The Five Point Ellipse

Marco Carpiceci - Department of Drawing and Survey,

University of Study in Rome - La Sapienza
marco.carpiceci@uniroma1.it
Excerpted from an article originally published in "disegnare / idee immagini" Anno VII, n. 13, December
1996, ISBN 88-7448-739-8. (Note - paragraph and illustration numbering conforms to the original article).

Revised and expanded by Peter A. Luft

(paluft@gmail.com), with translation support from GianLuca Sabbi (GLSabbi@lbl.gov). Technical terms
have been changed to American usage. Supplemental illustrations 15b, 16b, 24-26 have been added, and
existing illustrations have been enhanced with color and additional labels for clarity. Paragraphs 15b and
16b have been added. This document last updated on 04/23/2009 by Peter A. Luft.

14) A conic (section, e.g. circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola ) is completely determined
by five points or five tangent lines. Because of the nature of conics, its possible to
determine the sequence of points defining the locus of the curve [Note 1], or the sequence
of tangents defining the envelope of the curve [Note 2].
15) The Theorem of Pascal [Note 3] and its
dual [Note 4] define exact conditions that
connect six points or six lines of a conic.
However, we only need five to define a
conic. The sixth point or line is redundant,
and can therefore be defined as required,
depending on what the goal is. So if the goal
is, for example, determining a chord [Note 5]
or a tangent [Note 6], you can define a sixth
point accordingly.
16) By choosing, for example, an orientation
of a new chord parallel to two given vertices,
you can thus obtain the length of the chord,
and as a consequence you obtain an axis of
oblique symmetry which passes through the
midpoint of a pair of parallel chords, and the
direction of its compliment [Note 7]. If you

repeat the procedure for a second time,

you will find a second (independent)
conjugate diameter and the direction of its
complement. Taking both pairs together,
you obtain the center of the conic curve.
This center is ideal (at infinity) in the
case of the parabola, but is ordinary
(finite) for the hyperbola and ellipse see
Fig. 5.
In accordance with the involutionary
properties of conjugate diameters, you can
trace any circle with center W, that
passes through the center of the conic
curve, and then connect the intersections
of the two conjugate diameters. These
straight lines will all meet in a point V,
called the center of involution. This center
will be either external or internal to the

The Five Point Ellipse

circle, depending on whether the conic curve is an ellipse or a hyperbola (if the conic is a
circle, V coincides with W). The involutionary line, that is, the line connecting V with W,
will locate points X and Y on . The lines joining these points with O are the x and y
axes of the ellipse, its unique pair of orthogonal conjugate diameters. See Fig. 6.
17) Using the projective characteristics of orthogonal affinity between the ellipses and the
two limiting circles, inscribed and circumscribed, Ive developed the following graphic
method. It hasnt been described in any treatise I've ever seen, and is based on knowing
the axes and two general points of the conic.
After determining the position of the
orthogonal x and y axes as described
above, take two points A and B on the
ellipse, and trace a straight line h
containing these two points. The
intersection of this line with the x and y
axes yields the points Hy and Hx, as shown
in Fig. 7. Then project the points A, B and
H - the mid-point between A and B - onto
the Y axis, and trace the arc, the diameter
of which is determined by the vertices O
and Hy. Point H' is now the point of
intersection of this circumference and the
ray projecting H onto y.
18) Now trace the line h' passing through
Hy and H'. The intersection of h' with the
two rays projecting A and B onto y occurs
at the points A' and B', and through these
points will pass the circle ry of center O
and the radius OA'. In fact, the straight
line passing through H' and O is
perpendicular to h' at the mid-point of
A'B', and so bisects the angle A' OB'. The
circumference ry is determined by the
maximum radius of the ellipse relative to
the y axis, and will determine the vertices
of the ellipse on the y axes.
19) Similarly, we can also project AB and
H onto the x axis as shown in Fig. 8, and
trace the circumference of diameter OHx.
H" is the point of intersection of the
circumference with the ray projecting from
H onto the x axis. Then trace the straight
line h" through Hx and H". The
intersections between h" and the two rays
projecting through A and B through x
determine points A" and B" of the
circumference rx, and this circumference
will determine the vertices of the ellipse
on the x axis.
20) At this point, if we have an elliptical
compass all wed need to do is position it
correctly on the axes, set the minimum and maximum limiting radii, and trace the curve.
Otherwise, if we have any CAD software available, we would trace the conic by
indicating the center and the two vertices of the ellipse on the two axes.
21) In case you had to trace the ellipses using only points because you didnt have any
instruments, but youd already determined the center and the two pairs of orthogonal

