NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES

ECONOMIC HISTORY OR HISTORY OF ECONOMICS?

A REVIEW ESSAY ON SYLVIA NASARS GRAND PURSUIT
THE STORY OF ECONOMIC GENIUS
Orley C. Ashenfelter
Working Paper 17607
http://www.nber.org/papers/w17607
NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH
1050 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02138
November 2011

Financial support was provided by the Industrial Relations Section - Princeton University. I am indebted
for comments to Janet Currie, Angus Deaton, John Eatwell, and John Pencavel. Many thanks to Ming
Gu for assistance. The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.
NBER working papers are circulated for discussion and comment purposes. They have not been peerreviewed or been subject to the review by the NBER Board of Directors that accompanies official
NBER publications.
2011 by Orley C. Ashenfelter. All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs,
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Economic History or History of Economics? A Review Essay on Sylvia Nasars Grand Pursuit:
the Story of Economic Genius
Orley C. Ashenfelter
NBER Working Paper No. 17607
November 2011
JEL No. A11,B20
ABSTRACT
In this essay I review Sylvia Nasars long awaited new history of economics, Grand Pursuit. I describe
how the book is really an economic history of the period from 1850-1950, with distinguished economists
stories inserted in appropriate places. Nasars goal is to show how economists work, but also to show
that they are people too--with more than enough warts and foibles to show they are human! I contrast
the general view of the role of economics in Grand Pursuit with Robert Heilbroners remarkably different
conception in The Worldly Philosophers. I also discuss more generally the question of why economists
might be interested in their history at all.
Orley C. Ashenfelter
Industrial Relations Section
Firestone Library
Princeton University
Princeton, NJ 08544
and NBER
c6789@princeton.edu

EconomicHistoryorHistoryofEconomics?
AReviewEssayonSylviaNasars
GrandPursuit:theStoryofEconomicGenius

OrleyAshenfelter

1. Introduction

GrandPursuitisSylviaNasarslongawaitednewbookprojectonthehistoryof
economics.TheauthorofABeautifulMind,theblockbuster1998biography
aboutNobelPrizewinnerJohnNash,Nasarisnowaprofessorofjournalismat
ColumbiaUniversity.Themoviemadefromthebookin2001wasshoweredwith
AcademyAwardattention(eventhesoundtrackwasnominatedforanOscar),
andtheinteractionofbookandmovieledtoasecondwaveofattentionforboth.
Naturally,thesuccessofABeautifulMindhasraisedsomeveryhighexpectations
forNasarsnewproject.
AsitturnsoutthereactiontoGrandPursuithasbeenbothmutedand
mixed.Tosomeextentthisreflectsreaderexpectations,asthebookspurpose
remainsuncleartomanypeopleevenaftertheyhavefinishedit.AsBobSolow
remarkedinhisreviewinTheNewRepublic,IthoughtIknewwhatthisbookwas
goingtobeaboutwhenIstartedit,butbythetimeIcametotheendIwasno
longersure.
IthinkGrandPursuitdoeshaveaclearpurpose,but,frankly,itisalittle
embarrassingtoacknowledgeit.Thebookisakindofgeneroushomageto
economicanalysisandthosewhopracticeit,anditsgoalistoexplainwhat
economistsdoandhowtheydoittoabroadaudience.Likethegoodjournalist
sheis,however,Nasarknowssheneedsahookinordertocapturereaderswho,
letsfaceit,seeeconomistsasfarlessusefulthandentists,andperhapseven

