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Early Earth and

The Origin of Life

Timeline of Life on Earth

Timeline of Life on Earth

Life on Earth is said to have originated 3.5 4.0
billion years ago
Bacteria (prokaryotes) were the first organisms to
inhabit Earth

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Miller-Urey Experiment
In 1953, Miller and Urey did an experiment that
simulated lab conditions that were similar to those
of the early Earth
After one week, they found a variety of organic
compounds (including amino acids) that had been
produced from inorganic material

Miller-Urey Experiment

Kingdoms of Life
Arranging the diversity of life into kingdoms is a
work in progress
Early classification systems had two kingdoms:
plants and animals
Robert Whittaker proposed five kingdoms: Monera,
Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia

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New information has revised our understanding

of the tree of life
Molecular data have provided insights into the deepest
branches of the tree of life
Early classification systems had two kingdoms:
plants and animals

Robert Whittaker proposed five kingdoms:

Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia

Kingdoms of Life (R. Whittakers Classification)

Kingdoms of Life
-Molecular data have provided insights into the deepest branches
of the tree of life

-The five kingdom system has been replaced by three

domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya
- Each domain has been split into kingdoms

Plants
Animals

Cnidarians (jellies, coral)

Sponges

Bilaterally symmetrical animals (annelids,

arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms, vertebrates)

Fungi

Choanoflagellates

Domain Archaea

Club fungi

Sac fungi

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Zygote fungi

Chytrids

Amoebozoans (amoebas, slime molds)

Angiosperms

Gymnosperms

Seedless vascular plants (ferns)

Bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, hornworts)

Charophyceans

Chlorophytes

Red algae

Cercozoans, radiolarians

Stramenopiles (water molds, diatoms, golden algae, brown algae)

Alveolates (dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, ciliates)

Euglenozoans

Diplomonads, parabasalids

Euryarchaeotes, crenarchaeotes, nanoarchaeotes

Korarchaeotes

Gram-positive bacteria

Cyanobacteria

Spirochetes

Chlamydias

Proteobacteria

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Domain Bacteria
Domain Eukarya

Universal ancestor

Investigating the Tree of Life

Ex: Legless lizards have evolved independently in several

different groups

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Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species

or group of related species
The discipline of systematics classifies organisms
and determines their evolutionary relationships
Systematists use fossil, molecular, and genetic data
to infer evolutionary relationships
Taxonomy is the ordered division and naming of
organisms

Binomial Nomenclature
In the 18th century, Carolus Linnaeus published a system of
taxonomy based on resemblances
Linnaean system is useful today: two-part names for species and
hierarchical classification
The two-part scientific name of a species is binomial:
-first part of the name is the genus

-second part, called the specific epithet (unique for each species
within the genus)
The first letter of the genus is capitalized, and the entire species
name is italicized
Both parts together name the species-its SCIENTIFIC NAME (not the
specific epithet alone)

Hierarchical Classification
Linnaeus also introduced a system for grouping species
in increasingly broad categories
The taxonomic groups from broad to narrow are
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus,
and species
A taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy is called a
taxon
The broader taxa are not comparable between lineages
For example, an order of snails has less genetic
diversity than an order of mammals

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Figure 26.3

Species:
Panthera pardus
Genus:
Panthera
Family:
Felidae
Order:
Carnivora
Class:
Mammalia

Phylum:
Chordata
Kingdom:
Animalia

Domain:
Bacteria

Domain:
Archaea

Domain:
Eukarya

Linking Classification and Phylogeny

Systematists depict evolutionary relationships in
branching phylogenetic trees

Figure 26.4

Order

Family Genus

Species

Panthera

Felidae

Panthera
pardus
(leopard)

Taxidea
Lutra

Mustelidae

Carnivora

Taxidea
taxus
(American
badger)
Lutra lutra
(European
otter)

Canis

Canidae

Canis
latrans
(coyote)
Canis
lupus
(gray wolf)

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Linnaean classification and phylogeny can differ from

each other
Systematists have proposed the PhyloCode, which
recognizes only groups that include a common ancestor
and all its descendents

A phylogenetic tree represents a hypothesis about

evolutionary relationships
Each branch point represents the divergence of two
species
Sister taxa are groups that share an immediate common
ancestor

A rooted tree includes a branch to represent the last

common ancestor of all taxa in the tree
A basal taxon diverges early in the history of a group
and originates near the common ancestor of the group
A polytomy is a branch from which more than two
groups emerge

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Figure 26.5

Branch point:
where lineages diverge

Taxon A
Taxon B

Taxon C

Sister
taxa

Taxon D
Taxon E

ANCESTRAL
LINEAGE

Taxon F
Taxon G

This branch point

represents the
common ancestor of
taxa AG.

Basal
taxon

This branch point forms a

polytomy: an unresolved
pattern of divergence.

