Validity of the Center- Periphery Linkage in the Economy of

Bangladesh: An Empirical Investigation

Dr.ATM Zahurul Huq*
Mohammad Mokammel Karim Toufique

Cite this as:

[Huq, ATMZ and Toufique, MMK. Applicability of the Center Periphery Model (CPM) in the
context of Bangladesh: An Empirical Investigation. Bangladesh Economic Journal. Vol. 2, No. I.
December 2013.]

Key Words: Center-Periphery, Core-Periphery, Bangladesh, Development.

Professor and Chairman, Department of Economics, Stamford University.

Assistant Professor of Economics, United International University.

1. Introduction
The center-periphery (or core-periphery) four-stage model of regional development describes the
structural relationship between the modern center and an undeveloped periphery, either
within a particular country or between a capitalist and a developing country/region(John
Friedmann 1966). Friedmann classified economic regions into four categories core regions
(characterized by the concentration of advanced sectors), peripheral areas (their proximity to
centers encourages industrial growth that takes advantage of indigenous resources), newly
developed areas that were previously virgin land and lastly, depressed peripheral areas
(characterized by stagnant rural economy and subsequent migration of population). In a simpler
version of the model when a city grows fast putting an increasing pressure on its carrying
capacity, it must expand to support the bigger population at least at the existing standard of
living by providing various goods and services. Usually, the inner city will grow first, then it will
expand to the surrounding areas creating suburbs and then it may grow beyond that to farther
areas. Generally, it is assumed that peripheries will benefit in the long run through the trickledown effect.
The central economy is determined by market forces, relatively capital intensive and having a
high wage rate. The periphery is labor intensive and characterized by low wage. The wage gap
between the center and the periphery induces capitalists to locate their production units in the
periphery. The interaction between the central and peripheral areas, generally typified by
interconnected streams of information, capital, goods & labor and usually in the form of
dominance of the former over the latter, provides incentives for innovations. This interaction can
displace economic activities that are unable to meet the status of the center. The diffusion of
innovations and information takes place on three levels from center to periphery, from higher
level center to second degree center and lastly, to the circumferential cities. However, the gap
between center and periphery remains and uneven growth in the two regions provides an impetus
for the emergence and reproduction of spatial inequality. The present study aims at examining
the Centre-Periphery relationship in the context of economic development in Bangladesh. It may
be mentioned that there exists lacuna in this area and the present study is first of its kind in
Bangladesh with regard to ascertaining Centre-Periphery relationship in the context of economic
development.
2. Historical Background and Main Theme of Center- Periphery Linkage
Historically the centre-periphery thesis owes its origin to Raul Prebisch, Hens Singer and
Gunnar Myrdal. Later on, the centre-periphery thesis was reckoned as Prebisch-Singer theory of
centre-periphery linkage. In the context of international trade to examine the experience of
systematic determination of terms of trade (net barter terms of trade) implying that the

developing nations need to export increasing amount of its primary products in exchange of
imports of manufacturing items from advanced countries because income elasticity of demand
for manufactured goods is greater than that for primary products. As income increases, the
demand for manufactured goods increases more rapidly than the demand for primary products.
The Prebisch-Singer thesis enjoyed a high degree of popularity in the 1960s and 1970s and
provided a justification for Import Substitution Industrializing (ISI) policies in the less developed
countries. The Centre-Periphery thesis begins with the observation that the periphery produces
primary products to export it to the centre and the centre produces secondary goods for export to
the periphery. The theory states that as technology improves, the centre is able to retain the
savings made due to higher wages and profits through developed unions and commercial
institutions.
In the 1960s economists developed an extension of Prebischs thought on Structuralism into
Dependency Theory in which economic development of the periphery is believed to be
impossible. Dependency theory states that resources flow from a Periphery of poor and
under developed states to a Crore of wealthy states enriching the latter at the expense of the
former. It is believed that the poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way
poor states are integrated into the world system. The premises of Dependency Theory are that (i)
poor nations provide natural resources, cheap labor, a destination for obsolete technology and
markets for developed nations, i.e. for (a) using the periphery as a source of raw materials and
(b) making the periphery a market for manufactured goods produced by the centre. (ii) Wealthy
nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various means and (iii) wealthy nations
actively counter moves of dependent nations to resist their influences by means of economic
sanction and / or the use of military force.
According to Friedmans analysis of structural relationship between the modern Centre and an
undeveloped Periphery, in the process of development, the Inner (core) city will grow first,
then it will expand to the surrounding areas creating suburb and then it may grow beyond suburb
to farther areas. It is believed that in this process, periphery will benefit through trickle-down
effect. The periphery will continue to flourish, development activities will be accelerated,
diversified investment in all sectors will take place, the wage differential between centre and
periphery will eventually be diminished. The terms of trade between centre and periphery will
gradually improve. The dependence of periphery on the centre will be minimized. The periphery
will turn to be a developed region. This continued process will transform the undeveloped
economies into developed ones through trickle-down effects.
3. Literature Review

