotextile and internal
strength of geocomposites, will have an actual strength at zero load due to either
t:le mingling of geotextilc fi.bres within the asperities of the geomcmbrane or
from 1:Jonding ~etween various layers cf a geocomposite.
It is up to the
Judgement of the engineer as to what allowancc is made for the cohesion
intcrcept in a deSign situation.

Stability analysis
The method presellted in this paper cxpands on the work of others as Gescribcd
above.
It may be for the case of c"pping systfoms that this simple limiting
equilibrium method w:'1 give satisfactory results. In the ca~e of a la!1dhll sidc
:dope, ho,':evel, the sClllemeIll of ~h(' waste will induce displacements at the
interCdces. 1'1o~der to model these conditions, nu:neric31 techniques can he used
(JJne~, !998) to q<.anlify t:le mobi!ised shear stresses in the system. If such
analyses c"nne: be jwti'ied then the authors wouid recommend that the desitln
engineer uses peak interface shear str~ngth values on the base on the landfill
onlv, ar.d that consideration should be given to using residual shear strengths
along the side slope';.

Acknowledgements
The laboratory testing carried out at The Nottingham Trent University was
fU!1ded by Golder Associates (UK) Ltd. and the EPSRC as part of the Teaching
Company Scheme (Grant Ref. GRlH8573I ). The testing was carried out by the
first author with the help of Mr Robert Stickney, whose help is eratefully

References
13ishop, A.W. (1955).

The use of the slip circle in the stability analysis of carth

slopes, Geotechnique, 5, 7 -17.

Buurdcau, P.L., Ludlow, S.J. & Simpson. H.E. (1993).
Stability of SoilCovered Geosynthetic-Lincd
Slopt.:s: :\ Parametric
Study, Proc.
Geosynthetics '93, Vancouvcr, Canada. 151 1-1521.
Bro!1lhead, E.N. (1979). A simple ring shear :lpp:lratus, Grollnd Fngineering.
12, 5,40-44.
13yrne, R.J. (1994). Design issues with strain suftcning interla-.:c,; in landfill
liners, Proc. Waste Tech '94, Charleston. South Carolina. LS:\, Session
4, Paper 4.
Dixon, N. & Jones, D.R.V. (1995).
strengths from torsional-ring

Discussion on "LaI,dfill liner interfacc

shear te,ts", loumal
of Geotechnical

Engineering, ASCE, 121, 6, 509-5 I O.

.
J.P. & Beech, J.P. (1989). Stability of Soil Layers on Geosynthetlc
Lining Systems, Pr~c. Geosynthetics '89, San Diego, USA.
Janbu, N (1973). Slope stability computations in embankment dam engineering,
Casagrande memorial volume, eds Hirschfield & Poulos. John Wiley,

Giraud,

New York, 47-86.

Jones, D.R.V. (1998). The stability of geosynthetic landfill lining systems, PhD
thesis ia prep., Tilt Nottingham Trent University.
10nt.:s, D.R.V. & Dixon, N. (1998). Shear strength prop<:rties of geomel~-.brane/
geotext:le interfaces, Geotextiles and Geomembranes (ir. press.)
Secd, R.B., Mitchell, J.K. & Seed, H.B. (1988).
Slope stability failure
investiption:
La'ldfill Unit B- i9, Phase I-A, Ktltlf'man
Hills,
California, Peport No. fJCBiCT/88-0J,
Dept. of Civil Engineering,
University 0:' California, Berkeley.
Koerner, R.M. (1990). Designing with Geosymhelics,

Second Edition, Pr"rtice

H:lI

Enl!lewood Cliffs, NJ.

:Coerner,
Hwu, B-L. (1991).
Stability and tension consiJp:rations
regarding cO'v'er .;ciis i!1 geomembran2 li'1ed slopes, Geotextiles GILd

~.M.&.

G::omembranes, to, 4, 335-355.

.
Martin, J.F. & Kflerner, R.M. (1985). Geotl;chnical Design Considerations
Geomembrane
Lined Slopes:
Slope Stability,
Geolextiles

for
and

Geomembranes, 2, 22':)-321.
Orman, M.E. (1994). Interface Shear Strength Properties of Rougr,cncd HDPE,
Journal of Geotechnical Enginep.ring, ASCE, 120,4,758-761.
Soong, T-Y & Koerner, R.M. (1995). Seepage Induced Slope Instability, Prol.
Taylor,

9th GRI Conference, Philadelphia, USA

D.W. (1937). Stability of earth slopes, 1. Boston Soc. Ci\i/ Engrs., 24,
197-246.

Performance testing of protection

materials for geomembranes
B. Darbysltir/IJ,
R. G. Wanvick(lJ and E. Galh:gllel'J
II Environment Agency, Knutsford Road. Warrin~ton, Wit -I I He;
2) veofabrics Ltd, Wellington Mills, Livers('dge, WH15 7XA
3) EDGE Consultants UK Ltd, Simons Way, Manchester, M225PP

Intronuction
The \\'ide acceptance of bcomembranes as an element of !andfill liner or cover
systems both in the UK and abroad has driven the need to assess how these
relatively thin membranes should be protected in an aggressive envir~nment. A
number of protection media are available ranging from ilatural materials such as
~anrjs ano silb to synthetic lTl<ttelialssuch as geotextiles, and indeed recycled
waste materials such as mats of shredded tyres. Understanding of how these
materials perform and the actual degree of protection required is the: subject of
much debate although there is little national guidance available on how to
design and specify the~e materials.
1nis pape, consicers some of these issues and looks to pl:t the debate
in context and provide ba~;Zground en the development of a cylinder test to
assess some vI the performance characteristics of these materials

UK experience
Mil,eral protectors
The iirst polymeric geomembranes were installed in the UK in the 1980s mall1ly
or, the iJack of experience in Germany and the United States. The importance of
protecting the 'nel~1branes was recognised but was perhaps cvc:rshadowed to
some cx~ent by the techl1lcal difficulties associated with installing the
geomembrane itself. As membranes become a familiar sight on many landiil:,
more '1ttp.ntion is now being paid to protecting what is after al! a costly
in\estment. Regulators, designers and operators have also become more aware
of how geomembranes can be damaged during construction of the liner or
capping system, during waste or restoration emplacement, and in the long-term

by point loads causing conditions

cracking to develop.

leading to potential environmental

stress

The f~rst protection layers placed over the early geomembranes were
generally locally won minerals such as sands, silts and clays. The specification
for
these matcrials was generally derived fr~Jlnthe bO'eomembrane manufacturers'
.
IIlstallation guidelines which tended to specify grain size distribution, grain
angularity and the recommended minimum thickness of the layer. Grain size
specifications ranged from less than 2 mm to less than 8 mm although it was
Iccogniscd that the largcr grain sizes could potentially cause damage through
scratchlllg thc upper sui'l'ace of the liner It has been recO!.!nised that smaller
gl'ain si;:es are prone to instability when saturated, so clay: may be prone to
excessive .settlements while silts and fine sands may be prone to filter
instability, particularly during the construction phase when si~nificanl volumes
of waler may require removal from the site (see Kirschner & K~'~it 1993).
Grain shape was generally specified as "non sharp" althouO'h further
definition of this parameter was iare. This specif~cation often led to difficulties
with borderline materials such 25 crusher run fines which maintained a fine
grain size but tended to be angular.
The thickness of the p;otection layer ranged from 100 mm to 150 mm
alt:lough greater thickness ha'le ueen recorded (up to 300mm in some cases). It
IS apparent that these thicknesses wt"'e derived more from construction practice
III other engineering fields rather than scientific justification and technical
ca Iculalion.
.
The above specifications, so long as the materials were Droperly
Installed, probably erred (i,l the side of caution and pr:)perly desiglled mineral
t->rotection layers are as acceptable tod1y as they have always been. There is
little doubt however that the inl:erent variability of natural materials requires
careful at':ention by the desi['ner <tnd within the Construction Quality A:;surance
Pliln (CQP,i-')

Geosynthetic

protectors

Since t:hc late 1980s non wcven g,cotextilec have won a significant part ,)f the
hiler protection market used eitner in c:ombinatio;', with a mineral or as a stand
alai Ie plotector. The drivers behind this change include lowcr ::osts due to void
space savings, ease ana speed of installation (with a lower risk Jf construction
da:~lage to the liner) and :he relative homogelleity ot the material leadil;g to
Simpler
CQA. As with "II manufactured materials there are siO'niricant
.
.
b
variations between products and unfartunately there; is no current industry
standard (apart from the cylinder test) that allows the characterisation of these
I;laterials with regilrd to their likely protection performance over their predicted
lifespan.
Other geosynthetics
used as protectors for geomembranes
are
geocomposites,
geosynthetic clay liners, protection mattresses alld mats
manufactured from shredded tyres.