moreboring.1Infact,sheusestwohooks.First,shehaswrittenaneconomic
historyoftheperiodfromroughly1850to1950,andtheninsertedhercastof
economiccharactersintothishistoryinthecontextoftheeconomicpoliciesof
theday.TheresultisthateconomistslikeJohnMaynardKeynes,IrvingFisher,or
JoanRobinsonappearinseveralplacesinthebook,ratherthaninaseparate
chapter.Second,Nasarshowsthateconomistsarepeopletoo!And,assuch,
theyaresometimescharacterswhoareactuallyquiteinterestingtoreadabout.
Somehaveextraordinarysexlives(Keynes),dreadfultablemanners(Keynes),
andareantiSemitic(Keynes).Othershaveextraordinaryfamilies(Marxlived
withtwowivesandhadchildrenwithboth,Robinsonwasinamnageatrois
withhercollaboratorsonTheEconomicsofImperfectCompetition),whileothers
hadveryoddpoliticalinclinations(Fisherwrote3bookspromotingProhibition!).
BeforediscussingwhatGrandPursuitdoes,Ithinkitisimportanttomake
clearwhatitdoesnotdo.First,despitesomepublishersexpectations,thisbook
isnotamodernupdateofRobertHeilbronersTheWorldlyPhilosophers.
MistakenlythinkingatfirstthatNasarsbookwasaHeilbronerknockoff,Istarted
toreadGrandPursuitbyturningtothechapteronIrvingFisher,expectinga
compactsummaryofhislifeandwork.Althoughthereisanearlychapterwhere
Fisherappearsinsomedepth,healsoappearsinseveralotherchaptersinGrand
Pursuit,includingonehighlightingtherelationbetweenFisherandKeynesduring
theGreatDepression.Myadvice?Itisfareasiertoreadthisbookasyouwoulda
noveloraneconomichistoryfromcovertocover.
Second,Nasarhasaleisurelystyleofwritingthatcansometimesinfuriatea
readerbeforeitgetstoanyrealpoint.IonceaskedNasarwhyshehadanentire,
selfcontainedchapterontheeminentgametheoristLloydShapleyinABeautiful

1
ThisisapartialquotefromJohnMaynardKeynes,whoactuallysaid,Ifeconomistscouldmanageto
getthemselvesthoughtofashumble,competentpeopleonalevelwithdentists,thatwouldbe
splendid.

Mind.Heranswer?DoIactuallyhaveawholechapterabouthim?Itiseasyto
getthefeelingthat,insomeplaces,lessmighthaveactuallybeenmore.

2. TheMainCharacters

Figure1containsalistofthemaincharactersinGrandPursuit,butthisby
nomeansexhauststheentiresetofcharactersthatappearhereandthere.These
charactersrangeallthewayfromHoChiMinh,whowasadishwasherinthe
FrenchHotelthatKeynesinhabitedduringthenegotiationoftheTreatyof
Versailles,tomoreimportantrolesforCanadianJacobViner,AmericanRobert
Solow,HungarianNicholasKaldor,BritonFrankRamsey,andAustriansFritz
MachlupandLudwigvonMises.
AlthoughNasarusesDickenssviewoftheconditionsofLondonasafoilto
startherstory,therealplaybeginswithKarlMarxandFriedrichEngels.Engels
receivesconsiderablymoreattentionthanisusualbecause,inNasarstellingof
thestory,EngelsservesastheessentialentrepreneurbehindMarxswork.
Indeed,likemanyrealpeople(andsomeeconomists),Marxappearstohavebeen
amajorprocrastinatorwithastronginterestinwineandfood,andacomplex
familylife.Nasarmakesagoodcasethatthefinalburstofenergythatproduced
DasKapitalwasprovokedbytheopportunityforrelevanceposedbytheBritish
financialpanicof1866andbyEngelshavinglosthispatiencetofinancehim.
UsingMarxasaninitialfoilprovidesNasarwithagoodstory,butalsowith
afinestrawman.Marxwasthelastreallysuccessfuleconomistwhose
predictionsresembledthesocalledIronLawofWages.Inthisframework,
laborissuppliedperfectlyelasticallyinthelongrunatthesubsistencewage.The
mechanismthatenforcesthiswaspopulationgrowthforMalthusandRicardo;
whentimesaregoodpopulationincreasesandotherwisepopulationdeclines.For
Marxthematterismorecomplex,buttheresultisthesame:Increaseddemand
forlaborandproductivitygrowthneverleadstoapermanentincreaseinliving
standardsforworkers.

