Dirac 1

Lecture 22
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
Background
Why study relativistic quantum mechanics?

1
Many experimental phenomena cannot be understood within purely

non-relativistic domain.
e.g. quantum mechanical spin, emergence of new sub-atomic
particles, etc.
New phenomena appear at relativistic velocities.

e.g. particle production, antiparticles, etc.
Aesthetically and intellectually it would be profoundly unsatisfactory

if relativity and quantum mechanics could not be united.
Background
When is a particle relativistic?

1
When velocity approaches speed of light c or, more intrinsically,

when energy is large compared to rest mass energy, mc 2 .
e.g. protons at CERN are accelerated to energies of ca. 300GeV
(1GeV= 109 eV) much larger than rest mass energy, 0.94 GeV.
Photons have zero rest mass and always travel at the speed of light
they are never non-relativistic!
Background
What new phenomena occur?
1
Particle production
e.g. electron-positron pairs by energetic -rays in matter.
Vacuum instability: If binding energy of electron

Ebind
Z 2e 4m
2
=
>
2mc
2!2
a nucleus with initially no electrons is instantly screened by creation

of electron/positron pairs from vacuum
3
Spin: emerges naturally from relativistic formulation
Background
When does relativity intrude on QM?

1
When Ekin mc 2 , i.e. p mc
From uncertainty relation, xp > h, this translates to a length

x >
h
= c
mc
the Compton wavelength.
for massless particles, c = , i.e. relativity always important for,

e.g., photons.
Relativistic quantum mechanics: outline
Special relativity (revision and notation)
Klein-Gordon equation
Dirac equation
Quantum mechanical spin
Solutions of the Dirac equation
Relativistic quantum field theories
Recovery of non-relativistic limit

Space-time is specified by a 4-vector
A contravariant 4-vector
x = (x ) (x 0 , x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) (ct, x)
transformed into covariant 4-vector x
metric
(g ) = (g ) =
1
1
= g x by Minkowskii
g g = g ,
Scalar product: x y = x y = x y g = x y
Lorentz group: consists of linear transformations, , preserving
x y , i.e. for x % x ! = x = x y
x ! y ! = g x ! y ! = g x y = g x y
' () *
= g
e.g. Lorentz transformation along x1
v /c
=
v /c
1
0
,
0
1
1
=
(1 v 2 /c 2 )1/2
4-vectors classified as time-like or space-like
x 2 = (ct)2 x2
1
forward time-like: x 2 > 0, x 0 > 0
backward time-like: x 2 > 0, x 0 < 0
space-like: x 2 < 0

Lorentz group splits up into four components:
1
Every LT maps time-like vectors (x 2 > 0) into time-like vectors
Orthochronous transformations 00 > 0, preserve

forward/backward sign
Proper: det = 1 (as opposed to 1)
Group of proper orthochronous transformation: L+ subgroup

of Lorentz group excludes time-reversal and parity
1
1
1
1
T =
,
P=
1
1
1
1
Remaining components of group generated by
L = T L+ ,
L = PL+ ,
L+ = TPL+ .

1
Special relativity requires theories to be invariant under LT or, more

generally, Poincar
e transformations: x x + a
Generators of proper orthochronous transformations, L+ , can

be reached by infinitesimal transformations
= + ,
( 1
!
g = g + + + O( 2 ) = g
i.e. = , has six independent components
L+ has six independent generators: three rotations and three boosts