There ,1re J number vI' challenges which the landfill designt'r has to
accept when proposing a geosynthctic JS a protcctor for a polymeric liner. these
are:i) establishing the required design life for the protector;
ii) establishing the geotechnical design parameters such as vertical and
lateral forces, the nature of the point loads, likely shear stresses due to waste
settlements (particularly on slopes), and predicting temperature, chemical and
biological stresses at the base of a landti";
iii) the appropriate specification of gcotcxtiles In contract documents
(i.c. whether to specify the malerials properties such as mass per unit ;lI'ca, CBR
value, or any combination of a rangc of tcsts; or to givc a pcrf0nnance
specification which the contractor or supplier has [0 meet with Ihe proposed
materials);
iv) making decisions with regcird to the type ane! frequcncy of quality
assurance testing: and
v) making decisions with regard to thc constituents 01 Ihc g,eotextile
(virgin or recycled fibres not previously used in another product).
Function of the protective layer
:n order to make decisions with regard to testing protectors it is essential to
establish the primary and secondary functions ('If this layer within the overall
landfill design, North West Waste Regulation Officers (N WIYRO) (1995)
iJrovide "n overall objective 1'01 liners "to protect the liner system from stresses,
puncture and penetra~ion from overlying drainage media ,dld was~c". Kirschner
& Witte (1994) recognises short term dynamic alld long term static loadings
which could damage geomembranes. German Geotechnical :';ociety (1993)
advises that the main role of the protective layer is the "permanent distribution
Of concentrated
stresses on the geomembrane due to the angularity of the
drainal'e blanket, the protective effect of the geotextile, if any, chemical
resista~ce to leachate and resistance to slippage if appropriate"
These vario'-ls definitions indicate the differing perspectives of
designer::: and i egulators and it :s essential th.lt lhe protector ;s seen as an
element in the liner svste;n and It ,.,.ill therefore interact with the m3terials
around it. This suggest; that the designer needs not only to :l::\ve ,egard for the
objecti'/es outlined abJve but also for site specific geotechnical parameters of
the lining syst~m ir,cludiilg the interaction of the p,otedor with other matt'rials
in the system,
Testing of protective layers
There are at least three different stages of testing whieh should be routinely
undertaken on any material which is proposed to be included in a landfill
engineering project. These tests which can include index and performance tests
are:-

i) Design related testing - it i~ recommended that site specific

performance testing is undertaken for the purposes of design. The data collect at
this stage will inform the design process and should resolve any site specific
que. lions such as side slope stability and the interaction between different
mak,ials irl the lining system.
i i) Source quality control and source qual ity assurance - these tests are
undertaken on the proposed materials at source (for example at the factory or
quarry) and are designed to provide assural,ce that the proposed material is
uniform and will meet the general performance criteria for the specified
purpose.
iii) Construction Quality Assurance - is undertaken at the landfill site
and includes conformance testing (eLccking that the material delivered is the
material approved at the design stage) and installati(Al checking and testin;
(providing assurance that the materials have been installed correctly in
accordance with the agreed method).
Testing for quality should normally include all three of the above steps
It is essential to recognise however that the steps are not separate and that
information collected at earlier stages, if relevant to the aClual material to be
used, may fulfil some of the requirement of the later stages. The frequency and
natul e of testing should be relateci to the risks associated with the potential
failure of the material; if the consequences of failure could lead to significant
pollution or significant costs related to remediation then it might reasonably be
expected that the testing programme would be more rigorous.
The following list of t~sts does not include all possible material tests
Nhich could be undertaken. Site specific issues may require particular tests; [!le
two basic principles to apply are, w ill the material perform as desired and has
that material been installed to the approved design specification. No attempt has
been made in the following list to define test types, the reason for t:lis is th:t
many tests (particularly those for geosyntktics)
are likely to change due to
developments in Europe where new test protocols have been a'ld arc being
developed.
Mineral prottjctive layors
CohtsiUe pi otecti'"e :ayers wouie! normally be subject to the follow ing:
Compaction tests to jetenT1in~ a compaction cmve

moisture cor,tent tests

consolidatiLln tests
she:ar strength tests
Granular pr0tective layers would normally be subject to the fvllowing:
particle size distribution tests

chemical compatibility tests

slake durability tests

mineralogy tests

crush strength tests

tests to assess the angk of friction (saturated if the material is
not free draining)
Mineral protectors may need a separator layer between the protection layer and
the drainage medium if there is any likelihood of the materials mixing during
either the construction or the operation phases of the site.
Geosynthetic protective layers
Geosynthetic pro:ectors should be subject to the follo\\ing:
penetration tests such as the CBR puncture test

mass per unit area tests

carbon black content tests

static plate tests such as the cylinder tesl

tensile tests

chem ical tests

base polynler type tests

thickness tests

cone drop tests

installation damage tests

Performance
testing of protectors
The primary objec:tive of a protector is to protect the linE'r dl'ring cons:ruction,
operation and post closure phases of landfill development from stresses.
pllncture and penetration, ensuring that we pollut;on prntection function of the
liner is not eomprolnised Given this, the designer is faced with the challenge of
predicting the nalt.:re of, and calculatirg the rr,agnitudf' of such stresses, and
matshing these with a suitable material which will provide an appropnatt hovel
of protection with a factor of safety linked, throllgh risk assessment. to the
con~cquences of Cai~.II~.
(liven the current levt; vf understanuing of :hc geomech:mics uf waste
!:cdies t:,is is nn easy (aSK. :v1anv natur,,1 and !"'1anufaclured ror,3tructilJn
mJte,ials ;,ave been extensiveiy testd for other applic:lliuns such as high\ays
and this work is often miS&pplied to landtill engineerif1g. There rel:Jair. howevor
'I significant
nllmber of unknowns which Illa1:e accurate quantitative desigr,
difficult. These include macro scale p,ohlems sl\ch 1S prf'dictin~ th-: frictional
stresses imposed during emplaselnenl. waste degradation <lnd settlement and
predicting constrllctional stresses imposed when installing drainage materials:
and micro scale problems SL:cll liS the magnitude of point stresses developed
through protector layers due to static and shear loadings. It is attempting to
address these gJpS in our understanding of the physical, chemical and biological
environment within landfills which has led to the development of performance
test~ such as those detailed below.

Any rCrrOrl11:lIl' !c i<;dcvcloped from the principle of modelling

reality as closely as possible_ It is inhercnt in such tests therefore that they are a
simplification of real it)' and assumptionc are necessarily made. The designer
should be aware of the assumptions unch.:r1ying such tests. Basic assumptions
include uniform conditions such as temrerature, loading rates, waste densities
and simplifications of the subgrade_ Mor-e profound assumptions relate to the
rheological behaviour of HDPE geonlcl11branes (e.g. upon which the failure
criterion of 0.251., local strain in the cylinder test is based (Sehrbrock, 1993)).
Field trials
()n<.: valuable source or pCrl(>rIllanCe data would be the exhumatio;J of
protection layers that have bcen installed in landfills. Geophysical testing or
liners USilig electrical methods (in use since the early 1990s) has demonstrated
the damage that can be caused to geomembranes during the installation of
mineral protection layers. These tests h:1ve shown that installation damage can
be caused due to the selection of an unsuitable material (for example by
oversized or sharp gravels); and the selection of incorrect plant and machinery
either oVer stressing the geomembrane due to machinery tracking and slewing
over thin layers of protection materiai or causing direct puncture juring
spreading or placing of minerals_ Some of these problems are related to
inadequate l,litial design, poor sUr'ervision during the installation of the
protector and plant op..:riltnrs not having a full appreciation of how easily
geomembranes can be punctured.
There are no records of IJroteclors being systematically tested and
assessed after lon6 telll1 burial under significant depth of waste. This is an area
that could be explored if wastes were being removed for reasons other than
simply to assess the protector as the costs associated with such removal would
be significant.
Trial pads
Tria! p;:ds have been construsted on " number of landri!b with differe:~t
prc:ector~ used to allo;-I a com:1arison between di~Terent materials. The concept
here is to develop a small "re" '11'li,ler u~ing the plan, and equipment which
will be used during the full scale construction (see Figure 1). Th~ advllnt:1ge of
such trials is that the actual construci;on materials and plant can oe IIsed,
theoreticaliy making the lest ,nore true ru iife. It is however difficult to load the
pad to reflect the pressures likely to be caused by the overburden of the waste.
Undertaking such trials can however be complex, especially if it is intended to
compare a number of different materials. One of the main difficulties involved
is assessing the stresses on the liner, particularly when relatively small stresses
could lead to long-term failure.