OneinterestingthemeinGrandPursuit,whichIdoubtNasarintended,is
theextenttowhichsheshowsthatmost(butnotall)economistsrelyonarmchair
empiricalwork.AlthoughthefamousChapter10ofDasKapitalprovidesthe
evidenceMarxmustersforthesqualidconditionsofVictorianfactoryworkers,it
appearsthatMarxdidnothimselfevervisitanyfactory.Regardless,inhisdayit
seemstohavebeenwidelyacceptedthatwageswerestagnant,theprimary
predictionoftheIronLaw.Inretrospect,weknowthistheorywasbeatennot
justbyanothertheory,butbythefacts.Wagesdidincreaseandtheoretical
modifications,whicharestillunderway,wereinorderforboththetheoryoflong
runlaborsupplyanddemand.
NasarslongdiscussionofAlfredMarshalldoesemphasizehisfascination
withfactsandevidence.ItalsoemphasizestheimportanceofhisPrinciplesof
Economicsfordevelopingthefamiliarapparatusofsupplyanddemandweuse
today.ButIalsothinkitisdrivenbythestoryofaloveaffair.InABeautifulMind
JohnNashhadAlicia,hisgreatlove,andinGrandPursuitAlfredMarshallhas
Mary.ThebasicMarshallianfamilyproblemwillseemremarkablyfamiliarto
graduatestudentstoday,whereitisnowknownastheTwoBodyProblem.
HavingbeenastarstudentatCambridge,MarshallheldacovetedFellowshipat
St.Johns,whileMary,oneofthefirstwomentoattendCambridge,wasacollege
lecturer.Atfirstitwouldseemthetwobodyproblemwassolved.Exceptthat,
wereMarshalltomarry,hewouldhavetogiveuphisFellowship.Indeed,in1877
hedidjustthatandresignedhispositionatSt.Johns.Withastrokeofgreat
timing,MarshallwasofferedthepostasPrincipaloftheUniversityofBristol,the
firstofthecoeducationalredbrickuniversities,wherethenewlymarriedcouple
workedjointlyonTheEconomicsofIndustry,andwhereMaryalsolectured.The
twobodyproblemwassolvedandthecouplewashappilymarried.
AnotherthemeinGrandPursuitthatwillintrigueeconomiststodayisthe
leisurelyrateatwhichresearchworkwaspursued.Publishorperishwasclearly
notthemodeloftheday.MarshalldidnotpublishhisPrinciplesofEconomics,on
whichhisfameisbased,until1890,whenhewas48yearsold.Marx,at49,was
almostthesameagewhenhepublishedDasKapital.Itseemstohavebeenthe

Americans,startingevenwithIrvingFisherinthe19thcentury,whochangedall
this.
ButNasarsstorystaysmainlyinCambridge,withdetourstoLondonand
Vienna,formuchofitsduration.Onlyattheveryenddowetakeabrieftripto
Americaand,almostasanafterthought,India.Weprimarilyseeeconomists
throughtheworkinthebook,whetheritbeTheGeneralTheoryof
Employment,InterestandMoney;TheRoadtoSerfdom,orTheTheoryof
EconomicDevelopment.Andallthisissurroundedbythegreateventsofthe20th
century:theFirstWorldWar,theGreatDepression,andtheSecondWorldWar.
ThetwocharacterswhoNasarclearlyfallsforareBeatrice(Potter)Webb,
andJohnMaynardKeynes.Webb,sufferingfromunrequitedlove,sidlesupto
Sydneyasasubstituteforsomeoneshereallywantedandcouldnothave,famed
politicoJosephChamberlain.Tall,willowy,andlovelyevenassheaged,she
seemsalsotohavebeenagreatmanipulatorandentrepreneur.Shewasa
principalinthefoundingofboththeLondonSchoolofEconomicsandtheFabian
Society.Itishardertomakethecaseforhereconomics.
OnefeatureofallthevignettesinGrandPursuitthatseemsquirky,and
mayevenannoysome,istheoccasionalappearanceofKGBspies,Soviet
apparatchiks,and,attheend,someChineseCommunistfellowtravelers.Itis
importanttorememberthat,fortheBritish,the1920swerenotaperiodof
prosperity.Withhighunusedcapacityandunemploymentthatcontinuedinto
the1930smanyeconomistswerefascinatedwithStalinsRussia,andthegreat
battleovercapitalismversussocialism.ThetravelsbySydneyandBeatriceWebb,
aswellasJoanRobinson,toRussia,andtheapparentrolestheyplayedin
descriptionsofasuccessfuleconomy,areallpartofNasarsstory.Butthereare
manyotherreferencestoHarryDexterWhite,animportantUSTreasuryofficial
foroveradecade,whoisdescribedasaRussianspy.Whiteworkedcloselywith
JacobVinerintheTreasury,andalsowithMiltonFriedman,andPaulSamuelson
who,thankheavens,arenotsolabeled.OskarLangeisnotsolucky.2

Solow(2011)questionsthelabelNasarappliestoLange.