3
covariant and contravariant derivative, chosen s.t. x = 1

+
,
+
,
1
=
=
=
,
=
, .
x
c t
x
c t
1 2
dAlembertian operator: = = 2 2 2
c t
2
Dirac equation
How to make wave equation relativistic?
According to canonical quantization procedure in NRQM:
= i!,
p
E = i!t ,
i.e. p (E /c, p) % p
transforms as a 4-vector under LT
What if we apply quantization procedure to energy?
p p = (E /c)2 p2 = m2 c 2 ,
-
2 4
.
2 2 1/2
E (p) = + m c + p c
m rest mass
/ 2 4
0
2 2 2 1/2
i!t = m c ! c
Meaning of square root? Taylor expansion:
!2 2
!4 (2 )2
i!t = mc
+
2m
8m3 c 2
i.e. time-evolution of specified by infinite number of boundary
conditions % non-locality, and space/time asymmetry suggests
that this equation is a poor starting point...
2
Alternatively, apply quantization to energy-momentum invariant:
- 2 2 2
.
2
2 2
2 4
2 2
2 4
E =p c +m c ,
! t = ! c + m c
2
mc
Setting kc =
=
, leads to Klein-Gordon equation,
c
!
-
kc2
=0
Klein-Gordon equation is local and manifestly Lorentz covariant.

Invariance of under rotations means that, if valid at all,
Klein-Gordon equation limited to spinless particles
But can ||2 be interpreted as probability density?
Klein-Gordon equation: Probabilities

Probabilities? Take lesson from non-relativistic quantum mechanics:
Schrodinger eqn.
)+
*' ,
(
!2 2
i!t +
= 0,
2m
i.e.
t ||2 i
c.c.
) +
*'
(
,
!2 2
i!t +
= 0
2m
!
( ) = 0
2m
cf. continuity relation conservation of probability: t + j = 0

2
= || ,
!
j = i
( )
2m
Klein-Gordon equation: Probabilities
Applied to KG equation:
,
1 2
2
2
+
k
=0
t
c
2
c
!2 t ( t t ) !2 c 2 ( ) = 0
cf. continuity relation conservation of probability: t + j = 0.
=i
),
t
t
2
2mc
j = i
!
( )
2m
With 4-current j = (c, j), continuity relation j = 0.

i.e. Klein-Gordon density is the time-like component of a 4-vector.
Klein-Gordon equation: viability?

But is Klein-Gordon equation acceptable?
!
) is not positive definite.

t
t
2
2mc
Klein-Gordon equation is not first order in time derivative
therefore we must specify and t everywhere at t = 0.
Density = i
Klein-Gordon equation has both positive and negative energy

solutions.
Could we just reject negative energy solutions? Inconsistent local
interactions can scatter between positive and negative energy states
- 2
.
2
+ kc = F ()
self interaction
1
2
2
( + iqA/!c) + kc2 = 0
interaction with EM field
Relativistic quantum mechanics: summary

When the kinetic energy of particles become comparable to rest
mass energy, p mc particles enter regime where relativity intrudes
on quantum mechanics.
At these energy scales qualitatively new phenomena emerge:
e.g. particle production, existence of antiparticles, etc.
By applying canonical quantization procedure to energy-momentum
invariant, we are led to the Klein-Gordon equation,
( 2 + kc2 ) = 0
where =
c
!
=
denotes the Compton wavelength.
2
mc
However, the Klein-Gordon equation does not lead to a positive

definite probability density and admits positive and negative energy
solutions these features led to it being abandoned as a viable
candidate for a relativistic quantum mechanical theory.
Lecture 23
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics:
Dirac equation
Dirac equation
Dirac Equation
Dirac placed emphasis on two constraints:
1
Relativistic equation must be first order in time derivative (and

therefore proportional to = (t /c, )).
Elements of wavefunction must obey Klein-Gordon equation.
Diracs approach was to try to factorize Klein-Gordon equation:

( 2 + m2 ) = 0 (where henceforth we set ! = c = 1)
(i m)(i m) = 0
i.e. with p = i
( p m) = 0
Dirac Equation
( p m) = 0
Equation is acceptable if:
1
2
satisfies Klein-Gordon equation, ( 2 + m2 ) = 0;

there must exist 4-vector current density which is conserved
and whose time-like component is a positive density;
does not have to satisfy any auxiliary boundary conditions.
From condition (1) we require (assuming [ , p ] = 0)

0 = ( p + m) ( p m) = ( p p m2 )
' () *
=
( + )/2
1
{ , }
p p m2 = (g p p m2 ) = (p 2 m2 )
2
i.e. obeys Klein-Gordon if { , } + = 2g