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vertices, one of the most widely used methods available would that of transformed points
or limiting circles, also called the method of double orthogonal affinity [Note 8].
The circle in projection
22) The graphics problem of the conic curves are usually treated within the disciplines of
rendering existing at different levels in all schools with a curriculum in which design is a
fundamental element of the academic program. This starts from the middle of the second
grade of the Artistic Liceo (high school), or the Art Institutes, Technical or Professional
Institutes, up to the degrees of laurea (i.e. Bachelor's, Master's degree) in Architecture,
and Engineering, Civil, Structural, Environmental & Mechanical. Parabolas, hyperbolas
and especially ellipses, have posed a problem any time one needs to represent a sphere,
cylinder, cone, circle, and all their respective intersections with planes on the two
dimensional surface of a sheet of paper. Tracing a conic curve in general consists of the
invention of a curve satisfactory to the eye through an array of a few distinct points,
perhaps even some tangents.
23) The most common problem in tracing ellipses is given by the perspective
representation of the circumference inscribed in the square; that is, the need to define the
inscribed curve in a general quadrilateral. In projection, the problem is equivalent to
determining the sections of an oblique cone having a circular generatrix. The center of
projection represents the vertex of the cone, the generatrix of which are the projecting
radii which extend from the center of projection to the circular contour of the figure one
wants to render. The plane of the square will section the radii, generating the conic
section.
24) The first elements of a circle (not shown) usually represented in perspective, are the
image G' of the center G and a pair of axes which are orthogonal at first with the relative
vertices, the local tangents of which form the image of a circumscribed quadrilateral.
Neglecting the different systems of possible solutions, the result of the first graphical
operation is a quadrilateral, as shown in Fig. 9. The two pairs of opposite sides converge
in the two vanishing points Fa and Fb, belonging to the vanishing line f of the plane of
. The diagonals meet in the point G', and the lines going through G' and vanishing
points Fa and Fb are the image of two orthogonal axes of circle . These determine on the
corresponding sides, two pair of points which are the images of the orthogonal vertices of
. By extending the diagonals we obtain on f the relative vanishing points Fc and Fd.
25) By the law of the invariance of the cross
ratio under projection and section [Note 9],
cross ratio (Fa , Fb ; Fc , Fd) is equal to (a3,
b3 ; c , d) as well as the other cross ratios
such as (Fa , A1 ; D1, C1 ), of the quartet of
intersections of the radial array of lines on
center G', that is, those belonging to the
sides of the quadrilateral. (Fa , Fb ; Fc , Fd) is
also equal to the cross ratio (f , b3 ; b1 , b2)
of the array of lines on center Fb, because it's
projective with the harmonic quartet Fa
A1D1C1 and is therefore equal by projection
to the cross ratio (Fa , G' ; B1 , B2), and the
quartet of points aligned to our complete
quadrilateral in the plane (the quadrilateral
formed by the three pairs of lines - the sides
and the diagonals).