Lahoratory performr'lnce tests for geotextiles

To date there are no I~.boratory scale tests developed to directl:- assess the
efficacy of mineral protectors although there is no reason why some of the
principles underlying the cylinder test could not be applied :0 mineral
protectors_
Laboratory performance tests have been developed to rest the
~rotection efficiency of 6eorext ;Ies. The tW::l:~o~t C;Jmmon test~ used in Europe
are derivations or the "Quc Vadis Schutzlagen" (trar:slated as "". ~ither next
protection layers") cylinder test and ti,e Austrian pyramidal puncture test. These
tests have been developed to J::-ovide the opportunity to ~r0vide comparable,
repeatable rests :01' asse~sing geotextile protection efficiency, and are generally
based on the principle of applying design loads onto 2 geotextile/geomembfane
:ombination ~'ld assessing either the stress at rupture or using telltales to assess
the deg.-ee of strain. The principles and methodologies of these te;cs are well
documl"'lteu elsewn~re (se<- E:~vironment Agency, 1998 and Au~us: &: Lud~r~.
1997) and therefore it ;s not intended to cover specific test c1etails ir: t'-liJ paper.
I-Io',"ever, a significant Piop0,1ion of t!le literature on the cylinder ;e~: has been
produced by Gel man researchers and is noi readily aVailable in -:lain steam
jC:lrnals. In orde:- to a:d a reader whe wishc= to obtain inl'orma:'i)!1 on {he
development
of Ole test, and issues of illle:-pretarion of te;I results. a
bibliography containing a number of the key references is included a: [he end of
the paper.

Development of the Environment Agency cylinder test

The work undertaken by the Quo Vadis Schulzlagen working group in Germany
in the late eighties and early nineties led to the devtlopment of a cylinder test in
which gravels from the proposed drainage layer are placed over a
geotextile/geomembrane/metal
plate/rubber pad 3%embly with design loads
applied. The telltale plate is then measured to assess the degree of strain which
the geomembrane
has been exposed to, so that the effectivcness of the
geotextile in protecting the geomembrane from stresscs can be determined.
Figures 2 and 3 show a schematic of thc gcneral tcst arrangement and a view
during operation, respectivcly.
Experience of the test in the UK has generally been positivc providing
a method of comparing different gcotextiles for their suitability as protectors.
Problcms arose in 1997 as the number of test houses providing the test grcw and
inconsistencies in the test apparatus, test methodology and reporting of results
started to become apparent. In June 1997 one of the test houses decided that
action was needed to ensure a greater degree of consistency and it was at this
stage that the Environment Agency was invited to provide the regulator's point
of view and to hold responsibility for the publication and maintenance of the
test protocol until it could be passed to eithe" to British Standard Institution or
CEN (European Committee for Standardisation) or it was super~-::ded by another
test.

I applied load
2 upper steel nlate
3 sand
4 sepa,ator geotextile
5 drainage aggregate
6 geotextile specimen
7 geoIr. em brane
8 !'ldal sheet
9 den~t: rubber rad
10 low~r steel plate
II load cells
12 cylinaer
13 settlement gauge

8/

/
/
9

t t~
11

A smilll team Ilil<; formed uf interested parties including UK and

German geotextile
manufacturers.
test houses, academia, industry and
representatives from an env;onmentp.1 body (interested in t.;ndertaking research
or, the issuc) to develop a detailed test methodology with the intention of bring a
degree of consistency to th..: various asp<:cts of the test. The output of the group
is the Fnvironment
Agency's "I\. Methodology for Cylinder Testing of
P~'otectors for Geome1l1branes" dated March 1998. This eleven page test method
is heavily based on th,,: uriginal German work and the in-house methodologies
developed by Geofabrics in Huddersfield and Explora:ion Associates in
Sunderland.
F!'onl the sta,t of the 1V0rk ;' lVa~ dpcdet:l that the jJroposed
lY'eL1lOdology~!lOuld not include any guiJance on interpretation of the results
bec3u<e the anderly:ng rrillciples of the test still require further research before
they can be fully validated. The reaS0n for ::tllowing the publiraLon of the teet
before full vaLdation was in recui:\nition of the wiJespread use uf tbe test and its
rec0~ni~ed conservative nature. 'j he uniform tcst methodology aiso gives the
opportunity for the further planned lesearch to be undertaken on a single
mdhodology.
The main issues that reuain outstanding witn regard to the test
are:-.

10
i) Assessment of the test results was developed from work on HOPE
pipes as used in highway wO!'ks Further research is required to validate the
assessment for HOPE in membral,e form and for the landfill environment.

ii) The original test provides acceleration

factors which where
experimentally
derived from simplified extrapolations
of the deformation
behaviour of HOPE. There is a need to consider whether this can be extended to
cover other materials.
iii) Measurement of the telltale plate - work
that plate measurement
should be autor,lated to
selecting indentations to be measured. Further work
assess whether automated measurement does make
the overall result.

done in Germany suggests

remove operator error in
is needed on this issue to
a significant' difference to

iv) rhe telltale plate in the original QIIO Vadis test was 0.55mm organ
pipe ::.etal, in the UK the plate is I.3mm lead to BS 1178. During the
development of the cylinder test methodology a supporting test "a methvdology
for determining the deformation characteristics
of lead sheet" (Annex A to
Environment Agency 1998) was introduced to ensure consistency in the telltale
plate. It is considered that with further deyclopment of the Annex A test it may
be possible to widen the specification of the metal to allow other metals to be
used so long as the result of the cylinder [est remains consistent.
v) The dense rubber pad performs tLe function of a standard subgrade.
Work is needed here to bctter characterise the types of subgrade that the pad
represents.

ConclL:sions
Performance
testing of protectors for landfill liners and covers provides
valll~ble design ir.lormation and aSSl'rance that the rroposed materiai~ should
perform in acccrdance
\"ith the pollution prevention objectives set by the
Environment Agency. It is essential however to ensure that where perfonnance
tests et"e proposec1 they are a part of the o"erall design testing regime and th~t
the rt'sult~ cf such testing are seen in the context of :he limitations of the te'it
mC'thoaology. rhe Rnv;r'Jnmer.~ Agencv c/lindcr lest has been Jeveloped, in
partnership with othe:'s, (8 bring .::onsistency to the te~t methodology and to ast
as a ~ta:1:ing peint trom which Further rcsearch cal: be done.

Ackr.owledgements
The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors,
necessarily represent the views of their employers.

and do not

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~
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geomembranes, Part 11: Experimental. Ceosyn/he/ics In/erna/iv/wl, 3,
5,655-675.

North West Wdste Regul:nion Officers Technical Sub-Group (1995). Po!1l1lion

control objectives for landfill design, development and operation.
Available from Fnvironment Agency, Regional Waste Team,
Warrington, UK.
National Sanitary Foundallon (1991). Standard 54-1991, Flexible membrane
liners, NSF International, Michigan, USA
Sehrbrock, U. (1993). Protection layers for landfill sealing systems,
effectiveness and testing, originally published in German in
Entsorgungspraxis. 6. 458-465.
Shercliff, D. (1994). Membranc protection in landfills. 3rd International
Can! on the RCII'.eu/eontaminated land and land/ills, (Ed. Forde, M.),
Engincering Technics Press, Edinburgh (ISBN 09:: 7644 14 0 I).
Shercli ff, D. (1996). Optim isation and testing of liner protection geotextiles i:l
landfills. Pmc. /.11 European Geosynthetics Conf. Geosynthetics
Applications, Design and Construction, (Ed. Groot, M.B., Den Hoedt,
. G. & Termatt, ~.J.), A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam (ISBN 90 5410 836 3).
Shercliff, D. (1997). Specification and testing of liner protection geotextiles in
landfills. Protec geosystem AB Seminarium, Taby (Copies from
Geofabrics Ltd., Huddersfield, UK).
von Maubeuge, K. & Dixon, J. (1992). Geomembrane plvtection layers for
landfills, a summary of German experience. Institute of Wastes
Management Workshop, Solihull, UK.
Witte,1:\.. (1997). P,'Jctice-oriented investigations to improve geotextile
protective layers s>stems for geomembraJl~~ with regard to their long
term prott>clive efficacy. Advanced Landjili Liner Systems (Ed.
August, Holzlohner & Meggyes) Thomas Telford, London, 271-277
(ISBN 0 7277 2590 4).