ButitisKeyneswhoprovidesmuchofthecoreofNasarsstory.Ofall
economists,JohnMaynardKeyneswasoneofthefewtoplayacentralroleinall
threeofthebigeventsofthe20thcentury.Theresultisthatthehistoryofhislife
andthehistoryofeconomicpolicyarecloselyintertwined.Thereisaneerie
similarityofmanycurrenteventstothosethatKeyneswitnessedandparticipated
inoveraperiodof30years.
KeyneswroteTheEconomicConsequencesofthePeaceatjustage36,
havingbeeninParisforthenegotiationsoverwhopaidwhatinreparationsatthe
endofWorldWarI.Inretrospect,whathewroteseemsremarkablyprescient,
andrelevanttodayfornegotiationscontinuinginEuropeoverdebtproblemsand
financialintegration.OnecouldevenarguethattheEuropeanproblemsexposed
intheFirstWorldWar,andreexposedintheSecondWorldWar,arestill
unsolved.Butunlikeboththoseevents,whoseresolutionwasaresultof
Americanintervention,thereisnotanyprospectofthattoday.
Basically,thevictorsexpectedtonegotiateaTreatywheretheywouldbe
compensatednotonlyfordamagetheGermanscausedintheWar,butalsofor
thecoststhevictorsincurredingoingtoWar.ThisisalittleliketheruleinBritish,
butnotAmerican,courts,whereloserspaythewinnerstheircourtcosts.For
KeynesthepreventionoffurtherwarsinEuroperequiredanintegrated
commercialandfinancialworld,andhearguedtheTreatywoulddothereverse.
Keynesis,ofcourse,evenmoreintimatelyconnectedwiththehistoryof
theGreatDepression.Theeconomichistoryofthatperiod,whichNasarcoversin
somedetail,alsohaseeriesimilaritiestothepresent.Iamtoldbyareliable
sourcethatthesechaptersaremakingtheirroundsinthereadingmaterialatthe
WhiteHouse.
HerbertHooversfirstreactionin1930,asPresident,tothestartofthe
Depressionwastoproposetaxcutsandtospeedupinfrastructureinvestment
(includingBoulder,nowHoover,Dam).Manyeconomistsapprovedofthese
policies,buttheyclearlydidnotstoptheDepression.FranklinRoosevelts
reactionin1933wassimilar,andmanyeconomistsalsoapprovedthesepolicies,
althoughtheytoodidnotstoptheDepressionscontinuation.Itappearsthat

throughoutthisperiodbothPresidentsfollowedstopandstartpoliciesthatseem
remarkablyfamiliartoday.
BrettonWoods,andtheendofWorldWarIIcoincidewithKeynessdeath
in1946.AlongsidethediscussionofKeynesrundiscussionsoftheAustrian
expats,HayekandSchumpeter.AlthoughNasarprovidestheirstories(and
Schumpetercertainlyhasagoodone),andsomeinsightintotheirworkandits
importance,bothcharactersremaindistant.Perhaps,fromwherewesittoday,it
issimplytoodifficulttolinktheirstyleofeconomicanalysistoanything
recognizabletoamoderneconomist.Friedman,Samuelson,andAmartyaSen
makebriefappearancesattheendofthebook.Theirinclusionseemsalmostan
afterthought,designedtofillinattheendforthetraditionaldiscussionofAdam
Smith,DavidRicardo,andThomasMalthusthatwasnotprovidedatthe
beginning.