26) The three vertices of the harmonic

collection G', Fa and Fb , common points of
the three pairs of lines of the complete plane
quadrilateral, determine the diagonal
triangle, on the sides of which are the pairs
of conjugate points that are projections of
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pairs of conjugate rays.
27) Each one of the two sides of the
diagonal triangle which cut the conic do so
at the tangent points of the sides belonging
to the radial array of lines of the opposite
vertex. Therefore, A1 and A2 of b3 are tangent
points to the ellipse of the lines a1 and a2 of
the radial array on Fa , and B1 and B2 are
tangent points of the lines b1 and b2 of the
radial array on Fb.
28) If we next consider the harmonic
quartets A1 A2 G' Fb and B2 B1 G'Fa , we find
that a polarity relation exists between
vanishing point Fb and line a3, and another
polarity relation exists between vanishing
point Fa and the line b3, both with respect to
the conic. Points B1 and B2 are the tangent
points of the lines b1 and b2, respectively,
converging in the pole Fb, and a3 is the polar
line of the conic with respect to Fb.
Similarly, between vanishing point Fa and
the line b3, A1 and A2 are the tangent points
of lines a1 and a2, converging in pole Fa, and
line b3 is the polar line of the conic with
respect to Fa.
29) If, in the quartet A1 A2 G'Fb , we substitute for G' the median point A0 of segment A1 A2
keeping the cross ratio constant, the conjugate of A0 will be the ideal point of b3. See Fig.
10. As a result, in order to preserve the cross ratio for projection and section, the same
vertices projected from Fa will generate the harmonic quartet of the pair of conjugate
lines a1 a2 a0 fb3. The line a0 has a conjugate direction with respect to fb3 and goes through
A0, so it's an axis of oblique symmetry and a diameter of the conic.
30) To obtain the center of the ellipse, we now determine another diameter. In the second
quartet B2 B1 G'Fa we substitute at G' the point B0, which is the median of B1B2). Its
conjugate will be the ideal point of a3 see Fig. 11. For the projection of the vertices
from Fb we generate the harmonic quartet b1 b2 b0 fa3 , and b0 is another axis of oblique
symmetry of the conic.
31) The intersection of a0 and b0 gives the
center O of the ellipse. Using the vertices of
the quadrilateral we can then distinguish
four other pairs of conjugate diameters to
confirm or replace the preceding ones. If
two sides of the quadrilateral are parallel, as
well as the two sides of the diagonal
triangle, as shown in Fig. 12, the side of this
triangle determined by its two ordinary
vertices will constitute an axis of oblique
symmetry of the ellipse, since it will divide
in half the parallel segment of the triangle
between the non-parallel sides of the
quadrilateral (half of this segment is
highlighted in the Fig. 12).
32) If the two external vertices of the
diagonal triangle are ideal, the internal
vertice will coincide with the geometric
center of the conic, and the two sides
relative to it will then be diameters. The

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The Five Point Ellipse

quadrilateral will be a parallelogram and its sides will be parallel to the two diameters
that are the two median axes, as shown in Fig. 13. Obviously, this is the classic case of
representation of a circle or ellipse in axonometry, or more generally in parallel
projection. In fact its frequently the case that the representation of circles (as ellipses) in
orthogonal projection will require this type of construction.

Note 1
35) The point conic. Consider two distinct radial arrays of lines (in the plane) through
points U and U. See Fig. 14. Between these two points, define a projectivity using the
one-to-one correspondence of at least three corresponding points or lines. Lets take
three pairs of lines (a, a), (b, b), (c, c). The intersection of each pair of lines is called a
common point (shown as larger black dots on the dotted ellipse). Each two pair of lines
determine a quadrilateral (or projective
quadrangle).
Fig. 14 highlights the
quadrilaterals [(a, a), (b, b)] and [(b, b), (c,
c)]. The third quadrilateral [(a, a), (c, c)]
extends off the page to the right. Within each
quadrilateral, the intersections of each line and
its partners prime (e.g. (a, b), (a, b)) are
called the associate points (shown as small
black circles). The associate points are always
aligned to a point O, called the center of
projectivity.
36) When the center of projectivity O coincides
with the line containing points (U, U), the line
is called united because it corresponds to itself
in the projectivity, which then becomes a
perspectivity. When U and U coincide, the
projectivity becomes an involution, and the
corresponding elements are called conjugate.
37) The first theorem of Jacob Steiner (1796-1863) states that: if from two points U and
U we project the other points, and if we retain two corresponding rays that project the

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same point, we will have established a projectivity between U and U, the center O of
which is the intersection of the tangents of the conic through U and U.
38) Given five points, its possible to construct
the conic as a result of the above projectivity
between the two radial arrays of lines. See Fig.
15. Considering the two points A and B as
centers, we project from the other three points
C, D, and E, rays c, d and e through A, and c, d
and e through B. Once weve distinguished
the associated quadrilaterals, we determine the
position of center of the projectivity O though
the associate points, and the tangents a and b of
the two centers A and B. For every new ray
from A there corresponds a ray from B. The
geometric locus of the resulting common points
(as defined above) generate the conic were
looking for.
38b) Now lets take a closer look at the
mechanics of the projective correspondence
between lines (or rays) on polar points A and B
- see Fig. 15b. A new ray x from A must
cooperate with any existing pair of rays though
one of the generating points C, D, and E - either (c, c), (d, d) or (e, e) in the following
manner . Suppose we select the pair of rays (c, c). Ray x from A, in any direction not
parallel to ray c from B, will intersect c at some finite point xc. This is the first new
associate point. Ray Oxc from the projective center O to point xc, will then intersect
ray c from A at some point xc. This is the second associate point, and it defines ray x
from B. Rays x and x then define the new common point xx by their intersection.
Holding points A, B, C, D, E, O fixed, if either ray x or x is rotated around its respective
pole (A or B) while maintaining the projective relationship between x and x, then point
xx will sweep though the path of the complete conic, thereby defining it. In fact, rays x
and x will simultaneously cooperate with all pairs of rays through C, D and E, in the
manner just described.