, and therefore , can not be scalar.
Dirac Equation: Hamiltonian formulation

( p m) = 0,
{ , } = 2g
consider
To bring Dirac equation to the form it = H,
m) = 0
0 ( p m) = 0 ( 0 p0 p
Since ( 0 )2 12 { 0 , 0 } = g 00 = I,
m 0 = 0
0 ( p m) = it 0 p
with
i.e. Dirac equation can be written as it = H
=p
+ m,
H
= 0 ,
= 0
Using identity { , } = 2g ,
2 = I,
{, } = 0,
{i , j } = 2ij
(exercise)
Dirac Equation: matrices
it = H,
=p
+ m,
H
= 0 ,
= 0
assured if = , and = , i.e.

Hermiticity of H
0
( )
= ,
and
= 0
So we obtain the defining properties of Dirac matrices,

= 00,
{ , } = 2g
Since space-time is four-dimensional, must be of dimension at

least 4 4 has at least four components.
However, 4-component wavefunction does not transform as
4-vector it is known as a spinor (or bispinor).
Dirac Equation: matrices

= 00,
{ , } = 2g
From the defining properties, there are several possible

representations of matrices. In the Dirac/Pauli representation:
+
,
+
,
I2
0
0
0 =
,
=
0 I2
0
Pauli spin matrices
i = i
i j = ij + i,ijk k ,
e.g., 1 =
0
1
1
0
2 =
0
i
i
0
3 =
So, in Dirac/Pauli representation,

+
,
+
0
I2
= 0 =
,
= 0 =
0
0
1
0
0
I2
0
1
,
Dirac Equation: conjugation, density and current

( p m) = 0,
= 00
Applying complex conjugation to Dirac equation

3
4
[( p m)] = i m = 0,
( )
Since ( 0 )2 = I, we can write,
0
0 = (i
' () *
' () *
3
4
m ) = i + m 0
Introducing Feynman slash notation - a a , obtain conjugate

form of Dirac equation
(i - + m) = 0
Dirac Equation: conjugation, density and current
(i - + m) = 0,
- =
The, combining the Dirac equation, (i - m) = 0 with its
conjugate, we have (i - + m) = 0 = (i - m), i.e.

3
4
) = 0
- + - = (
' () *
j
We therefore identify j = (, j) = ( , ) as the 4-current.

So, in contrast to the Klein-Gordon equation, the density
= j 0 = is, as required, positive definite.
Motivated by this triumph(!), let us now consider what constraints
relativistic covariance imposes and what consequences follow.
Relativistic covariance
If (x) obeys the Dirac equation its counterpart ! (x ! ) in a LT
frame x ! = x , must obey the Dirac equation,

+
,
i ! m ! (x ! ) = 0
x
If observer can reconstruct ! (x ! ) from (x) there must exist a
local (linear) transformation,
! (x ! ) = S()(x)
where S() is a 4 4 matrix, i.e.
+
,
x
1
1

S() i
( ) S() S ()
m S()(x) = 0
x !
x
Compatible with Dirac equation if
S() S 1 () = (1 )
! (x ! ) = S()(x),
S() S 1 () = (1 )
But how do we determine S()? For an infinitesimal (i.e. proper

orthochronous) LT
= + ,
(1 ) = +
(recall that generators, = , are antisymmetric).

This allows us to form the Taylor expansion of S():
+ ,
S
S() S(I + ) = S(I) +
+ O( 2 )
'()*

' () *
I
i

4
where = (follows from antisymmetry of ) is a matrix in
bispinor space, and is a number.
i
S() = I + ,
4
i
() = I + +
4
Requiring that S() S 1 () = (1 ) , a little bit of algebra

(see problem set/handout) shows that matrices must obey the
relation,
.
[ , ] = 2i
This equation is satisfied by (exercise)
=
i
[ , ]
2
In summary, under set of infinitesimal Lorentz transformation,

x ! = x, where = I + , relativistic covariance of Dirac equation
demands that wavefunction transforms as ! (x ! ) = S() where
S() = I 4i + O( 2 ) and = 2i [ , ].
i
S() = I +
4
Finite transformations (i.e. non-infinitesimal) generated by
5
6
i
S() = exp ,
4
= g
Transformations involving unitary matrices S(), where