3. GrandPursuitvs.TheWorldlyPhilosophers

ItisinterestingtocompareGrandPursuitwithRobertHeilbronersThe
WorldlyPhilosophers;abookthatnodoubtsomeexpectedwouldbeitsmodel.
Therearesimilarities,butthedifferencesstrikemeaslarger.
ThefirsteditionofTheWorldlyPhilosopherswaspublishedin1953,andthe
last,theseventh,waspublishedin1999.Thisisaprettylongrunforanyauthor.
Reportedtohavesoldover4millioncopies,therearefewbooksineconomics
thathavereachedsomanypeople.Inpartthebooksblockbustersales
representedassignedreading,asitdidwithme,whenIboughtthefirstrevised
edition(publishedin1961)foranundergraduateclass.Itissometimessaidthat
TheWorldlyPhilosopherswasthebestrecruitingtoolanyeconomicsdepartment
coulddesigntofillitscourses.
AlthoughTheWorldlyPhilosopherschangedovertheyears,itremained
remarkablysimilarthroughitsseveneditionsover46years.The7theditionhasan
addedchapteronJosephSchumpeter,whichisnotinthesecondeditionthatI
bought.Butotherwisethebook,apartfromsometinkeringwiththewritingand

aconcludingchapterthatmightbereadasadenouement(perhapsforboththe
bookanditsauthorHeilbronerdiedin2005),isquitesimilar.
ThegrandthemeofTheWorldlyPhilosophersisthediscussionofhowa
societywillunderstandtheallocationofitsresources.Fromthisthemeitiseasy
toseewhyitisimportanttostudywhateconomistswrite.Whattheywriteisthe
intellectualframeworkthatwillbeusedtorationalizewhatevereconomicsystem
exists.Fromthisperspectiveeconomistsareworldlyphilosophers,notworldly
scientists.Andbigissues,liketheroleofsocialismversuscapitalism,areatthe
centerofthediscussion.
Ironically,thefinalchapterinHeilbronersfinaleditionannouncestheend
oftheworldlyphilosophy.ThedeclineofCommunismthroughouttheworldby
1999seemstohaveleftHeilbronerwithoutabigtheme.Andsoheasked
(Heilbroner,1999,p.319),Ifeconomicsisnottobeascienceofsociety,whatis
tobeitsultimatesocialusefulness?Myansweristhatitspurposeistohelpus
betterunderstandthecapitalistsettinginwhichwewillmostlikelyhavetoshape
ourcollectivedestinyfortheforeseeablefuture.Havingformanyyearsendorsed
theideasandobjectivesofdemocraticsocialism,thatisnotaneasyassertionfor
metomake.Wow,weareallcapitalistsnow!
SowhatisthethemeofGrandPursuit?ThebookssubtitleisTheStoryof
EconomicGenius.Admittedly,manyofthecharactersinGrandPursuitseem
wacky,butnotmanyofthemstrikemeasreal,actualgeniuses.SoIamnotsure
justhowthatthememakesanysense.IthinkNasarintendsthethemeofher
booktoreflecttheideathateconomicscanhelpusincreaselivingstandards,
somethingtheclassicaleconomiststhoughtimpossible.Written,asitwas,mainly
duringthegreatmoderation,GrandPursuithasarrivedatanunfortunate
moment.TheUShasnothadanygrowthforseveralyears,andmanyworrythis
mayturnintothenewnormal.Optimismisinshortsupply.
ItisinterestingtoseehowthecharactersinTheWorldlyPhilosophersdiffer
fromthoseinGrandPursuit.Twoofthemostnotabledifferencesarecharacters
whoappearintheformerbutnotthelatter.ThorsteinVeblenisoneofthese.
VeblendoesappearbrieflyinGrandPursuit,butNasardismisseshimasa

sociologist.VeblenwasactuallyamemberoftheGermaninstitutionalistschool,
aswasHeilbronerhimself.AsNasarnotes,manyofthefoundingmembersofthe
AmericanEconomicAssociationweremembersofthisschoolofthought,and
theystoodincontrasttotheEnglishschoolofeconomiststhatformthebasisfor
Nasarsstory.Justlikecapitalism,thisEnglishstyleofeconomicsisnow
dominant,soitisperhapsnosurprisethatVeblengottheax.
Heilbroneralsoincludesagroupthathecallstheutopiansocialists.This
curiousmixedbagincludesRobertOwen,CountHenrideRouvroydeSaintSimon,
CharlesFourier,andJohnStuartMill.Thesefascinatingcharacterscertainlydo
notfitintoNasarsconceptionofmodernanalyticaleconomics.Itisevenpossible
thatHeilbronerspronouncementofthedeathofdemocraticsocialismwould
haveledhimtodeletethemfromhisownbookaswell.
Thereare,ofcourse,manypeoplewhodonotmakeitintoTheWorldly
Philosophers,butwhoaremajorplayersinGrandPursuit.Chiefamongtheseare
SydneyandBeatriceWebb,andJoanRobinson.Morerevealing,however,isthat
althoughIrvingFisherplaysamajorroleinGrandPursuit,heisalmostcompletely
absentfromTheWorldlyPhilosophers.Heilbronermentionshimonlytonotethat
Fisherhadembarrassedhimselfbypredictinganewpermanenthighforthestock
marketjustbeforetheCrashof1929.AstheprimaryAmericanmemberofthe
EnglishanalyticalstyleofeconomicsFisherprovidesasuitablereplacementin
GrandPursuitfortheroleVeblenplayedintheWorldlyPhilosophers.