Quite a number of papers endeavored to dwell upon the issue of Centre-Periphery linkage but
most of the studies concerning the Centre-Periphery model (CPM) have tried to investigate the
convergence or divergence in development between the core and the periphery and the factors
underlying such outcomes in general. Specific instances of convergence or divergence have
hardly been highlighted.Raagmaa (2003) used the CPM to analyze the regional development of
Estonia in the historical perspective. Though spatial processes and deconcentration of the 1970s
and 1980s supported the model, in the 1990s the model became less relevant owing to its
assumption of the continuity of industrial society. It also argues that similar spatial developments
may stem from entirely different sets of factors and attempts to combine the classical CPM with
new conditions. Simon (2011) identified several sources of the center-periphery relationship both
at the national and international level. According to the model factors like low urban income,
high rates of unemployment among the youths, weak industrial base of the periphery and
inefficient use of resources caused by corrupt leadership are the factors responsible for the
existing uneven development between the centers and the peripheries. Gren (2003) found EU
Structural Funds transport infrastructure actions successful in reducing the gap between core
and periphery. Using data from Portuguese industrial sector Ferro and Jensen-Butler (1984)
found an apparent core-periphery structure in regional industrial development. However,
according to them the underlying patterns did not conform to the CPM.
4. Objectives of the Study
The present academic pursuit aims at examining (i) the changes in structural dependency and (ii)
extent of trickle-down benefits accruing to the periphery in the context of Bangladesh. It is
relevant to mention that no such academic exercise was initiated before in the perspective of
Bangladesh. The present study, thus, may be treated as humble effort to delineate centre
periphery linkage which may add to the existing knowledge of dependency theory and CentrePeriphery relationship with regard to research on the issues within the purview of development
economics. The present paper aims at pinpointing the center-peripheral relationship between
Dhaka and Mauna a Union located approximately 75 kilometers away from Dhaka. In the last
two decades the economy of Bangladesh has registered significant growth and Dhaka, being the
capital and the largest city of the country, has experienced remarkable expansion. Within the
framework of the center-periphery model Dhaka is the center of modern economic activities and
Mauna Union is the periphery. Our conjecture is: the economic growth and geographical
expansion of the capital has assumingly caused significant economic changes in its periphery,
Mauna.
5. Methodology and Organization of the Paper

To examine the centre-periphery relationship between Dhaka and Mauna, one of the twenty
villages that constitute Mauna Union was chosen randomly. The village is 12 kilometers off the
Union Head Office. Data were collected by the students of the Department of Economics,
Stamford University Bangladesh. A detailed questionnaire was carefully filled out by directly
interviewing the villagers of different age-sex groups. The questionnaire collected information
about villagers income and income sources, educational progress, health care facilities,
transportation & communication, trade and commerce, environmental issues etc.
The paper has been organized as: (1) Introduction (2) Historical Background and Main Theme of
Center- Periphery Linkage(3)Literature Review (4) Objectives (5) Methodology and
Organization of the paper(6) Findings of the Survey (7) An Overview of the survey (8) Center
Periphery Premise and Some Implicit Assumptions and (9) Limitations & Conclusion.
6. Findings of the Survey
This section presents an analysis of the findings of the investigation carried out in the Periphery
(Mauna). The analysis comprehends both social and economic characteristics of the respondents,
their opinion about the present socio-economics conditions of the locality, available trickle
down effects for being located in the close proximity of the centre (Dhaka)and perception of the
local people with regard to the backwardness of the area.