S S = I translate to spatial rotations.
Transformations involving Hermitian matrices S(), where

S = S translate to Lorentz boosts.
So what?? What are the consequences of relativistic covariance?
Angular momentum and spin

For infinitesimal anticlockwise rotation by angle
around n
x! . x + n x x,
. I + n
' () *
i.e. ij = ,ikj nk , 0i = i0 = 0.
In non-relativistic quantum mechanics:

! (x! ) = (x) = (1 x! ) . ((I ) x! )
. (x! ) x! (x! ) +
= (x! ) in x! (i)(x! ) +
!
!
= (1 in L)(x
) + U(x
)
= e inL .
cf. generator of rotations: U

But relativistic covariance of Dirac equation demands
that ! (x ! ) = S()(x)
With ij = ,ijk nk , 0i = i0 = 0,
i
i
S() . I = I ij ,ikj nk
4
4
In Dirac/Pauli representation
+
,
i
k 0
ij = [i , j ] = ,ijk
,
0 k
2
k Pauli spin matrices

+
,
0
i
i =
i 0
i.e. S() = I in S where

1
1
1
Sk = ,ijk ij = ,ijk ,ijl l I =
4
4 ' () *
2
jj kl jl jk = 2kl
k
0
0
k

Altogether, combining components of transformation,
I in S
) *' (
!
! (x ! ) = S() (x1 x ! ). (I in (S + L))(x

)
' () *
!
(I in L)(x
)
we obtain
! (x ! ) = S()(1 x ! ) . (1 in J)(x
)
=L
+ S represents total angular momentum.
where J
Intrinsic contribution to angular momentum known as spin.
[Si , Sj ] = i,ijk Sk ,
(Si )2 =
1
4
for each i
Dirac equation is relativistic wave equation for spin 1/2 particles.
Parity
So far we have only dealt with the subgroup of proper
orthochronous Lorentz transformations, L+ .
Taking into account Parity, P =
1
1
relativistic covariance demands S() S 1 () = (1 )

S 1 (P) 0 S(P) = 0 ,
S 1 (P) i S(P) = i
achieved if S(P) = 0 e i , where denotes arbitrary phase.

But since P 2 = I, e i = 1 or 1
! (x ! ) = S(P)(1 x ! ) = 0 (Px ! )
where = 1 intrinsic parity of the particle
Lecture 24
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics:
Dirac equation
Free particle solutions of Dirac Equation
(- p m) = 0,
- p = i
Free particle solution of Dirac equation is a plane wave:

(x) = e ipx u(p) = e iEt+ipx u(p)
where u(p) is the bispinor amplitude.
Since components of obey KG equation, (p p m2 ) = 0,
7
2
2
2
(p0 ) p m = 0,
E p0 = p2 + m2
So, once again, as with Klein-Gordon equation we encounter
positive and negative energy solutions!!
Free particle solutions of Dirac Equation

(x) = e ipx u(p) = e iEt+ipx u(p)
What about bispinor amplitude, u(p)?
In Dirac/Pauli representation,
+
,
I2
0 =
,
I2
the components of the bispinor obeys the condition,

+ 0
,
p m
p
( p m)u(p) =
u(p) = 0
p
p 0 m
i.e. bispinor elements:
+
,
u(p) =
,
(p 0 m) = p
p = (p 0 + m)
Free particle solutions of the Dirac Equation

u(p) =
(p 0 m) = p
p = (p 0 + m)
Consistent when (p 0 )2 = p2 + m2 and =
u (r ) (p) = N(p)
0
p +m
(r )
p (r )
p0 + m
where (r ) are a pair of orthogonal two-component vectors with

index r = 1, 2, and N(p) is normalization.
Helicity: Eigenvalue of spin projected along direction of motion
1
p ()
p ()
1 ()
=
2
|p|
|p|
2
3 , (+) = (1, 0), () = (0, 1)
e.g. if p = p e
Free particle solutions of the Dirac Equation