Engineering properties and use of

geosynthetic clay liners
Eo Gartul1g alld fl. Zallzillger
,.GII, Nuremberg, Germany

Introduction
The construction of barriers against the flow of water is a common assignment ;n
civil engineering. It applies particu:arly to environmental issues, such as the
cor,tainment of hazardous substances and solid wastes ir. engineered landfills. The
most conventional method to execute seals in landfill construction is by placement
of layers of low permeability soil material. The technique of designing and placing
compacted clay lil~ers is well understood and based on a iO,lg history of
applici,tion in hydraulic stnlctures
1\!1
ineral seals such as compacted clay layers are executed by heavy earth
moving, soil procC3sing and compacting equipment. The work dCIJends on the
weather conditions and obviously requires ~esources of suitable fine grained soil
material.the design thickness of the mineral seal can be GeterfYlinedon the basis
of c0rnputations of the hydraulic flux. Allowances have tc be made in the design
for the scatter of properties of natural soils as well as for inhomogeneities and
Imperfections in soil compaction. Tile thickness cf mineral seals in landfill
structures li",s typically in tLc ;'ange of 0.5 to 1.5 m, depending on the IUlictional
reql!;rements of the particular case. For eX(l.lllple, in Cerrnan regulatic.ns 0.5 m
thick c')m~acted cia;; layers are required for landtill cap". Easalliners fur iilJldfills
to contain combustion residue, from domestic waste should CO;1sist of
:;eom~mbranes ill combinatiop with 0.75 m '~lick comi:Jacte::lclay iiners and those
101'hazardous waste of con,pcsites 0; geomembranes and 1.5 m thick compa:ted
clay layers
The great thicbess of the conventional mineral seals causes substantial
eartl1 moving activities with associated costs, delays and environmental impacts.
The use of much thinner clay layers which are more efficient, is clearly of gre:!t
benefit. So it is not surprising, that the application of pure bentonite, a' clay with
very high sealing effect, has been considered for mineral liners in landfill
construction. Since the h)::raulic conductivity of bentonite is smaller than that of

most of the compacted natural cldys by <lbout iwo orders lIf magnitude, a layer of
Oile cer,tinretre thickness of pure bentonite exhibits the same se,ding effect as a
compacted clay liner of 0.5 to 1.0 m thickness (Gartung, 1995).
In practice it is not possible to place a bentonitf' layer of a few
centimetres thickness by the technology used in common eaIihworks. The
be!'tonite must be installed by means of some kind of containment which is filled
with dry bentonite indusrrially, transpOr1ed to the site and then put into position in
the structure. Thin panels of bentonite sandwiched between card boards have been
used in building consrruclion for a long time. Geosynthetic clay liners, GCLs,
ellll'/o)' tllc same p,inciplc. ;\ thin layer orJry bentonite is sandwiched between an
upper anJ a lowcr Ik\ible geotextile. The triple-laycr-composlte is held together
by stitch bonJing, needle punching or other te.\tile techniques. So the construction
product GeL <lppears as a thin illat that can b~ rolled up. GCL rolls are transported
to the construction si,e by trucks. The GCL is easily placed on prepared grade.
Once covered by a layer of protecting soil it serves the sal~le purpose as the thick
compacted clay liner, and ruks have been established for the assessment of the
equivalency of GCLs to compacted clay liners (Koerner el aI., 1995a).
The first GCLs were introduced more than 10 y-;ar< ago. In the meantime
about 10 different manufaetllrers of geosynthetics have be~n developing,
producing and marketing their special types of GCLs. All of them follow the
principle of sandwiching bentonite as the sealing mineral comp~nent between
pervious geotextiles (Koerner el aI., I ':J95b). There are some differences in tIle
bentonites used and also in the applied g~otextiles. So a certain spectrum of GCLs
wilh varying propeliies is avail~ble to the design engineer. One product whieh
combines bentonite with a plastic geomembrane is also classified as a GCL. B:.Jt
due to the overriding sealing properties of the geomembrane these GCLs beha'/e
more like geomembranes and they are not considered ::1 the present paper.
GCLs have been ll~ed in landfill capping s;'st;:ms to a great extent worldwide. In some countries like the USA where double liner basal seals are
constructed, GCLs are also employed successfully as one of the two mineral liners
at the bottom of lar.dfills. In Germany where bas~;j liners consist of composites of
one geomembrane in intimate contact with 'me mineral seal, GCLs are not used in
basallir.;ng systems of landfills. Besides the application to landfills GCLs Jre used
in hydraulic construction, e.g. (If retaining ponds or in transporation f;jcilities such
as railways, roads and h igh,\ays crossing areas where the ground \/ater ueserves
special measures of poilution prevention.

Function and properties

Bentonite
Bentonite essentially consists of clay minerals of the smectile group,
montmorillonite being the dominant species. Due to their particular physicochemical properties, montmorillonite crystals contain exci,angeable cations,
mostly sodium or calcium. For practical purposes, a distinctio'1 is made between

bentcnites which predominantly consist of moiltl1lorillonite. \'Iit~ sodium cati.om

and bentonites which predominantly consist of montmonlloftlte .with calCl~m
cations. For convenience they are called sodium-bentonite and calclum-bento~lte.
Both of these fonns are encountered in nature and obtai~ed ?y open pIt mlllmg.
Bentonites are processed for many different industnal applIcatIons.
.
Most of the GCLs use natural sodium bentomte. Some use a bentOnIte
which in nature occurs as calcium bentonite but by processing is convert~d to a
sodium bentonite. To our knowledge up to now there is only one Gel that uses
natural calcium bentonite. Some manufacturers add chellllcals to Improve the
performance of their bentonite. The bentonite is delIvered 10. till' , GCL
manufacturer <ISa dry powder or 111 granulated form :\ Ithough It IS d(,f!,\ed lrom a
mined natural product, there is very little scatter in the propertIes ot processed
bentonites delivered by competent sUiJpliers.
.
Since bentonite ;:Jarticles are extremely small, their s~rface area IS very
large. They can adsorb great amounts of water. So~ium bentonite can reac: wa~er
contents of about 600%, calcium bentonite up to JOO%. T!~.eyare s\\ell:nb wIllie
they acquire these high water contents, As notic~d by the difference 111 rrc~ swell
water contents, the swelling capacities of sodIUm and ~alcIUm tentomte are
different and so are their hydraulic conductivities, and thelT shear strengths, ~e
hydraulic conductivity is lowest for sodium bentonite, that is why thIS mmeral IS
preferably used for GCLs. It reaches an order of magnitude of 10'.11m '5 .. But .It the
s.Jme time, the shear strength is also lowest for sodium bentolllte \\ ~Ich causes
concerns with respect to the stability of slopes (Madsen & Nliesch, 199)).
Since the pmperties which make sodiurYl bentonite perform ~s an
excellent sealing material are related to its interaction with water. the qualIty of
bentonites can be evaluated on the basis of their:

swelling capacity (free swelling)

water adsorption capacity

methylene blue adsorption

cation ~xchange capacity and density of cations

,..
These properties can be detennined by relatively simple. t~sts useo to,lden~lfy
bentonites in practice (Egloffste;n, 19':15). More SOplllStlC':terl mme,aloglcal
analyses m"y be advisable for product c1evelopmen~ allu III speCial case"
Sin.::e bentl)nitc f'xhibits swelling wIth substdlltlal vo!um~ mcrease when
wat~r is addee', it undergoes shrinkage by equivalent an',ounb ("Ifvolu!"'le reduction
when it desiccate~ . .sodium bentonite can be subjec,~d to an UnlI;,l!t~d number of
swellinp- and shrinkage cycles witilOut changes of its propertit''i .as IO'1g as the
~hel11is~ of the water-clay mineral system is not changed. Df''i!ccatlOn cracks
heal and close again due to swelling provided the soil stTurture !S no: IIlfluenced
by chemical processes. However, water percolating through soil IIlvanably
contains some cations and anions in solution, which can react with the sodium
montmorillonite minerals. This means that an exchange of some or even all of the
sodium ions by other cations (in practice mainly by calcIUm Ions) ha~ to be
anticipated, when wetting-drying cycles occur. So, depe,ldl!1~ on the phySical and

)
J

I
I I
J

~hemical n.lilieu parameters the propel1ies of the GCI in place may undergo SOine
chang~s wIth tIme due to cation exchange.
J