6.1 Characteristics of the Respondents

The age-sex distribution of the sample is reported in appendix table A.1. In total, 55 people were
interviewed 38 males and 17 females, representing 69 percent and 31 percent of the sample
respectively. Around 56 percent of the sample falls in the 25-45 age groups, followed by 20
percent in the 15-24 age categories. People older than 45 years of age constitute only 13 percent
of the sample. The total dependency ratio is 17.02 percent. The child dependency ratio is 12.77
percent whereas the aged dependency ratio is 4.26 percent.
6.2 Major Occupations
Appendix table A.2 shows the major occupational categories of the surveyed area. Agriculture
(25.46 percent) turns out to be the key occupation of the surveyed people, followed by business
(18.18 percent) and service-sector jobs (9.09 percent). Around 16 percent of the people were
performing the role of housewife which is no less than a formal employment in terms of
significance but almost impossible to evaluate in monetary terms. A large section (20 percent) of
the interviewees was students which points to the villagers investment in (future) human capital.
6.3 Income and sources of income

Table 6.1 compares the number of people in different income groups across the two time periods.
At present 71percent individuals have an annual income greater than BDT 50,000. A decade ago
the corresponding figure was merely 14 percent. At present, 29 percent of the people interviewed
have an annual income of BDT 50,000 and below. A decade earlier the corresponding figure was
86 percent. It is worth mentioning that the sample size varies across the two periods. Even then,
it is quite conspicuous from the of table 6.1 that in general, the number of people in the lower
income groups has decreased whereas that in the highest income group has increased manifold.
Table 6.1 Villagers in Different Income Groups (Now and Ten Years ago)
Income groups (Yearly)

Frequency
A Decade Earlier
8 (22.22)
2 (5.55)
10 (27.77)
2 (5.55)
9 (25)

At Present
6 (13.33)
3 (6.67)
0
2 (4.44)
2 (4.44)

0-10,000
10,000-20,000
20,000-30,000
30,000-40,000
40,000-50,000

50,000+
32 (71.11)
Total
45
Note: Figures in parentheses represent percentages.
Source: Sample Survey

5 (13.8)
36

Change (Present Past )

-2
+1
-10
0
-7
+27

Table 6.2 exhibits the number of people in different occupational categories across the two time
points. Agriculture was and still is the major source of income of the villagers. Even though, the
sample size in the two time periods doesnt match, it can be inferred that important changes have
occurred in terms of the composition of sources of income. Employment in businesses and
service sector has increased. The number of people having no sources of income has almost
halved.
Table 6.2 Changes in the Major Sources of Income in the Last Ten Years
Number of people
Sources of income
1.Nothing
2.Agriculture
3. Business
4.Service
5.Others
Total
Sources: Sample survey

At Present
6
23

A Decade Earlier
11
22

Change (Present - Past)

-5
+1

13
8
5
55

3
5
4
45

+10
+3
+1

However, seven people reported that they had no income 10 years ago and they are not earning
anything now either. They did not say anything about whether they are better off now or they
were better off a decade earlier. For the remaining analysis of this subsection we disregard these
individuals.

6.4 Income Changes, Growth and Inequality

Table 6.3 shows some interesting facts regarding income and its change/growth over two time
periods. In both instances the minimum income is zero. The maximum annual income was BDT
50, 00000 during the survey time. Ten years ago the corresponding figure was BDT 12, 00000
implying that the maximum income has increased more than 316 percent. This potentially has
important implication for the inequality in the region. At present the average annual income is
BDT 1, 68,840 which was BDT 60,647.27 ten years ago. This indicates a 178 percent increase in
average income. If we exclude the people who said nothing about their welfare status (n becomes
48) relative to their welfare status 10 years ago, the average income increases by BDT 123, 971
which is also about 178 percent increase. At present there are 12 people who have no income.
The corresponding figure for a decade earlier is 22. If we consider those 48 people who
compared their welfare status across the two time periods, those figures become 5 and 15
respectively. Interestingly, the correlation between ones perception about his/her welfare
change and income change is - .25303. Calculation of the coefficient of variations indicates that
inequality was more pronounced in the past decade. Peoples perception about own welfare
doesnt depend on absolute income changes only but also on their relative position compared to
their fellow villagers. Apart from income, there are many other factors like access to
information, access to better education or health care facilities, infrastructural facilities etc. that
influence the level of welfare.
The number of people reporting no income change in both time periods is 13. These people are
most likely to be the individuals who depend on others (housewife, elderly and such) for their
survival. 77 percent of the interviewees reported that they are better off now (here n=48).
Average change in income of the sample population was BDT 108193. This change in average
income represents more than 55 percent increase between two periods.
Table: 6.3 Facts about Income Changes, Growth and Inequality
Minimum annual income
Maximum annual income
Average annual income (n=55)
Average annual income (n=48, excluding the people who said
nothing about their welfare status)
Number of people with no income (n = 55)
Number of people with no income (n = 48, excluding the
people who said nothing about their welfare status )
Number of people with no income in both time periods
Number of people who said they were better off (n=48)
Negative income change
No income change
Positive income change
Average change in income (n=55)
Average growth of annual income between the two time
periods (n=43)
Correlation between ones perception about his/her welfare
change and income change (n =48)
Coefficient of variation (n=48)