So, general positive energy plane wave solution written in eigenbasis
of helicity,
p() (x)
= N(p)e
ipx
()
|p|
()
p0 + m
But how to deal with the problem of negative energy states? Must
we reject the Dirac as well as the Klein-Gordon equation?
In fact, the existence of negative energy states provided the key that
led to the discovery of antiparticles.
To understand why, let us consider the problem of scattering from a
potential step...
Klein paradox and antiparticles
Consider plane wave, unit amplitude, energy E , momentum p e3 ,

and spin ( = (1, 0)) incident on potential barrier V (x) = V (x3 )
in = e
ip0 t+ipx3
(+)
p
(+)
p0 + m
At barrier, spin is conserved, component r is reflected (E , p e3 ),

and component t is transmitted (E ! = E V , p ! e3 )
From Klein-Gordon condition (energy-momentum invariant):
2
p02 E 2 = p 2 + m2 and p0! E !2 = p !2 + m2
in = e
ip0 t+ipx3
(+)
p
(+)
p0 + m
Boundary conditions: since Dirac equation is first order, require only

continuity of at interface (cf. Schrodinger eqn.)
1
1
1
0
0
0
=t !
+r
!
p/(E + m)
p /(E + m)
p/(E + m)
0
0
0
(helicity conserved in reflection)
Equating (generically complex) coefficients:

1 + r = t,
p
p!
(1 r ) = !
t
E +m
E +m

1+r =t
(1),
p
p!
(1 r ) = !
t
E +m
E +m
(2)
From (2), 1 r = t where

p ! (E + m)
=
p (E ! + m)
Together with (1), (1 + )t = 2
2
t=
,
1+
1+r
1
= ,
1r
1
r=
1+
Interpret solution by studying vector current: j =

=
+
,
3
3 = 0 3 =
j3 = 3 ,
3
j3 =
3
3
(Up to overall normalization) the incident, transmitted and reflected

currents given by,
1
+
,
.
2p
0
0 3
(i)
p
j3 = 1 0 E +m 0
=
p E + m,
3 0
E +m
0
1
2p
(t)
(r )
!
!
2
j3 = !
(p + p )|t| ,
j3 =
|r |2
E +m
E +m
where we note that, depending on height of the potential, p ! may
be complex (cf. NRQM).

p! E + m
=
p E! + m
Therefore, ratio of reflected/transmitted to incident currents,
(r )
j3
(i)
j3
(t)
j3
(i)
j3
;
;2
;1 ;
2
;
= |r | = ;;
1+;
2 (p
= |t|
+ p ! ) E + m
4
1
2( + )
=
( + ) =
!
2
2p
E +m
|1 + | 2
|1 + |2
(i)
(r )
(t)
From which we can confirm current conservation, j3 = j3 + j3 :

(r )
1+
j3
(i)
j3
(t)
|1 + |2 |1 |2
2( + )
j3
=
=
=
(i)
|1 + |2
|1 + |2
j3

(r )
j3
(i)
j3
;
;2
;
1 ;;
2
;
= |r | = ;
1+;
Three distinct regimes in energy:

1
E ! (E V ) > m:
i.e. p !2 = E !2 m2 > 0, p ! > 0 (beam propagates to right).
p! E + m
(r )
(i)
Therefore
>
0
and
real;
|j
|
<
|j
3
3 | as expected,
!
p E +m
i.e. for E ! > m, as in non-relativistic quantum mechanics, some of
the beam is reflected and some transmitted.
m > E ! > m:
i.e. p !2 = E !2 m2 < 0, p ! pure imaginary.
Particles have insufficient energy to surmount potential barrier.
p! E + m
Physical Interpretation:
Particles from right should be interpreted as antiparticles
propagating to right
i.e. incoming beam stimulates emission of particle/antiparticle pairs
at barrier.
Particles combine with reflected to beam to create current to left
that is larger than incident current while antiparticles propagate to
the right in the barrier region.