Geotextiles
The most important property of geotextiles used for the production of GCLs is
thclr durability. They have to resist the highly alkalinc chemical environlllcnt of
the bentonIte and the chemistry of the water, in some cases leachate.
Polypropylene (PP) and polyethylenc of high density (II OPE) mcet this
requIrement. So plastics of these types arc commonly lIsed for the upper and the
lower gcotextile layer of GeLs which may be woven fabrics or mechanicalhbonded nonwove:1S. The transmissivity of the geotextiles should be low t~
Il1IllIll1lSeIlqtl'd. flo\\' along the GCL surface. Generally, the geotextilcs havc to be
~elected accordIng to their function, which is to retain the bentonite powder or
",ranules and facilItate handllllg, transportlllg and placing of the GCLs. So the
geotextlles should have apparent opening sizes in a suitable range and be of
adequate mecnanlcal robustness. Experience in quality control lesting reveals that
III practIce only 11IghqualIty geotextiles are employed fe:' the production of GCLs.
There are pn:ctlcally no complaints with respect to the geotextiles and r.o failures
cal1sed by theIr l:ladequacy.
The gecsynthetic composite Gel
GCLs are c~mp~sites of !Jentonite and geotextiles As mentioned above, their
seallll~ functIon IS based upon the low hydraulic conductivitv and the swellina
capacity of the be:ltonite. The geotextile ~ompO!lents provide strength. The~
determme th..: mechaJlJcal properties of GCLs. The shear strength of hydrated
benton Its IS extremelv Icw. In fac1. a thin ',\'et bento'1ite layer acts as a lubricant.
GCLs WIthout mechanical bond between the three layers would have fiLl intem~:
shear ~treng[h at a!1. So the ties between the two geotextile layers with the
sandWiched b~ntOJlJte between them is cf prir.:e importance. These :ies are
stressed when the bentoni~e is hydrating <dldthe :;v.elling bentonite exoeriences an
~ncease III v01~lme. Tht ,s:Nelling pre~s<Jrethat "Juilds uf! withi'l t!~e GCL dr:ring
. yd.atl:Jn due to tIle IeSl.IctlOIl of the bentonite ':o:um~ il'crease by ,he I)OliJS
Improves the sealing effect. The fibres that tie tht" GCL toge(~ler &re per::lanently
stresserJ as long as the GCL ISwet. Their l"nsile forces increase when the GCL is
placed on a slOpe and the textile ~ies preve!'t the soil layers 1bove th<:GCL from
slIdlllg 01' a slIp plane within the bentonite la\er.
,
Consequently, the internal strength ~f GCLs must be \\an'anted for longtel m condItions. Tests a:ld experience up to now prove that the Iona-term intern;1
sl,e<:r strength of the currently available GCLs meets design re;uirements for
slopes III landfill engmeenng. In most practical cases, interface friction at the
uppe~ and lower surfaces of the GCL turns out to be the controlling parameter in
stabilIty analyses of landfill slopes rather than the internal shear strength.

Testing
General remarks
All of the properties of the components of thL geosynthetic composite, GCL,
discussed in the previous chapters, havc to be udcrmiiled by testing. Tests are
carried out during the phase of product devclopmcnt for the selection of the best or
most suitable bentonite and geotextiles. Tcsts are carried out during the production
phase to verify the quality of the componcllis. The rclevant testing methods for
bentonitc anu lor geolcxtilcs arc compiled in Tabks :2 and 5. Tests to be
performcd roulincly on the gcocomposite (i( '1. arc prcsented in Table I.
III audition 10 the routine tests 011 hcntoJlilc, 011 geotextiles and on GCLs
which detcrmillc their lccllllical propcrties. nUIlH.:rous perfonnancc tests were
carried out on GCLs or on CCI,-soil systems. In sllch tests the behaviour of the
GCL in special ~ituations was studied. For eX<lInplc,thc tightness of overlap joints
was evaluated on the basis of large scale constant head permeation tests, the
influence of strains on the sealing effcct b\ t,::sts on samples first submitted to
tensile forces and subsequently to hydraulic gradients. Some large scale tests have
been reported, simulating the tensile detormation of the GCL at the bottom of a
pond observing the permeation during and aftc:r tensile straining of the GCL under
constant head of water. The self healidg propcl1ies of GCLs were studied Cl~
samples with holes of different sizes. GCL samples were submitted to freeze/thaw
cycles and to drY/het cycles clc .. Extensive testing was also performed onGCL
samples exhumed in the field ~rom landfi!' covers. They aimed at de~cribing the
condition of the GCL after a cel1ain time in the fieln and comprised all of the tests
mentioned already plus X-ray anaiyses fG. the detcction of desiccation c.acks.
Research is under way :It the present time to clarify the drying wetting, cracking
and healine phenomena by suitable experilIlents.
Am0ng all of the experimental methods mentioned, the tests for the
detennination of the sealing properties, pemlittivity tests, and the tests for the
determination of the shear strength are of immediate importance to practical
application of GCLs. Short coml11,:nts are given on these two tests in the folic wing
paragraphs.
Permittivity
The performance o!' the seal GCL is qdantified by its nennittivity. TJ:1cfl!'x, that is
t!:e quantity of water that pc .meates through the GeL over a cer:ain area under a
certain hydraulic graGient in a certdin time is Je:ined as the; permittivity ljJ, unit
m'/(m2emCls).
The permittivity can be determined more precisely than the
coefficient of hydraulic conductivity k = \ji , d, in wl1ich the tilickness d of the
GCL at the time of flux measurement is inrroduced. Since it is not easily possible
to measure d, most of the penneability coefficients k of GeLs presented in product
documents are based on an estimate of the \'alue d.
The experimental determination of the permittivity of GCLs is somewhat
involved, because the flux through an "impen :ous" material is very small and

very sloll'. The penilittitivity of GCL3 is measured in flexible wall permeameters

or in rigid wall permeameters.
Triaxial testing apparatus is common in soil mechanics laboratories for
the measurement of soil shear strength and soil permeability are used as flexible
wall permeameters. They facilitate the determination of the flux through the GCL
under fully saturated conditions, while they are carried out with back pressure.
f !Owever, the stepwise application of the back pressure and the cell pres~ure in the
triaxial apparatus have 10 be applied with great care to avoid either
preconsolidation which Icads to unconservalive values of permittivity or sample
disturbance which leads to unrealistically high values of pennittivity. Triaxial tests
require the application of a certait, minimum surcharge load which is higher than
the overlJlmlen preSSl're or landfill cover systems. The permittivity cannot be
detennin-:d correctly for conditi<l"~ of small vertical stresses. Since the chamber
pressurc acts as confining stress on the sample, triaxial tests cannot be used for the
measurement of the pennittivity of GCL samples which contain cracks or fissures,
because evidently the cracks would be closed by the confining pressure.
The testing method with rigid wall permeameters overcomes scme of the
shortcom ings of the triaxial tests. However, saturation of the GCL sample cannot
be achieved under cOlttrolled conditions and the execution of permitLvity tests in
rigid wall permeameters is more expensive. That is perhaps why tri::xial testing is
more popular. Triaxial testing is also standardised in the USA as ASTM [' 588795.

Only the rigid wall testing method should be employed for the
detennination of the permittivity ofGCLs under low vertical pressures, like for the
applicat;,m in landfili covers, and for the measurement of the pen'littivity ofGCLs
wh ich may contain cracks, fissures or macro-pores.

as the geotextile components cxhibit time dependent stress strain behaviour and
strengtl~. So this point is very important and has to be consid~red carefully .. In
shear tests for the determination of interface friction the propertIes of the m.ate~lal
in contact with the GCL have to be taken into account. If the adjacent m~tenal tS a
soil, conditioning to the relevant density and water content must be achleve~, and
the appropriate drainage conditions during shear have to be obsel"\ ed accordlllg to
soil mcchanics practice. If the adjacent materIal IS a geosynthctlc product, Its
properties havc to be considered likewise.
..
.
..
Long-tcrm inclined plane tests for the d<:tcrnllnallon of the Internal sheal
strength of G-CLs arc rep0I1cd by l-Ieel1en el (//. (19<)5). There i, some research
unde; way for the development of special test dCI ices for 10ng-i(T~nshear tests
( -r rau~~r e I u",
{.:=
(
I Inn6) [al'''c'
sC'lle
in situ tests 011 slopes were per'formed III the
USA ~lIltilsome of the GCL contact planes failed (Carson eI a!., 1908).
..
This short summary of shear testing should indicate that e<'ch applicatIOn
of GCLs involves site specific details that have to be studied carefully before shear
parameters are selected for slope stability analyses from the Incrature o~ fr~m
cases executed in the past. Often it is mandatory to perform shear tests WIth sIte
specific 'naterial and boundary conditions.
'.1'/

__

Property
Water adsorption
or tluid loss
Swelling volume _____
V.ontr'lorillo.liK content
Water content

Strength
When GCLs are employed in landfill Cupping systems, thei,' internal shear strength
3pd the sheai resistance a~ their contact interfaces with adjacent soils or
geosynthetics must be known for slope stability analyses, The relevant shear
parameters are determi:led uy shear tes:s in :;hedr boxes 30 bv 30 ("n. P, partie'llar
problem w:th such shear tests on GeLs is the transmission of the shear forces to
the GCLs, in practice pla~ens provided with shore naib have worked successfully.
Tht're are a r.umber of details to be considered when shear tests are executed for
the determinatior. of inter:lal or COiltaets:lear s~rengths of GCLs.
Refore the GCL is put intJ the shear box, it has to be cOolditioned to the
desired water content. This process involves swelling of the bentonite. The type
and amount of water added, the normal pressure acting on the GCL during
swelling and the swelling time have to be selected and recorded. It makes a
difference, whether the shear phase of the test is carried Out under "dry" or under
"wet" conditions, that means with or without external water having access to the
bentonite in the GCL. The magnitude of the normal force acting on the shear plane
during the test has to be decided, and the shear velocity. The soils involved as well

Mass per unit area (GTX)

Mass per unit area (GCL)
Bentonite content
Tensilc strength
Te:~sile elongation
I~te~al she~r slr,:ngth
Permittivity
or index fJllX
Pe1l11itcivityin overlajJped
areas
Gas permeability
Installc.tion damage

Test methud
DiN 18132
or ASTM D 5891
ASTM D 5890
VDG P69 o~ by
X-Ray Diffraction
DfN 18121-1 or ASTM
D 4643
eN 965
EN 965 0, ASTM
D 5993
ASTrvI D 5993
EN ISO 10319

Components
Bentonite

LGA GK-3 or AST:\'i D5321

DfN 18130-!
or ASTM D 588"1
At present !'o referable
standard (NR~)
NRS
prENV 10722-1

GeL

Bentonite
Bentonite
Bentonite
Geotexti les
GCL
GCL
GCL

GCL
GCL
GCL
GCL

Product description

Manufacturing quality assurance

There are (l number of different GCLs on the market at the present time. In order
to evall,ate their properties and to test their ql .Iity, the products must be properly
described. Table I summarises all data needed :or an aJequate product description
ofGCLs.