4. WhyHistoryofEconomicThought?

Afterallthis,itseemsperfectlysensibletoask,whatisthepoint?Thatis,
whyshouldanyeconomistreadaboutorstudythehistoryofeconomicthought?
Idonotthinkthisisaneasyquestiontoanswer.Therealityisthattheteaching
ofthehistoryofeconomicthoughthasvirtuallydisappearedfromoureducation
programs.Inasurveydone10yearsago,TedGayer((2002)reportedthatonly13
ofthetop62graduateeconomicsprogramsreportedofferinganycourse inthe
history of economic thought in the previous five years. Among the top 20

10

departments,onlyfourreportedhavingofferedsuchacourse.Itseemslikelythat
thesenumbershavedeclinedevenfurtherinthelastdecade.
Agnar Sandmo (2010), in a new and interesting analytical history of
economic thought, has actually offered three answers to this basic question.
First, he suggests, reading the history of economic thought can be fun. Fair
enough, how does Grand Pursuit perform by this standard? By almost any
standard, I would have to say very well. Second, Sandmo suggests, learning
aboutthehistoryofeconomicthoughtshouldbepartofaliberaleducation.Iam
always uncomfortable about anyone prescribing what makes a liberal
education. For example, I think that a liberal education should include a basic
understandingofstatistics,butIhaveneverfoundmanypeoplewhoagreewith
me.Still,onthiscriterion,GrandPursuitdoesagoodjobofoutliningsomeofthe
economichistoryintheUSandEuropethatisrelevanteventoday.ButNasars
analysisofthehistoryofeconomicthoughtwillleavemanyeconomistsscratching
theirheads.
Finally,Sandmosuggeststhatthestudyofthehistoryofeconomicthought
showsourstudentsthateconomicanalysisisnotastaticfieldbut,asheputsit,
an evolving one. This is no doubt true if we limit ourselves to what most of us
know as microeconomics, but is it equally true of the study of aggregate or
macroeconomics?ReadingGrandPursuitraisesasmanyquestionsasitanswers
aboutjustwherethepursuithasled.

11

References
Gayer,Ted2002.GraduateStudiesintheHistoryofEconomicThought.History
ofPoliticalEconomy,34(AnnualSupplement):3561.

Heilbroner,Robert1961.TheWorldlyPhilosophers:TheLives,Ideas,andTimesof
theGreatEconomicThinkers.NewYork:SimonSchuster.

Heilbroner,Robert1999.TheWorldlyPhilosophers:TheLives,Ideas,andTimesof
theGreatEconomicThinkers.NewYork:SimonSchuster.

Nasar,Sylvia2011.GrandPursuit:TheStoryofEconomicGenius.NewYork:
SimonandSchuster.

Sandmo,Agnar2010.EconomicsEvolving:AHistoryofEconomicThought.
Princeton,NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress.
Solow,Robert2011.WorkingintheDark.TheNewRepublic,242(15):2630

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Figure1TheEconomistsinGrandPursuit
KarlMarx(1818 1883)
AlfredMarshall(1842 1924)
SidneyWebb(1859 1947)
BeatriceWebb(1858 1943)
IrvingFisher(1867 1947)
JosephSchumpeter(1883 1950)
JohnMaynardKeynes(1883 1946)
FriedrichHayek(1899 1992)
JoanRobinson(1903 1983)
MiltonFriedman(19122006)
PaulSamuelson(19152009)
AmartyaSen(1933Present)
1800

1850

1900

1950

2000