What We Can and Cannot Learn from

Phylogenetic Trees
Phylogenetic trees show patterns of descent, not
phenotypic similarity
Phylogenetic trees do not indicate when species
evolved or how much change occurred in a lineage
It should not be assumed that a taxon evolved from
the taxon next to it

Applying Phylogenies
Phylogeny provides important information about
similar characteristics in closely related species
A phylogeny was used to identify the species of whale
from which whale meat originated

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RESULTS

Minke (Southern Hemisphere)

Unknowns #1a, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Minke (North Atlantic)
Unknown #9
Humpback (North Atlantic)
Humpback (North Pacific)
Unknown #1b
Gray
Blue
Unknowns #10, 11, 12
Unknown #13
Fin (Mediterranean)
Fin (Iceland)

Phylogenies are inferred from

morphological and molecular data
To infer phylogenies, systematists gather information
about morphologies, genes, and biochemistry of living
organisms

EXAMPLE: New views of animal phylogeny

are emerging from molecular data
Zoologists recognize about three dozen animal phyla
Phylogenies now combine morphological, molecular,
and fossil data
Current debate in animal systematics has led to the
development of multiple hypotheses about the
relationships among animal groups

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Porifera
Cnidaria

Eumetazoa

Metazoa

ANCESTRAL
COLONIAL
FLAGELLATE

Ctenophora

Brachiopoda
Echinodermata
Chordata
Platyhelminthes

Protostomia

Bilateria

Deuterostomia

Ectoprocta

Rotifera
Mollusca
Annelida
Arthropoda

MODEL HYPOTHESIS 1. based

mainly on morphological and
developmental comparisons

Nematoda

Figure 32.11

Porifera
Ctenophora

Eumetazoa

Metazoa

ANCESTRAL
COLONIAL
FLAGELLATE

Cnidaria
Acoela

Platyhelminthes

Lophotrochozoa Ecdysozoa

Deuterostomia

Bilateria

MODEL HYPOTHESIS 2.
based mainly on
molecular data

Echinodermata
Chordata

Rotifera
Ectoprocta
Brachiopoda
Mollusca
Annelida
Nematoda
Arthropoda

Points of Agreement
1. All animals share a common ancestor colonial
flagellate
2. Sponges are basal animals
3. Eumetazoa is a clade of animals (eumetazoans)
with true tissues
4. Most animal phyla belong to the clade Bilateria, and
are called bilaterians
5. Chordates and some other phyla belong to the clade
Deuterostomia

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Body Symmetry

Animals can be categorized according to the symmetry of their bodies, or

lack of it

Some animals have radial symmetry, with no front and back, or left and right
Two-sided symmetry is called bilateral symmetry
Bilaterally symmetrical animals have
A dorsal (top) side and a ventral (bottom) side
A right and left side
Anterior (head) and posterior (tail) ends
Cephalization, the development of a head
RADIALLY SYMMETRICAL: often sessile ex:
Hydra, sea anemone, coral polyp or planktonic
(drifting or weakly swimming) ex: jellyfish, comb
jellies

Bilateral animals often move actively w/ a

central nervous system ex: insects, man

Tissues
Animal body plans also vary according to the
organization of the animals tissues
Tissues are collections of specialized cells isolated from
other tissues by membranous layers
- Sponges lack true tissues
During development, three germ layers give rise to the
tissues and organs of the animal embryo
Ectoderm is the germ layer covering the embryos
surface
Endoderm is the innermost germ layer and lines the
developing digestive tube, called the archenteron
Mesoderm intervening layer

Diploblastic animals have ectoderm and endoderm

These include cnidarians and comb jellies

Triploblastic animals also have an intervening

mesoderm layer; these include all bilaterians
These include flatworms, arthropods, vertebrates,
and others

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Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle
Nuclei

Muscle
fiber
Sarcomere
100 m

Smooth muscle

Nucleus

Cardiac muscle

Muscle fibers

25 m

Nucleus

Intercalated disk

50 m

Body Cavities
Most triploblastic animals possess a body cavity
A true body cavity is called a coelom and is derived from
mesoderm
Coelomates are animals that possess a true coelom
A pseudocoelom is a body cavity derived from the
mesoderm and endoderm
Triploblastic animals that possess a pseudocoelom are called
pseudocoelomates
Triploblastic animals that lack a body cavity are called
acoelomates

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 32.8

(a) Coelomate
Coelom

Digestive tract
(from endoderm)

Body covering
(from ectoderm)
Tissue layer
lining coelom
and suspending
internal organs
(from mesoderm)

(b) Pseudocoelomate
Body covering
(from ectoderm)
Pseudocoelom
Digestive tract
(from endoderm)

Muscle layer
(from
mesoderm)

(c) Acoelomate
Body covering
(from ectoderm) Tissuefilled region
(from
mesoderm)
Wall of digestive cavity
(from endoderm)

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Protostome and Deuterostome Development

Based on early development, many animals can be
categorized as having protostome development or
deuterostome development

Cleavage
In protostome development, cleavage is spiral and
determinate
In deuterostome development, cleavage is radial and
indeterminate
- indeterminate cleavage, each cell in the early stages of
cleavage retains the capacity to develop into a
complete embryo
- makes possible identical twins, and embryonic stem
cells

Figure 32.9

Protostome development
(examples: molluscs,
annelids)
(a) Cleavage

Deuterostome development
(examples: echinoderms,
chordates)
Eight-cell stage

Eight-cell stage

Spiral and determinate

Radial and indeterminate

(b) Coelom formation

Coelom
Archenteron
Coelom
Mesoderm

Blastopore

Blastopore

Solid masses of mesoderm

split and form coelom.
(c) Fate of the
blastopore

Mesoderm

Folds of archenteron
form coelom.

Anus

Mouth

Digestive tube
Key
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm

Mouth
Mouth develops from blastopore.

Anus
Anus develops from blastopore.

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Progress in Resolving Bilaterian Relationships

The morphology-based tree divides bilaterians into two
clades: deuterostomes and protostomes
In contrast, recent molecular studies indicate three
bilaterian clades: Deuterostomia, Ecdysozoa, and
Lophotrochozoa
Ecdysozoans shed their exoskeletons through a process
called ecdysis

Some lophotrochozoans have a feeding structure

called a lophophore
Others go through a distinct developmental stage
called the trochophore larva

Future Directions in Animal Systematics

Phylogenetic studies based on larger databases will
likely provide further insights into animal evolutionary
history

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