39) To determine the local tangent at any point of the conic, its sufficient to determine
the projectivity that has this point as one of the two centers of the radial arrays (or poles,

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such as A or B), and then to connect this point with a line to the center of projectivity O,
that weve established.
40) If we know one point (such as A) with a tangent (such as a) going through it, three
more points (such as B, E, D) will be sufficient to generate the conic. If we consider the
tangent point as one of the poles, then its possible to determine the center of projectivity
by tracing a single quadrilateral projective to two pairs of corresponding rays (such as d,
d, e, e), tracing the diagonal through the associate point and finding its intersection
with the tangent (such as a). Then its possible to determine additional points of the
conic. As a result, its enough to know these three points and the tangents through two of
them, in order to determine the conic.
Note 2
41) The line conic. By using the principle of
duality, we can move from consideration of the
point conics to the line (or envelope) conics. In
place of radial arrays of lines through polar
points, we now consider two distinct linear
arrays of points, u and u, between which a
projectivity can be defined as follows see Fig.
16. We define as correspondents the three point
pairs (A, A), (B, B) (C, C). Each point pair
defines a common line containing both points,
that is AA, BB, CC. Each pair of lines - (AA,
BB), (AA, CC), (BB, CC) defines a
quadrilateral in conjunction with the lines u and
u, the diagonals of which are called associate
lines. The associate lines of a quadrilateral
always intersect on a line s, called the axis of
projectivity.
42) In the special case where s coincides with
the intersection of u and u, this point is called
united, because it corresponds to itself in the
projectivity,
which
then
becomes
a
perspectivity. If the two sets of points coincide,
the projectivity becomes an involution.
43) The fourth theorem of Steiner states that: The lines common to two linear arrays of
points that are projective, but not perspective, form the envelope of a unique conic. This
includes the intersection of the axes of projectivity with the sets of points u and u, which
are also the local tangents.
44) Given five lines, its possible to construct a conic as a result of the projectivity
between two linear arrays of points. After selecting two lines u, u as projective arrays of
points, we can determine the other lines by determining the corresponding points A, B,
and C of u, and A, B and C of u. After determining just two out of three possible
projective quadrilaterals of corresponding pairs of lines, we can use the intersection of the
diagonals (associate lines) to determine the axis s of the projectivity. Tangent points S
and S of the conic are determined by the intersections of s with u and u. For every new
point of u there will be a corresponding point on u, and the new common lines so
defined will comprise the envelope of the conic relative to the projectivity.

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44b) Now lets take a closer look at the
mechanics of the projective correspondence
between points on lines u and u - see Fig.
16b. A new line x on u must cooperate with
any existing pair of points (A, A), (B, B) or
(C, C) generating the projectivity and the
lines a, b, or c they define - in the following
manner. Suppose we select the pair of
points (B, B). Rays XB from X to B, in any
direction not parallel to polar line s, will
intersect s at some finite point X. Line XB
is the first new associate line. Line BX
from point B to line s at point X, is then
extended to intersect line u, generating point
X. Line BX is the second associate line,
and point X is now the intersection of
associate lines XB and BX. Holding lines
a, b, c, u, u, and s fixed, if either point X or
X is translated along its parent line (u or
u) while maintaining the coincidence of
point X with polar line s, then line x will be
tangent to the conic as it rotates around it,
thereby completely defining its envelope.
In fact, line x will simultaneously cooperate with all pairs of points (A, A), (B, B) and
(C, C) defining lines a, b and c, in the manner just described.
45) If you know one point of the conic and the tangent through it, then three more
tangents will be sufficient to trace the conic. Considering the tangent through a known
point (such as S or S), as one of the lines (linear point arrays), its possible to determine
the axis of the projectivity by tracing a single projective quadrilateral of two pairs of
corresponding points, then to trace the associate lines, then connect the intersections with
the known point. In this way, its sufficient to know three tangents and two points of
tangency of two of those lines.
Note 3
46) Pascals theorem. According to the theorem of Blaise Pascal (1623-1662): Given six
points belonging to a conic, if we build a hexagon using any sequence of [these points as]
vertices, the lines of the opposite sides (i.e. non-consecutive) meet in three colinerar
points. The common line is called the Pascal line. See Fig 24b. Based on six points, A,
B, C, D, E and F, we can compose different sequences of corresponding hexagons, each
one with a different Pascal line. On six vertices of a conic the simple combinations of
possible sides, that is pairs of points defining a side, are given by the coefficients of this
binomial expression:
C6,2 = (6! / 2!(6 2)!) = 15
These are the sides 1 (AB), 2 (AC), 3 (AD), 4 (AE), 5 (AF), 6 (BC), 7 (BD), 8 (BE), 9
(BF), 10 (CD), 11 (CE), 12 (CF), 13 (DE), 14 (DF), and 15 (EF) shown in Fig. 24c.
The same thing can be said for the combination of four vertices:
C6,4 = 15
These are the pairs 1 (AB + CD), 2 (BC + DE), 3 (CD + EF), 4 (DE + AF), 5 (AB + CE),
6 (BC + DF), 7 (CD + EA), 8 (DE + FB) , 9 (AB + CF), 10 (BC + EF), 11 (CD + AF),
12 (AC + EF), 13 (AB + DE), 14 (AB + DF), and 15 (AB + EF) shown in Fig. 25. For
each pair of opposite sides there is a corresponding point through which passes a Pascal
line. For example in Fig. 24b, point P1 corresponds to pair 10 (BC + EF), point P2 to
pair 11 (CD + AF), and point P3 to pair 13 (AB + DE).