Now
0
50,00000
1,68,840
1,93,462.50

A decade ago
0
12,00000
60,647.27
69,491.67

12
5

22
15
13
37
2
13
40
108192.73
55.41%
-.25303

3.781240247

3.16338856

Coefficient of variation considering people with nonzero

income (n=43 and n=22 respectively)

3.568409458

2.573859245

Sources: Sample survey

6.5 Educational Status

Appendix table A.3 shows the number of educational institutions across the two time periods.
Currently there is only one primary school and a decade earlier the scenario was the same. There
was no high school or college in the village 10 years ago and that remains a fact at present too.
The only educational institution that has been built in the last 10 years is a madrasa.
Appendix table A.4 depicts the respondents views regarding the trend of enrollment in academia
and whether they are satisfied with the services provided. 81 percent of the respondents think
that the number of students is increasing while 78 percent of the respondents are satisfied with
educational services.
6.6 Facilities for Health Care
At present there is one health care center/hospital/clinic. A decade earlier there was no such
facility in the area. People had to travel to the nearby cities/towns to get the required service.
This really indicates a significant improvement but in no way does it imply that the existing
facility is sufficient for the population.
According to the Appendix table A.5, around 56 percent of the respondents do not get regular
medical services. Almost a similar fraction of population faces problems in getting health
services. The table also reveals that there are a few privileged individuals who do not pay for the
services, but the remaining 84 percent of the respondents do pay for the services they receive.
Because of this price of health care services, poor people with insufficient purchasing power are
the most sufferers.
Appendix table A-6 records the major problems in availing health services. The key problems
are lack/absence of doctors, inadequate medical equipment, lack of hospitals and long distance.
6.7 Improvement of Transport and Communication
Appendix table A.7 displays some interesting facts about the effects of improvements in
transport and communication facilities. Around 65 percent of the respondents think that the
existing mode of transportation has not increased the commercial viability of the area. Though
nearly 70 percent of the respondents feel that new roads increased the access to growth centers,
schools etc. the answerers were almost equally divided in opposing opinions when it came to
facilitation of trade and businesses by new roads. However, 80 percent of the respondents think
that the transport and communication facilities were not adequate 10 years ago.
For the locals, mobile phone is the principal means of communications. Almost 65 percent of the
population uses mobile phone for different purposes. Personal contact, the second most
important means, is used by only 17 percent people. The survey shows that there are only 2
telephone users in the periphery which reflect the fact that the telephone penetration rate is very
small in this area.

6.8 Improvement of Trade and Commerce

The area has markets where various products are traded. According to Appendix table A.9
major commodities traded in the market are vegetables, fruits and cloth. Rice, medicine, raw
materials and other goods are also traded in the market. The dominance of agricultural products
in the local market indicates that the periphery is virtually agrarian by nature.
Appendix table A-10 shows the mode of transportation to send goods to Dhaka, the centre.
Above 58 percent of the sample population send goods to Dhaka. Road is the dominant mode of
transportation and 94 percent of the respondents use road for trade and commerce.
Appendix table A.11 shows the effect of communication on the regions trade with the capital. It
is evident from the table that 49 percent of the sample population send commodities to Dhaka.
They also earn profit by trading with Dhaka, which is usually the largest market for most
products. However, opinion about the role of communication system in enhancing trade is
equally divided.
6.9 Environmental Circumstances
As displayed in Appendix table A.12 water pollution is the major environmental problem
followed by air pollution and various diseases.
Appendix table A.13 lists the major causes of environmental problems as perceived by the local
people. Filling up rivers, canals & estuaries and industrial effluents & emissions of smokes
are the major sources of environmental problems. Emission of CO2 is less significant and
accounts for nearly 9 percent of total frequency.
6.10 Socio-economic Changes for Development
Many of the respondents desired multiple changes for overall development of the area. Road
construction and better transportation facilities was considered as the most important factor for
potential development of the locality. Most importantly, the villagers seem to consider
investment in human capital as the prime prerequisite for overall development. Establishment of
college and other educational institutions and improved health care services together explain
almost 40 percent of the desired changes.
Table 6. 4 Socio economic changes required for overall development
Desired changes
Electricity
Gas
Road construction/Transport
Establishment of college and educational Institutions
Health care service should be increased
Others
Total
Sources: Sample survey

