Chemistry Review Final Exam

Watch out for the units and use the formulas!

Lecture 56:
Chemical Equilibrium
- Equilibrium constant describes the ratio of products to reactants at equilibrium
- For gas reactions, the equilibrium constant may be expressed as partial pressures
- Note: Must be GASES, liquids or solids are not counted in Kp expression

- Relationship between Kp and Kc may be determined:

- Equilibrium can be denoted into ICE tables

- For Kp create expressions out of total pressure and known ratios
Lecture 57:
- More Kp and Kc questions
Lecture 58:
Predicting Shifts in Equilibrium
- Le Chtelier's principle, can be used to predict the effect of a change in conditions on a chemical equilibrium.
- Use the comparison between reaction quotient (Q) and equilibrium constant (K)
- Side Note: Kc is the ratio of the rate of reaction forward over the reaction backwards

- Reaction quotient mathematically the same as Kp and Kc but is just used to predict the direction of the
reaction
Expression
Qc = Kc
Qc < Kc
Qc > Kc

Shift
NO SHIFT
SHIFT TOWARDS PRODUCTS
SHIFT TOWARDS REACTANTS

Changes in Equilibrium:
Temperature:
- THE ONLY ONE TO CHANGE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
- Changes do shift reaction
- Consider H as part of the reaction:
- Positive H is endothermic; consider a reactant (increase in temp pushes forward)
- Negative H is exothermic; consider a product (increase in temp pushes backward)
Changes in Concentration:
- Shifts equilibrium to keep equilibrium constant the same
Examples:
- Removed product will drive reaction forwards
- Added product will drive reaction backwards
Changes in Pressure:
- Affects gases
- Shifts to relieve the applied stress (or lack thereof)
Examples:
- Increased pressure will shift reaction towards side of lower moles
- Decreased pressure will shift reaction towards side of higher moles
Changes in Volume: (inverse of pressure)

- Affects gases
- Shifts to relieve the applied stress (or lack thereof)
Examples:
- Increased volume will shift reaction towards side of higher moles
- Decreased volume will shift reaction towards side of lower moles
Catalysts DO NOT shift reaction or change Kc increase rate in both directions, but no net change
Lecture 59:
Entropy, Free Energy and Equilibria
- Entropy is the measure of disorder; uses units of J/(K*mol)
- Examples:
- Level of Entropy: Solid < Liquid < Gases
- Flexible molecules have more disorder than rigid molecules
- Entropy can locally increase or decrease (but S of the universe always increasing)
- Must factor in state of the reactants and products as well # of molecules
S is negative
S is positive
S is zero

Entropy decreases
Entropy increases
Entropy neutral

For Same State Calculations:

For Phase Changes:

- S is equal to the heat given off / absorbed divided by the temperature of the phase change
- q= mH

Gibbs Free Energy:

Lecture 60:
- Relations between H , S , G
- Remember G values and the spontaneity of the reaction
- Relationship between Kc / Kp and G
Lecture 61:
Electrochemistry Continued:
- Balancing redox reactions
- Reminders:
- O in H2O2 has the oxidation number of -1, NOT -2
- H usually takes on oxidation number of +1, but sometimes can be -1
- The chemical being reduced is the oxidizing agent and the chemical being oxidized is the reducing agent
- Oxidized: loss of electrons; reduced: gain of electrons
Electrochemical Cells (A Battery):
- Generates electricity using a spontaneous redox reaction
- Spontaneous = G < 0 (negative)
System Breakdown:
- Anode: site of oxidation (solid into solution growing anode) and source of electrons
- Cathode: site of reduction (solution into solid growing cathode) and pool of electrons
- Salt Bridge: a salt solution where negative ions head towards anode; positive ions head towards cathode
- Voltmeter in the center of the flow of electrons: calculates cell voltage (EMF)

Short form of Electrochemical cell:

Anode (s) | Anode Solution (aq) ||Cathode Solution (aq)|Cathode (s)
- Molarity, charge, and state of solutions or solids stated!
- Standard reduction is 1M solutions and 1 atm pressure for gases
Calculating Charge:

- DO NOT change the sign of the anode from the table of E o values! ; Expression takes into account
- Batteries MUST have a positive value for voltage
- Remember to balance for electrons!
Finding G of cell:

Lecture 62:
- Relationship between G, K and Ecell all formulas found on formula sheet

- Eo is an intensive property; is not affected by the size of the electrodes or amount of solution
- Ecell only works for 1M solutions; must use Nernst equation when working with non-standard concentrations

- Reactant is the solution in the anode; product is the solution in the cathode
Trend: The greater the anode solution concentration, the smaller the Ecell charge
Trends of the Standard Reduction Potentials
- The more negative the Eo, the more likely to be oxidized (be an anode)
- The more positive the Eo, the more likely to be reduced (be a cathode)
- Large negative value standard reduction potentials are more reactive than the others
Implications: the more negative reactions are easiest oxidized, and hardest reduced
Think back to the electrochemical cell!
Lecture 63:
- Redox reaction reactivity
- If the reaction goes, the species being oxidized is more active
- If the reaction does not go, the species being reduced is more active
Easy way: flip all reactions so they go, find the substance being oxidized its the more reactive one
Electrolysis:
- The inverse of an electrochemical cell; uses electrical energy to force a nonspontaneous reaction to occur
- Eocell is always negative; G is positive
- Current:

Lecture 64:
Organic Chemistry
- Just do practice questions

- Alkanes: CnHn+2

Lecture 65:
- Structural isomers
- Simply follow general form to discover all isomers
Optical isomers
- A molecule which cannot be superimposed upon itself is chiral (achiral if it can)
- Mirror images are called enantiomers / sterioisomers
- Find total number by using the formula: 2n (n = chiral atoms)
- How to discover:
1. Find a carbon that is bonded to four different groups (must be tetrahedral)
2. Make sure theres no reflection plane / axis of symmetry
3. If it fits all above, its chiral.
- Cycloalkanes: CnH2n
- Rings are not planar!
Lecture 66:
- Alkenes: CnH2n
- One double bond
- Relative position of functional groups around double bond is indicated by cis and trans

- Look for the kink; C-shape means cis and bent line means trans
Lecture 67:
- Alkynes: CnH2n-2
- One triple bond; no cis or trans

Alkane Reactions:
- Fairly unreactive; saturated compounds
- Can be reacted with halogens to produce a haloalkane and acid
Alkene Reactions:
- Alkenes are more reactive
- HX (acid halogens) added to the alkenes break double bond
- Markovnikovs Rule: Halogen is added to the carbon with the least number of existing hydrogens
- The rich get richer; the carbon with the most hydrogens get more hydrogen
- Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Benzene!
- Delocalized electrons with alternate double bonds
- Delocalized orbitals in the pz orbital
- Benzene when on main chain, phenyl when functional group
Lecture 68:
- Aromaticity: must be a ring, must have 3, 5,7,9 + double bonds

- Esterification: carboxylic acid + alcohol

- Alcohols:
- Polar molecules
- Hydrogen bonds due to hydroxyl group
- Various degrees
- Oxidation of alcohols:
- 1o alcohol = carboxylic acid
- 2o alcohol = ketone
- 3o alcohol = no reaction
- Two alcohols = ether synthesis
Lecture 69:
- Aldehyde:
- Carbonyl on C1
- Ketone:
- Carbonyl on everything but C1 numbered!
- Esters:
- The parent chain is the acid; the addition is the alcohol
- Amines:
- Organic bases; can be of varying degrees (NH2, NH, or N)
- Amides:
- A carbonyl next to a NH2