Negative energy states
Existence of antiparticles suggests redefinition of plane wave states

with E < 0: Dirac particles are, in fact, fermions and Pauli
exclusion applies.
Dirac vacuum corresponds to infinite sea of filled negative energy
states.
When V > 2m the potential step is in a precarious situation: It
becomes energetically favourable to create particle/antiparticle pairs
cf. vacuum instability.
Incident beam stimulates excitation of a positive energy particle
from negative energy sea leaving behind positive energy hole an
antiparticle.
cf. creation of electron-positron pair

vacuum due to high energy photon.

7
Therefore, for E < 0, we should set p0 = + p2 + m2 and
(x) = e +ipx v (p) where (- p + m)v (p) = 0 (N.B. +)
v (r ) (p) = N(p)
p (r ) :
p0 + m
(r )
But Dirac equation was constructed on premace that associated

with single particle (cf. Schrodinger equation). However, for
V > 2m, theory describes creation of particle/antiparticle pairs.
must be viewed as a quantum field capable of describing an
indefinite number of particles!!
In fact, Dirac equation must be viewed as field equation, cf. wave
equation for harmonic chain. As with chain, quantization of theory
leads to positive energy quantum particles (cf. phonons).
Allows reinstatement of Klein-Gordon theory as a relativistic theory
for scalar (spin 0 particles)...
Quantization of Klein-Gordon field

Klein-Gordon equation abandoned as candidate for relativistic
theory on basis that (i) it admitted negative energy solutions, and
(ii) probability density was not positive definite.
But Klein paradox suggests reinterpretation of Dirac wavefunction
as a quantum field.
If were a classical field, Klein-Gordon equation, ( 2 m2 ) = 0
would be associated with Lagrangian density,
L=
1
1
m2 2
2
2
Defining canonical momentum, (x) = L = (x)

0
1/ 2
2
2 2
+ () + m
H = L =
2
H is +ve definite! i.e. if quantized, only +ve energies appear.
Quantization of Klein-Gordon field

with equal time
Promoting fields to operators %
and % ,
t),
commutation relations, [(x,
(x! , t)] = i 3 (x x! ), (for m = 0,
cf. harmonic chain!)
5 3
6
4
1 2
3
2 + m2 2
H= d x
+ ()
2
Turning to Fourier space (with k0 k = k2 + m2 )

<
3
.
d
k ikx
ikx
(x) =
a(k)e
+ a (k)e
,
(x) 0 (x)
3
(2) 2k
/
0
!
where a(k), a (k ) = (2)3 2k 3 (k k! ),
<
=
H
<
5
6
d k
1
k a (k)a(k) +
(2)3 2k
2
3
Bosonic operators a and a create and annihilate relativistic scalar

(bosonic, spin 0) particles
Quantization of Dirac field

Dirac equation associated with Lagrangian density,
L = (i m) ,
i.e. L = (i m) = 0
0 = i , Hamiltonian density
With momentum = L = i
0 0 L = (i + m)
H = L = i
Once again, we can follow using canonical quantization procedure,
promoting fields to operators but, in this case, one must impose
equal time anti-commutation relations,
{ (x, t),
(x! , t)} (x, t)
(x! , t) +
(x, t) (x! , t)
= i 3 (x x! )
Quantization of Dirac field

Turning to Fourier space (with k0 k =
(x) =
2 <
=
r =1
k2 + m2 )
2
d 3k 1
(r )
ikx
(r )
ikx
a
(k)u
(k)e
+
b
(k)v
(k)e
r
r
(2)3 2k
with equal time anti-commutation relations (hallmark of fermions!)

>
? >
?
!
!
ar (k), as (k ) = br (k), bs (k ) = (2)3 2k rs 3 (k k! )
>
? >
?
!
!
ar (k), as (k ) = br (k), bs (k ) = 0
which accommdates Pauli exclusion ar (k)2 = 0(!), obtain

=
H
2 <
=
r =1
/
0
d 3k
k ar (k)ar (k) + br (k)br (k)

(2)3 2k
Physically a(k)u (r ) (k)e ikx annihilates +ve energy fermion particle

(helicity r ), and b (k)v (r ) (k)e ikx creates a +ve energy antiparticle.
Low energy limit of the Dirac equation