Number of people desired such

changes
6
2
18
17
11
17
71

Percentage
8.45
2.81
25.35
23.94
15.49
23.94
100

7. An Overview of the Survey

This study was an attempt to investigate the center-periphery relationship between Dhaka and
one of its adjacent localities. As revealed by various descriptive statistics, this study found
important economic changes that took place in the locality during the last 10 years. At present

around 70 percent of the people have annual income greater than BDT 50,000. The
corresponding figure was about 14 percent a decade ago. Agriculture is the major source of
income followed by business and services. Average annual income has grown by more than 55
percent between the two decades and now stands at BDT 168,840 and 67 percent replied that
they are better off now compared to their situation a decade ago as against 20 percent reporting
the opposite scenario. The correlation between ones perception about ones welfare change and
his/her income change is negative which can be explained by increasing inequality. There are 3
educational institutions and one health center in the village. Most people need to pay for medical
services and face problems in getting health care. The major problems in availing health services
are lack/absence of doctors and insufficient health centers / medical equipment.
Though new roads have increased accessibility to growth centers, schools etc., it did not have
significant impact on the commercial viability of the area. Cellular phone is the dominant means
of contacting people. Major commodities traded in the nearby market are vegetables, fruits and
cloth. Almost everyone uses roads to send goods to Dhaka. The major environmental problems
that the village is facing are water pollution and air pollution. Two most important causes of
environmental problems are filling up rivers, canals & estuaries and industrial effluent &
emission of smokes. According to the villagers, road construction, establishment of educational
institutions and health care facilities are the most important factors for future development of the
area.
8. Center- periphery Premise and some Implicit Assumptions
Although Centre - Periphery Linkage is a very useful economic concept in the analysis of
development trend, it has certain limitations. The premise may be true for some countries and
may not be universally applicable under all circumstances. Its applicability depends on some
endogenous as well as exogenous determinants. The conditions for validity of the Centre
Periphery model have been identified as follows:
The investigation carried out in this instance reveals that the socio-economic condition prevailing
in the Centre (Dhaka) and Periphery (Mauna) differs significantly. Although the periphery had
undergone changes in some respects over a decade and so in no way it compares satisfactorily
with the socio-economic conditions of the Centre (Dhaka).The modern facilities which exist in
the Centre (Dhaka) are hardly available in the Periphery even after a decade. It is still beyond
imagination how long the periphery will take to come up to the level of the Centre (Dhaka) and
be identified as a developed region of the country.
The investigation shows that the desperate condition of the periphery has been reckoned to be the
outcome of some dampening forces which need to be over come to make the periphery more
viable and competitive. The most important forces which deserve to be considered in this context
are education, health care facilities, transport and communication facilities, trade and business
facilities, exposure to modern amenities of life and acceleration of income generation by

exploring new sources of income. Apart from these major obstacles as revealed from the present
study, some other social constraints deserve to be addressed. These include lack of
environmental awareness of people living in the area, inefficient utilization of available
resources and non- existence of some exogenous determinants such as integrity and committed
leadership of the local elites which has strong influence on the development pattern of a
Periphery. Removal of all these obstacles, thus, should be preponderantly considered as precondition to development of a Periphery.
The study points to an interesting fact that the Center- periphery linkage model which achieved
popularity in the sixties and seventies as a universal premise for development of periphery
through trickle down effect, suffers from some other shortcomings. The linkage model could
not take into cognizance that the universal applicability of the model can not be pondered on
without fulfilling certain conditions involved in the process of economic development of a
country. The present study evidences that the periphery could not accelerate development
because the major preconditions could not be fulfilled even over a decade.
The lapses mentioned above, thus, suggest that the centre- periphery model needs to be
considered within the framework of certain assumptions. If these assumptions hold good, the
universal applicability of the model can be envisaged.
The implicit assumptions which emerge from the present empirical investigation comprehend (i)
the fulfillment of the above preconditions for realizing the trickle down effects (ii) assertion of
validity of the premise only in the long run rather than short run and (iii) positive role and
commitment of local elites in the development process.
9. Limitations and Conclusion
The present study considered the findings of the survey conducted in a particular area adjacent to
Dhaka. It could have enriched the content of the paper and possibly would have provided greater
insights into the Centre-Periphery linkage if some more areas could have been surveyed to
establish the premise of Centre-Periphery linkage. But such effort could not be undertaken
because of time constraint as well as lack of resources needed for this purpose. Thus, the present
study can not preclude the limited acceptability of the present research for validation of the
Centre-Periphery premise. It is, however, to be mentioned that the caveats as emerged in this
study should encourage future research in this field particularly concerning the developing
countries of the world. Further, the present study could not take recourse to sophisticated
quantitative analysis due to inadequacy of required data. Future research in this area is deemed
appropriate to obviate the difficulties faced in this context.