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Through any four vertices, we can trace three different pairs of lines, such as the pairs 1
(AB + CD), 2 (BC + DA), and 3 (AC + DB) shown in Fig. 17. Each pair of lines has an
associated point of intersection (1, 2, 3).

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Through any six vertices on a conic we can define a hexagon. Keeping constant a couple
of opposite sides, we can trace four different hexagons with four different Pascal lines,
using four different sequences, such as the sequences 1 (ABECDF), 2 (ABEDCF), 3
(BAECDF) and 4 (BAEDCF) shown in Fig. 26. See also Fig. 18, which shows the four
sequences superimposed, along with their associated Pascal lines (in a different
arrangement of vertices A-F).

Thus, for every six distinct points on a conic curve we can define (15 x 4) = 60 distinct
Pascal lines.
Note 4
47) Brianchons theorem. The dual theorem to Pascal's theorem is that of Charles-Julien
Brianchon (1785-1864) according to which: Given six points on a conic you can
construct a hexagon composed of the tangents to the conic though those points, and
collectively the lines that connect opposite
vertices of this hexagon will intersect in a
common point; this point is called the
point of Brianchon. Analogously to the
theorem of Pascal, for every circumscribed
hexagon there corresponds a point of
Brianchon.
Note 5
48) Determining a chord. Given five
points A, B, C, D and E, we want to
determine the length of a generic chord
going through one point (for example,
chord a through point A).
We can determine any sequence with the
unknown point X that precedes or follows
the known vertices, for example (XABCDE)
as shown in Fig. 19. The first point P1 is
determined by the opposite sides AB and
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DE, the second, P2, by the opposite sides CD and XA. Even if for the latter side (XA) we
don't know the second point X, but only the chord a, the line of Pascal p is still
determined. The third point P3 is determined by the side BC and the Pascal line, so we
can trace the side (E P3) and determine in this
way the unknown point X of the conic.
Note 6
49) Determining a tangent. Given five points
A, B, C, D, and E, we want to determine the
tangent through one point (for example,
tangent a through point A).
We can establish any sequence in such a way
to consider a sixth point coincident with A,
such as (AABCDE), as shown in Fig. 20. Thus,
as this sixth point X (not shown) approaches A,
the side AX approaches tangent a. The first
point P1 of the Pascal line is given by the
opposite sides AB and DE, the second, P2, by
BC and EA. After tracing the Pascal line p
which connects (P1 P2), the third point P3 is
given by the intersection of CD with p. The
tangent a is the line connecting P3 with A, the
limit of side AX of the hexagon, when points A
and X merge.
Note 7
50) Determining a pair of conjugate diameters of a conic. Given five points we want to
determine a diameter and the direction of its
conjugate.
We can establish any sequence with the sixth
unknown point X that precedes or follows one of
the vertices, for example (ABCDEX ), and tracing
the direction of the chord AX parallel to the
opposite side CD in the sequence, as shown in
Fig. 21. The first point P1 is given by the
intersection of the opposite sides AB and DE
while the second point P2 is ideal (at infinity)
because it's the intersection of the parallel lines
CD and AX. The Pascal line p is parallel to
those lines (CD and AX ) passing through point
P2. The point P3 is determined on p by BC and
consequently X is determined by EP3 on the
chord passing through A. The diameter will
bisect the two parallel chords AX and CD, and
has a direction conjugate to them. Thus weve
completely determined one axis (a), and
determined the direction of its partner, parallel
to the Pascal line p.
Note 8
51) The method of transformed points. Given the x and y axes and the circles rx and ry ,
we can trace two new orthogonal axes m, n, at some general angle with respect to the x
and y axes, as shown in Fig. 22. We then project the intersection points of m and n with
each circle, in a direction perpendicular to the respective x or y axis, but with opposite
sense of direction. That is, the point of intersection with the inner circle will be projected
perpendicularly to the minor axis and towards the outside, while the intersection point
with the outer circle will be projected perpendicularly to the major axis and towards the