Previously, we have explored the relativistic (fine-structure)
corrections to the hydrogen atom. At the time, we alluded to these
as the leading relativistic contributions to the Dirac theory.
In the following section, we will explore how these corrections
emerge from relativistic formulation.
But first, we must consider interaction of charged particle with
electromagnetic field.
As with non-relativistic quantum mechanics, interaction of Dirac
particle of charge q (q = e for electron) with EM field defined by
minimal substitution, p % p qA , where A = (, A), i.e.
(- p q-A m) = 0

For particle moving in potential (, A), stationary form of Dirac
= E where, restoring factors of ! and c,
Hamiltonian given by H
= c (
H
p qA) + mc 2 + q
+
,
2
mc + q
c (
p qA)
=
c (
p qA) mc 2 + q
To develop non-relativistic limit, consider bispinor T = (a , b ),
where the elements obey coupled equations,
(mc 2 + q)a + c (
p qA)b = E a
c (
p qA)a (mc 2 q)b = E b
If we define energy shift over rest mass energy, W = E mc 2 ,

b =
1
c (
p qA)a
2
2mc + W q

1
b =
c (
p qA)a
2
2mc + W q
In the non-relativistic limit, W ( mc 2 and we can develop an
1
expansion in v /c. At leading order, b . 2mc
p qA)a .
2 c (
Substituted into first equation, obtain Pauli equation
NR a = W a where, defining V = q,
H
1
2
HNR =
[ (
p qA)] + V .
2m
Making use of Pauli matrix identity i j = ij + i,ijk k ,
q!
NR = 1 (
H
p qA)2
( A) + V
2m
2m
i.e. spin magnetic moment,
S =
q!
q
=g
S,
2m
2m
with gyromagnetic ratio, g = 2.

1
b =
c (
p qA)a
2
2mc + W V
Taking into account the leading order (in v /c) correction (with
A = 0 for simplicity), we have
+
,
1
W V
a
b .
1
c p
2
2
2mc
2mc
Then substituted into the second bispinor equation (and taking into
account correction from normalization) we find
2
4
2
1
!
p
p
2
.
+
H
+V 3 2 +
S
(V
)
p
(
V)
2
2
2
2
2m
' 8m
() c * '2m c ()
* '8m c ()
*
k.e.
spinorbit coupling
Darwin term
Synopsis: (mostly revision) Lectures 1-4ish

1
Foundations of quantum physics:
Historical background; wave mechanics to Schrodinger equation.
Quantum mechanics in one dimension:

Unbound particles: potential step, barriers and tunneling; bound
states: rectangular well, -function well; Kronig-Penney model .
Operator methods:
Uncertainty principle; time evolution operator; Ehrenfests theorem;
symmetries in quantum mechanics; Heisenberg representation;

quantum harmonic oscillator; coherent states.
Quantum mechanics in more than one dimension:

Rigid rotor; angular momentum; raising and lowering operators;
representations; central potential; atomic hydrogen.
non-examinable *in this course*.
Synopsis: Lectures 5-10

5
Charged particle in an electromagnetic field:

Classical and quantum mechanics of particle in a field; normal
Zeeman effect; gauge invariance and the Aharonov-Bohm effect;
Landau levels, Quantum Hall effect.
Spin:
Stern-Gerlach experiment; spinors, spin operators and Pauli
matrices; spin precession in a magnetic field; parametric resonance;
addition of angular momenta.
Time-independent perturbation theory:

Perturbation series; first and second order expansion; degenerate
perturbation theory; Stark effect; nearly free electron model.
Variational and WKB method:

Variational method: ground state energy and eigenfunctions;
application to helium; Semiclassics and the WKB method.