MOC of raw materials and product

The terms of delivery for geotextiies to be used in the manufacture of

GCLs include detailed production descriptions. Moreover, all products to be used
must be marked (pl"i~N ISO I03~0). The markings must continue to be easy to
read, waterp;'oot~ and Illust he repeated at least every five metres. No product may
be installed which is not clearly identifiable and l11:lrked.

Quality

aspects

General
The sealing bentonite layer of GCLs has an effective thickness of 5 to 10 mm.
GCLs are very efficient but at the same time very sensitive construction elements.
Variations of 2 to 3 mm in thickness, which are not considered significant in
conventional earthwork engineering, "':ould res,"t III changes in permittivity 0,- 30
to 50 per cent. GCLs are :1Iso sensitive to the quality of the sealing clay. Greater
variations ill the mineralogical compo~ition of the bentonite may easily result in a
factor of ten in the coefficiC'1t of water rermeability. Damage to the GCL during
constur:tion may well result the loss of the seal in? function.
Because of this sensit; vity to manufac~uring and installation errors,
quality assurailce measures playa very important part in the manufacture and
installation of GCLs. Experience has shuwn that GCLs perform reliably in actual
construction cases wilen adequate quality assurance plans are set up and followed
properly.
It is necessai")' to set up in quality assurance plans (QAPs) in accordance
with different categories of apPlications, so that the scope of quality as~urance
may be standardised. Recommendatior.s are J'lade in this paper as to the minimum
le'vel cf qua!ity assura!~ce that GCLs sh"uld ha"e as l;ners in water ~rotection
wnes 3'lU for lalldfill applic:Jtions. T1lis consists of certil.cates ofsuitahilitv fo; tl-je
particular appiicatioJ<, certificata 01" aLiherencl: to manufacturi'1g st~lIdards,
guarantee of competent deliverv and storage, and careful installation.
The QAP is to include the manuritr:turing of the GCL, the lOCI!
cons~ruction sliiJervbors, the out<iJe superVisors, the supervisi!'g authority and ~he
company carrying out the installation (Ganung & Zanzinger, 1998).

Bentonite

All raw materials used in the manufacture of GeLs are to undergo a quality
assurance check. Every delivery of bentonite to the manufacturer ofGCLs must be
aceol11panied by a filctory test certificate liom the bentonite manufacturer. This
must contain the following current Jelails:

montmorillonite content

water conte!lt

water adsorption

swell ing volume

Of consid..:rable importance, however, is the ~upplier's or freight agent's guarantee
that only lJentonite shall be transported in the container ve!licles. If other materials
have been transported in the vehicle, e.g. sand or ar1ificia! fertilisrr, proof must be
produced that the vehicle has been completely cleaned. AFter checking the water
content of the bentonite and the methylene blue value, the container vehicle can be
unloddec.
Characteristic tested
DIN 18132
Water adsorption
or ASTM 0 5891
or fluid loss
Swelling volume
ASTM 0 5890
-Montmori Iionite
VDG P69 or by X-I~ay Diffraction
content
Water content
DIN 18121-1 or ASTM u 4643
IT
1nlti'.1test ill a manufacluring quality assurat~ce
RT
Regular test in a manufacturing qUdlity assurance (spot check)

MQA
IT, RT
!T,RT
1TRT

Resin andjibres

The resin to be used for geJtex:ile prodl!stion processed into pell-:ts, I1lW;tcontoir,
binding f"ctory test certificates far every de:ivery. These details ~ontain the
co!~tinuously established \/"'llues for the resi!'s:

viscosity number (DIN 53728)

melt flow rate (ISO 1133)

density (DIN 53479)

percentage of stabilisers and carbon black

The raw material receipt of goods check on :esin ensures trouble-free quality and
production of geotextiles. Before unloading, every container vehicle is checked for
the most important details, such as melt flow rate and density, and possibly for
tensile strength, tensile elongation, meltlll.f; ;;"Iits and crystallinity. This shows

whether
material

the i'aw material delivered is within the limits requirl'cI.

has been approved, the container vehicle may be unloaded.

Characteristic

tested

Test method

Melt flow rate (MFR)

Dill. scanning
Density

calorimetry

Ane:' the raw

(DSC)

MQA

ISO 1133
I\STM D 3895

IT,RT
IT, RT
IT, RT

DIN 53479

It ,11lluld bc l'IISUI'Cc! Illill all Illallufacluring

paral1lclcrs arc constantly monitored
and that regular ch-.:c~s ilrc made on the fibres:

fibre fineness or denier (DIl~ 53812-1)

fibre strength and elongation (draft DIN 53816)

Random checks on the fibres are carried out !o monitor changes i:~ the melt flow
rate (MFR) caused by extrusion, the density and the carbon black content (ASTM
1603176), using thermogravimetric
or oven weight analysis.
These details are
allocated to the material manufactured,
using batch and bale numbers, before
helllg made available to the manufacturer
of non-woven geGtextiles, in summary,
in a bindlllg factory test certificate.
In the same way, the initial produ-:;ts
gC0lextile materials are monitored. The following
cons'8'111y checked:

ior the manuf<lcture of woven

c:etai1s for th~ slit film fibres are

Characteristic

tested

Mass per unit area

Thickness
Tensile strength
Tensile elongation
Static puncture

Test method

MQA

EN 965"

IT,RT

EN 964-1

IT,RT
IT, RT

EN ISO 10319

test

If nonwoven geotextiles
m,lIlufaclliring
process.

arc to be IIsed. illl Oil-line

Characteristls

Charactpristic

tested

Test method

MQA

ASTM 05885
ASTM 03895

IT. RT
IT, RT

I-abl'ics

If the geotcxli1e manufactlller

does not manufacture
the fibments or slit film fibres
himself, he shall carry out random checks t(' monitor the abcve-l1Ientioned
chal dcceristics.
All det<lils which affect production, such as equipment settings, m;xtures,
etc., are constantly documeltted
internally. Together with tl:e details from quality
checks, which are also to be carried out constantly, this enables a traceable quality
control mal1ifest system.

is ncedcd

in the

MQA

tested

Water content

0xidation
induction time (OIT-vall!'::)
D;f~. scannif!g calorimetry (DSC)

detector

C;CL
If the geotextile components
have not been produced in the same factory as the
GCL, they must undergo a receipt of goods check, just like the bentollite. During
manufacture,
permanent non-destructive
testing processes are of great assistance.
For example, the bentonite is to be sieved before ill"!:lllation. After it has been
applied to the bearer layer, a reon-contact check of tile layer thickness of the
bentonite
is recommended.
Each roll is to be checked for length, width and
weight.

Mass per unit area

Mass of bentonite

thicknes~ and width (DIN 53812-1)

fibre strength and elongation (draft IJIN 53816)

l11cl,1i

EN 965

IT. RT

ASTM D 5993
DIN 18121-101'
II 4643

IT, R-;ASTM

IT. RT

~NIS010219

Tensile strength
Tensile elongation
Internal shear strength

LGA GK-3

IT. RT

Water permeability
Permittivity
or ind~x flux

;~v referable s:andard

erN i8130-1
or ASTM 0 5887

IT. RT
IT. QT

index test

can only be car~ld

out \'lith pu!verised

bentonito::

The compos;te
strength created by e.g. lhe needling or stitching of bearel and
covering layer should also be checked.
As a general rule, for in-hcuse monitoring,
all test equipment used in the
laboratory is subject to test equipment monitoring. This means that the equipment
and measuring
recorders are to be checked against appropriate standard measures
to adjust them to primary standards. These calibrations are to be recorded.