Appendix Tables
Table A.1 Age-Sex Distribution

Age-group
0-14
15-24
25-45
46-64
64+
Total
Percentage

Male
1
8
22
5
2
38
69.09

Female
5
3
9
0
0
17
30.91

Total
6
11
31
5
2
55

Percentage
10.91
20.00
56.36
9.09
3.64
100

Sources: Sample survey

Table A.2 Major Occupational Categories

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Occupation
Agriculture
Business
Service-holder
Housewife
Student
Other

Total
Sources: Sample survey

Total
14
10
5
9
11
6

Percentage
25.46
18.18
09.09
16.36
20.00
10.91

55

100

Table A. 3 Number of Educational Institutions

Number of Institutions
Now
Primary school
High school
College
Others
Total
Sources: Sample survey

1
0
0
2
3

Ten years ago

1
0
0
1
2

Table A.4. Villagers Perception about Educational Progress

Number of people answered
Number of students is increasing
Satisfied with educational services

Yes
38 (80.85)
36 (78.26)

No
9 (19.15)
10 (21.74)

Total
47
46

Sources: Sample survey

Table A.5. Villagers Perception about Health Services

Number of people answered
Yes
No
Total
Receive regular medical services

19 (44.18)

24 (55.81)

43

Face problems in getting health services

Payment required for services

23 (56.09)
27 (84.38)

18 (43.90)
5 (15.62)

41
32

Note: Figures in parentheses represent percentages.

Table A.6 Problems in Availing Health Services

Problems

Frequency

Long distance
Lack of Doctors
Absence of Doctors
Medical equipments are not available
Hospitals are not available

2
6
5
5
6

Total

24

Sources: Sample survey

Table A.7 Villagers Perception about Changes in Transport and Communication

Conditions
Number of people answered

Has the existing mode of transport increased

commercial viability of the area
Are roads recently built
Trade and Business Facilitated by New Roads
New roads increased the access to growth centers,
schools etc.
Were the transport and communication facilities
adequate 10 years ago
Sources: Sample survey

Yes

No

Total

13 (35.13)

24 (64.86)

37

23 (46)
22 (48.88)
30 (68.18)

27 (54)
23 (51.11)
14 (31.82)

50
45
44

5 (20)

20 (80)

25

Table A.8 Major Means of Communication

Means of communication with businessmen/teacher/doctors
Telephone
Mobile phone
Personal contact
Other means
Total
Sources: Sample survey

Users

Percentage

2
35
9
8
54

3.70
64.81
16.67
14.81
100

Table A.9 Major Commodities Traded in the Local Market

Major Commodities Traded in the
Number of people
Market
answered
Vegetables
Fruits
Cloth
Medicine
Rice
Raw Materials and Others
Total
Sources: Sample survey

24
17
19
7
7
15
89

Table A.10 Mode of Transportation for Sending Goods to the Capital

Mode of Transportation to send goods to Number of people used the
Dhaka
way for transportation

Percentage
26.96
19.10
21.35
7.86
7.86
16.85
100

Percentage

Roads
Train
Waterways
Total
Sources: Sample survey

30
1
1
32

93.75
3.12
3.12
100

Table A.11 Trade with Dhaka Villagers Perception

Number of people answered
Yes
No
Do you send commodities to Dhaka
27 (67.5)
Do you receive profit from selling
26 (63.41)
goods in Dhaka
If communication system enhanced
20 (50)
trade
Note: Figures in parentheses represent percentages.

Table A.12 Major environmental problems

Environmental
Number of Times
problems
Mentioned
Water pollution
Air pollution
Diseases
Sound pollution
Others
Total
Sources: Sample survey

18
16
12
1
7
54

Others
Total
Sources: Sample survey

40
41

20 (50)

40

Total

Percentage
33.33
29.63
22.22
1.85
12.96
100

Table A.13 Causes of Environmental Problems

Cause
Frequency
Felling Trees and Bushes
Filling up rivers, canals and estuaries
Industrial effluents and emissions of smokes
Emission of CO2

13 (32.5)
15 (36.58)

Percentage

7
15
14
4

14.89
31.91
29.78
8.51

7
47

14.89
100

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