9
Identical particles:
Particle indistinguishability and quantum statistics; space and spin
wavefunctions; consequences of particle statistics; ideal quantum
gases; degeneracy pressure in neutron stars; Bose-Einstein
condensation in ultracold atomic gases.
10
Atomic structure:
Relativistic corrections spin-orbit coupling; Darwin term; Lamb
shift; hyperfine structure. Multi-electron atoms; Helium; Hartree
approximation and beyond; Hunds rule; periodic table; LS and jj
coupling schemes; atomic spectra; Zeeman effect.
11
Molecular structure:
Born-Oppenheimer approximation; H+
2 ion; H2 molecule; ionic and
covalent bonding; LCAO method; from molecules to solids;
application of LCAO method to graphene; molecular spectra;

rotation and vibrational transitions.
12
Field theory: from phonons to photons:

From particles to fields: classical field theory of harmonic atomic
chain; quantization of atomic chain; phonons; classical theory of the
EM field; waveguide; quantization of the EM field and photons.
13
Time-dependent perturbation theory:

Rabi oscillations in two level systems; perturbation series; sudden
approximation; harmonic perturbations and Fermis Golden rule.
14
Radiative transitions:
Light-matter interaction; spontaneous emission; absorption and
stimulated emission; Einsteins A and B coefficents; dipole
approximation; selection rules; lasers.
15
Scattering theory
Elastic and inelastic scattering; method of particle waves; Born

series expansion; Born approximation from Fermis Golden rule;
scattering of identical particles.
16
Relativistic quantum mechanics:
Klein-Gordon equation; Dirac equation; relativistic covariance and

spin; free relativistic particles and the Klein paradox; antiparticles;
coupling to EM field: minimal coupling and the connection to

non-relativistic quantum mechanics; field quantization.

Dirac 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dirac 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture 22

Relativistic Quantum Mechanics

Why study relativistic quantum mechanics?

Many experimental phenomena cannot be understood within purely

New phenomena appear at relativistic velocities.

Aesthetically and intellectually it would be profoundly unsatisfactory

When is a particle relativistic?

When velocity approaches speed of light c or, more intrinsically,

Vacuum instability: If binding energy of electron

a nucleus with initially no electrons is instantly screened by creation

Spin: emerges naturally from relativistic formulation

When does relativity intrude on QM?

When Ekin mc 2 , i.e. p mc

From uncertainty relation, xp > h, this translates to a length

for massless particles, c = , i.e. relativity always important for,

Relativistic quantum mechanics: outline

Special relativity (revision and notation)

Quantum mechanical spin

Solutions of the Dirac equation

Relativistic quantum field theories

Recovery of non-relativistic limit

Special relativity (revision and notation)

Special relativity (revision and notation)

Lorentz group: consists of linear transformations, , preserving

e.g. Lorentz transformation along x1

Special relativity (revision and notation)

4-vectors classified as time-like or space-like

forward time-like: x 2 > 0, x 0 > 0

backward time-like: x 2 > 0, x 0 < 0

Special relativity (revision and notation)

Every LT maps time-like vectors (x 2 > 0) into time-like vectors

Orthochronous transformations 00 > 0, preserve

Proper: det = 1 (as opposed to 1)

Group of proper orthochronous transformation: L+ subgroup

Special relativity (revision and notation)

Special relativity requires theories to be invariant under LT or, more

Generators of proper orthochronous transformations, L+ , can

L+ has six independent generators: three rotations and three boosts

covariant and contravariant derivative, chosen s.t. x = 1

Relativistic quantum mechanics: outline

Special relativity (revision and notation)

Quantum mechanical spin

Solutions of the Dirac equation

Relativistic quantum field theories

Recovery of non-relativistic limit

Meaning of square root? Taylor expansion:

Klein-Gordon equation is local and manifestly Lorentz covariant.

Klein-Gordon equation: Probabilities

cf. continuity relation conservation of probability: t + j = 0

Klein-Gordon equation: Probabilities

With 4-current j = (c, j), continuity relation j = 0.

Klein-Gordon equation: viability?

) is not positive definite.

Klein-Gordon equation has both positive and negative energy

Relativistic quantum mechanics: summary

However, the Klein-Gordon equation does not lead to a positive

Relativistic quantum mechanics: outline

Special relativity (revision and notation)

Quantum mechanical spin

Solutions of the Dirac equation

Relativistic quantum field theories

Recovery of non-relativistic limit

Relativistic equation must be first order in time derivative (and