This ensures that the measured values are correct, and that any
divergence from the requi"ed figures is recognised in good time. 'The test
cquipment is marked with badges, to show the period of validity of the measuring'
equipment or its shutdown.
Manufacturing quality assutance of C:r;[s
It is required (e.g. in DIN 18200) to use an indcp.:ndent test institute, preferably an
accredited test institute to acl as MQA in the context of an outside monitoring
contract, to ensure that the contractually guaranteed quality of goods is observed.
This must include at least the foll,)11ing steps:

Initial test (IT) to establish Ilhether the tcchnical prerequisites for proper
product:on <,.ld MQC (laboratory) are available.

Regular tests (RT). tll'icc a year, to check that MQC and current
production checks are being carried out properly.

Special test for special reasons e.g., interim production stop, repeat of
regular test which W(lS failed, if called for by the independent monitor,
the manufacturer or the customer.
The independent monitor's repons are to be made availalJle, on request, to the
customer of prouucts which are undergoing outside monitoring.
The functioning of the QAS can be crecked for effectiveness. That
means that all data p~oduced within quality control during the manufacture of the
GCL must be tTaceable from the roll number. This includes the allocated roll
numbers from the initial products (bE'm~r,supporting and covering layer), the bale
numbE'rs oft'le fibres, the batch numbers of ,he granulalC: and, ab')vE' all. t"c batr.h
numbers of the ~ealing material. Retained samples are to be taken from the roll.
These a:'e to be stored in a dark, dly place, anu marked with roll numbers. The
MQA checks the coeff;cients shown in the Tables 2 to 6.
Certificates of suitability
General requiiements
The foi;o,vi'1g ba~ic requirements ma:' be made ofGCLs'

Sealir.g functicn

Mechanical resistal~ce

Durability

(:01,structabilitj

Olher requirements

Quality assurance
The sealing function of GCls l11ust be demonstrated. The peiIT.ittivity
shall be very small with respect to 1\ater '1nd other liquids, that can occur in the
palticular application. These are especially rainwater and leachate i'l landfill
constructions.
GCLs must be reliable seals under the milieu conditions of the
partie~;lar application.
This means that freezing/thawing
cycles and

drying/wetting cycles do nOI aher the properties \(l ~;llClt(In extent. that the
. scaling performance is considerably impeded. Further more, the durability' of
GCLs under the expected temperatures, in the expected. r" emical milieu shall be
warranted. GCLs must resist micro-organisms ilnd fungi. The design shall
account for possible menaces like destruction by digging animals and
desiccation or penetration caused by plant roots
The influence of deformations on the permittivity of GCLs shall be
small. This has to be demonstrated by pennini\'ity tests on GCI. samples under
;\ biaxial state of strain covering the expected order olmagnitudc.
II has to be demonst:'atcd that the scaling function is adequate in the
lield, Seams. connectillns to structures, penctr'at;"i1 pf pipc:s c:tc. must be reliably
light
The mechanical strcngth of GCLs must bc surlicient to resist all
expected loading conditions duri;>6 transportation. placcmcnt. in place short and
long term to achieve adequate structural stability. Resistancl' must also be
~llr1iclent against erosion under the pertinent h:-draul ic gr;ldienb
Laboratory examinations
Certificates of suitability are to be producer] by i::dependent,
geosynthetic institutes. The following proofs must be submitted:

water permeability

water pemleability in overlapping area

water permeability in elongated condition

capacity to withstand mechanical strc:sses

water permeability after freeze/thaw cycles

water permeability after dry/wet cycles

~as permeability

interface shear resistance

"
internal shear resistance

long-term shear resistance

installation damage

durability

accredited

Field test sites

In the construction of barrier layers, field test sites )re to be seen as farge-scale
suitability tests, in which the outside supervisur is to Ile involved, as WE'llas the
company's own sLlpervisur. 1hc following informatioll is \8 be shown:

suitability of the products under constructi2'1 site conditions

suitability of the installation methoc.i and equipment en visaged

compliance with the required values for pemleability in the scale of the
construction

compliance with stability

determination ofreference values for quality assurilnce.

The field test si;es are not a part of the subsequent sealing work. They are to be
prepared adequately befo.re the construction of the li.ner system. The values
resulting from the f:eld test sites are to be compared and evaluated against those of
the laboratory suitability examinations.
Quality

assurance

on the construction

site

Construction supervision
It is the contractor's responsibility to ensure the followinoO'

the idenlity of the supplier of the rolls delivered to the construction sile
can hl' checked. using the delivery note and the roll label
dry. ,'\'Cll s!(JI"agesurlace is available
the r(JdS are unloaded and shined carefully
damage to the rolls caused by lifting with heavy equipment is avoided
transport and storage regulations are observed
the protective foils are not da:ll<!ged.

that installation is carried out on the basi~ of the prescribed installation

plalls
that the subgrade has been properly prepared, I.e. free of stones and
su fficiently load-bearing
that the slope lengths and gradients are correct
that the ITlP.aSUrementof the ilnchorin~ citches is correct and that th;;se
have no shaqi edges
that the roll weight is suf'icient
the external condition, the level area and that th~ liners are checked for
nlt'chanical danlage
that the prescribed overiajJping width and the relevant instrUctions are
observed
that li.ere are no ~lones or dil1 in the overlap;;
th"t ,he benronite layer in the joir;:s :s appliecl continuously
that a stone less protective; layer IS appliec Immediately the Gr:L has been
laid
tha! any swollen areas IlOicovered with a protp-ctive layer are removed
that drivinf' over the GeL directly i, a\oided.

Control checks
The following central checks may be carried out by the conslTuction quality
assurance (CQA) of the constructional ;neasures, in the context of the project:

Property
Swelling volume
Water content
Mass per unit area
Tensile stre:lgth
Tensile elongation
Splitting (peel) test
Perm ilti\'ity
or index flux

Performance
General

Test method
ASTM D 5890
D!N 1812l-1 or ASTM D4643
EN 965 or ASTM D 5993
EN ISO 10319
lGA GK-6
DIN 18130-1
or ASTM D 5887

observations

remarks

GCls have been employed in many constructions world-wide during the last few
years. Their performance has generally met expectations. In some cases of GCllined pcnds leakage problems occurred during impoundment. Careful examination
of the construction histories and partial or even total recovery of exhumed GCLs
revealed in most of these cases, tbt the leaks had been caused by mistakes in GCL
placement. It is of utmost importance to follow the instructions provided by the
GCL manufacturer to obtain the designed sealing function. In this regard special
attention has to be p:'\id to the overlap joints.
GCLs in la;~dfill capping systems are easily accessil.>le. In a .Iumber of
casco GCl samples were taken from working landfill cov-::rs and submitted to
testing. The results of such studies indicate, that the bentonite may undergo some
alterations with tir.le, such as cation e:;change. Gut as long as the in situ water
content of the GeL does not fall belu\v a certain limit, the hydraulic conductivitj'
remains low. Tw;) ex;,;mples of GCL perf 0J111:1 11ce observations are briefly
discussed below. In Germany, large scale Iysimeters were installed for GCLperformance cbservations in various parts of the country during the past two years.
So we e:<pt>r.tmore intormation abf)lJ[ the lor.g-ter~ behaviour f)f GC~s under
different climatic conditions in the near future.
Hamburg-Georgswerc.ier

:n 1994 two large test fields ad three smaller test pads were installed at Hamour~Georgswerder, ncrth Germany, at an old closed iandfill (Stf:'ir,ert & Melchior,
1997). The test installations were added to existing field testing faciiities where
observations had been carried out over the years before and where all relevant
mea~ur;ng devices for weather data were available. The Iysimeters for the
observation of the performance of GCLs were placed at the sloping surface of the
landfill cover well above the composite sealing system of a geomembrane and a
compacted clay liner. They did not form part of the acting landfill cover. The