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inside. The intersection of the pair of
projecting lines will occur in the annulus
between the two limiting circumferences.
The four resulting points represent
transformed points of both inner and outer
circles onto the ellipse. That is to say, a one
to one mapping is now established between
the points of each circle onto the ellipse.
Furthermore, this method can be used to
transform axes, as well. For example, the
vertices of the conjugate diameters s and t
regulate the transformation to their
orthogonal counterparts s and t, as shown.
Finally, the four lines v, tangent to the
ellipse at s and t, are transformed images
of perpendicular tangents vrx and vry (not
shown) to the inner and outer circles
respectively, at their intersections with s and
t. In fact, tangents v form a parallelogram
image of unique squares formed by tangents
vrx and vry, circumscribing circles rx and ry
respectively.
Note 9
52) The cross ratio. On a point conic f , given a reference point Fc, and a positive
direction, for example, to the right, the ratio between the distances of points Fa and Fb
from Fc, called the ratio of division (or simple ratio), and denoted (Fa Fb , Fc), is defined
as:
(Fa Fb , Fc) = (Fa Fc) / (Fb Fc).
Thus, we may determine the ratio of division between the lines of the radial array having
G' as the center, such as a3, b3, c. In this case, it can be shown that the following
relationship exists between the sines of the angles formed by the first two rays with
respect to the third:
(a3 b3, c) = sin (a3 c) / sin (b3 c), where a3 c and b3 c designate the angles formed between
line pairs (a3 , c) and (b3 , c), respectively.
We now take the two points Fc and Fd as a reference pair, and consider the ratios of
division that connect them to the relative pair Fa and Fb, that is, (Fa Fb , Fc) and (Fa Fb ,
Fd). The ratio between these ratios of division is called the cross ratio (double ratio, or
bi-ratio), is designated (Fa , Fb ; Fc , Fd), and defined as:
(Fa , Fb ; Fc , Fd) = (Fa Fb , Fc) /( Fa Fb , Fd) = {( Fa Fc) / (Fb Fc)} {( Fb Fd) / (Fa Fd)}
Similarly, for the rays of the radial array on center G' we have the cross ratio (a3 , b3 ; c,
d). Setting (Fa , Fb ; Fc , Fd) = x, it can be shown that:
i) Interchanging the position of any two of the four points simultaneously with the
other two points won't change the cross ratio, and exchanging the points of only
one pair (either the relative or reference pair) will change the cross ratio into its
reciprocal (1/x). If we exchange only the inner two or outer two points, the cross
ratio will change into it's arithmetic compliment (1-x);
ii) If we section four rays of a radial array, the points of intersection (with the
section) will have the same cross ratio. The cross ratio will not change in
projection or section, that is, its invariant;
iii) If the cross ratio is equal to (-1) the quartet is called harmonic, like the one
were examining: (Fa , Fb ; Fc , Fd);

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The Five Point Ellipse

iv) In a harmonic quartet if one element is ideal, its harmonic conjugate is the
median of the segment defined by the other pair in the quartet;
v) In a harmonic quartet every element of a pair is called conjugate to the other
element in the pair, because of it's correspondence in the involution between
superimposed forms. Therefore, each pair in a harmonic quartet is formed by two
conjugate elements.
If, in the harmonic quartet, we trace two circles having as diameters, respectively, the
relative point pair (Fa Fb) and the reference point pair (Fc Fd), these circles will intersect
at a point O*, through which will pass the circle with diameter formed by the two centers
of the first two circles. The angles at the vertices (Fa O* Fb) and (Fc O* Fd ) will be right
angles, with the pair of angles rotated 45 with respect to each other, and for which each
angle will be bisected by a side of the other angle, as shown in Fig. 23.

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