I I
I

interior of the 1,\Ildfiil itself is K1llm'n :0 have elevated temperatures. No moisture

could diSSipate frol11 the landliJi body to the GCL-test field because it was
intercepted hy the intact geol11cll'hrane of the capping system.
In order to 0btain a 'jdiCK response of the GCLs to precipitation and
drying. the thicKness of the co\ cr soii above the GCLs was kept considerably
smaller than in actual landlill constructions. it consisted of 30 cm vegetative soil
with grass abovc 15 CI11o!' Cl'~\I'SCgrained drainage gravel which was placed
directly on top ofth<.: eeLs
Thc simultallcous r\;adings of precipitation and leakagc through thc
(iCLs sho\lcd. that dUI'ing ihc li:'st \lint<':I'scason the GCLs perlclrIlled c.\ccllcnth
No substal1l;,tl Ieakagc was rCL\mkd, So it could be concluded that th<.:t<.:st
installation opcratcd corrccth". l lbscrvations werc carried on over thc n<.'.\tt\\"()
\<.:arswith e.\tr<.:nlcly dry alll! hut SUl11mers,Then. at the end of SUl11mcr1995. thc
lirst heavy autumn rains [cad to c\ccssive I<.:akagerates. Apparently thc GeLs had
developed sOl11edesiccation cracks and, against expectations based on laboratory
testing. t:lese cracks did not h~a! Leakage rates remained high at about 25% of
prccipitation and the lysinlctcl'S r-.::spondedimmediately to all rain events.
The GCLs were e:dHlll1ed and examined very carefully by several
independent research institutes Visual observations showed a certain amount of
root penetrations. X-ray testing revealed crack patterns in the GCLs, the water
content of the bentonite which in situ once had been at well above 150% had
dropped :0 s0mewhere between 40 and 100%. the swelling potential. cation
exchange cap'lcity and wal~r adsorption were considerably lower than they shoJld
be for sodiull1 bentopite. Measur,n'ents of the hydraulic conductivity initially
yielded high permlttivitic's due to open cracks which closed gradually during
testing ':Ihen flexible wall triaxial permeameters were used.
The very extensive testing programme and theoretical studies lead II) the
conciusions that due to the insufficient thickness of cover soil the GCLs of the test
fields had undergone severe desiccation with crackin!!. At the same till,e cation
exchange had taken place, most of the sodium ions had been replaced with
calcium ions, and this alteration of the bentonite had prevented quick self healing.
Furthennore. root pe:letrat'on :',ad also playerl. a role in increasing the permeabilil)
and in deceasing the w~:el conte'li of the nvdrated bentonite. It was observed that
generally deSiccation "vas less seve, e in ihe overlaps. E':ide;lt!y t:le upper GCL at
(J\'er:::trs had protected t;le lower one frO:~ld:ying.
This shart summary of results canll0t transmit all tIle iJ1'porta:lt details of
the research prc;ral'lme and all t:le findings. But it should indi-:ate, that GCLs
ma)' not perform successfilly in e,'lreme situations. At Hamburg-Georgswerder
the cover soil was too thin and had a too small water retention capacity, vegetation
caused root penetration, there was <l coarse grained clrainage layer immediately
above the GCLs, summers were unusually dry and hot, and elevated temperatures
inside the landfill body contributed to desiccation. Many of these adverse
conditions do not occur in norr'al landfill covers or can be avoided by proper

design, So 1-lam!Jurg-Georgswerder has to be regarded as a crash test rather than a

cas>:history.
Nuremberg
1\ 1110rerepresentative case is reported from Nuremberg, where in summer 1997 a
GeL \Ias exhumed, The municipal solid waste landfill of Nuremberg III south
Germanv contains domestic waste. The section of the landfill discussed here. was
closed ~\~1c1
prll\ ided \\ith a capping system in late 1994. The cover consists of a
la\'cr of slightly silty sand below the GCL, a GCL with natural sodtum ben~onlte. a
la~-cr 1'1' 10 em sli"htl\' silty sand immediately abovc the GeL. then I) cm 01
cc;ar,;c '!.r'aincd dr,~na~e gravel and 75 cm of slightly sillY sand with grass
ve!.!et~,:'on at thc top.
Like in Hamburg. in Nurcmberg lh~ exhumed (ieL had undcr~,\nc t\I'O
vcr" Jr'y summers. But unlike in Hamburg, the GCL in ;\uremberg showcd no
des'iccation cracks. The moisture content was in the I'ange of 100(0.and no crack
patterns could be detected by X-ray testing. There were ~'Oroot penetrations ei:her.
Even lhou"h mineralooical analyses revealed a partml calion exchange trom
sodium to "'calcium be:tonite, the hydraulic conductivity had not increased in
comparison with the initial values detemlined before construction.
.
The perfornlance observations at Nuremberg indicate sattsfactory
functioning of the GCL Evidently, the conditions here are more favourable than at
Hamburo--Georoswerder. The most important features appear to be the greater
thicknes; and ,:ater retention capacity of the cover soil, and the f:.ct that there is a
siltv soil lay..::rimm::dialely abo'/e an~ odow the GC~ thus reducing the tencenr)'
of ;he wat~r saturclted bentonite to dry out. Crainage gravel immediately above the
GCL as carried out at Hamburg-Georgswerder
and in many other applications
enhances the tendency for des:ceation of the Illois: bentonite of the GCL.

Conclusions and recommendations

GCLs essentially tunction as mineral seals of extremely ,Inall thickness, Their
:ll'lin aJvaptages ar~ high efficiency, ei!se of !~aildling. transportin; and placement
and unifor:ll quality due to industrial prvduction. Their lirr,;tations have to be
o':Jserved. These :..re ITlainl:' related to the pro~erties of the benwnitt. In Gernlany
they are presently accounted for by observing l~e following advice w.ith respect to
landfl!1 cove:'s, as issued by the app:'oval authority D1Bt, (Deutst-hes lnstltut fur
Bauteci'nik German Institute of C0n:i(ructioil):

GeLs are installed in doubk layers, the upper layer protecting the Iowa
layer against desicca'cion. Other types of desiccation protection are
perm itted, provided their efficiency is demonstrated.
The soil immediately above and below the GCL should have
characteristics which prevent the GCL from desiccating (silty sands meet
this requirement).

I I
"

The cover soil must have a thickness of at least I :n and has to provide
sufficient water storage capacity.
These rules are aiming at preventing desiccation clacking which jeopardises the
long-term sealing function, especially when it occurs along with cation ex~hange
which can hardly be avoided.
This paper has also focused on the quality control and quality assurance
aspects of GCLs. Since GCLs are used in critical and permanent applications it is
important that a complete quality assurance system is in place.
Every aspect of the GCL must be subjected to the san)e rigor. This
includes the bentonite and associated geotextiles. In this latter regard concern is
focused on the resins: fibres and fabrics used in the manufacturing pmcess.
Obviously, the completed GCL must oe tested as a composite material as well.

References
Carson,

D.A., Bonaparte. R., Daniel, D.E. &. Koerner, R.M. (1998).

Geosynthetic Clay Liners at Field-Scale: Internal Shear Test Progress.
Sixth International Conference on Geosynlhelics, 25-29 March 1998,
Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 427 - 432.
Egloffsttin, 1'. (1995). Properties and test methods to assess be:~tonite [,sed in
geosYllthetic clay liners. Geosynlhetic Clay Liners, Koerner, R.M.,
Gartung, E., Zanzinger, H. (eds.), BGlkemil, R0aerdam, 51 - 72.
Gartung, E. (1995). GCL summary and conclusions. G:::os)'nlhetic rlay Liners,
Koerner, R.M., Gartung, E., Zanzinger, H. (eds.), Balkema, Rotteniam,
L29 - 233.
Gartung, E. & Zanzinger, H. (199R). Need for QUillity Approach: Installation and
Quality Control. GEO-BENTO 98, 2-3 February, Paris, France, 345 353.
Heerten, G., Saathoff, F., Scheu, C. & VI)I~ Maube~lge, K.P. (I Y95). On the lungterm shear behaviour of geosynthetic clay liners (GC~s). Geosynlhetic
Clay Liners, Koerner, R.M., Gartung, E., Z(\flZinger, H. (eds.),
Balkema, Rotterram, 141 - 150.
Koerner, R M. & Daniel, D.E. (1995a). A suggcstcri methodolc6~f fC'r asses~ing
the technical equivalency 8f GC~s to ceLs. Ceosynlh'!tic Clay Lil"!rs,
Koerne:', R.M., Gartung, E., Zallz:nger, H. (eds.), Balke:na, Rotterdam,
73 - 98.

Koerner, TZ.M., Gartung, E. I&.Zanzinger, H. (eds.) (i ~95h). Geo~ynthelic CII1Y

Liners. Balkema, Rotterdam, 245 p.
Madsen, F. & NUesch, R. (1995). Characteristics and sealing effect ot
bentonites. Geosynthetic Clay Liners, Koerner, :\.M., Gartung, E.,
Zanzinger, H. (eds.), Balkema, Rotterdam, 31 - 49.
Steinert, B. & Melchior, S. (1997). Untersuchungen zur Wirksamkeit von
Bentonitmatten
in
austrocknungsgefahrdeten
Oberflachenabdichtungen.
Landesumweltamt
Nordrhein- Westfalen
(ed.),
Sanierllngsllntersuchllng

und

Sanierung

von

A Illaslen,

A Itlasten-

.
uC'\'
L'LJ.',I NRW
unu
des
:lhjallC/;I.wr?;Ungsund
semmar
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Aillasiensanierunf,sverhandes,
Selbstverlag, Duisburg. 20 p.
J Swan R.H. & Zehong, Y. (1996). Long-Term Shear Strength
R
Trauger,
.. ,
,
.
T,'
I
Behavior of a needlepunched Geosynthetic Clay Liller. estmg ::n(
Acceptance Criteria for Geosy.'1thetic Clav Liners, ASl M STP 1.>08.
C

Larry W. Well, Ed .. ASTM, Philadelphia. USA, 103 - 120