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Unit 4
Unit 4
Unit 4
AC Circuits
Structure
4.1
Introduction
Objectives
4.2
4.3
4.3.2
Average Value
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
Form Factor
4.3.6
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.5.1
4.5.2
Concept of Power
4.6.1
Power in AC Circuit
4.6.2
Power Triangle
4.7
Power Factor
4.8
4.9
Series Resonance
4.9.2
Parallel Resonance
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with the concept of AC circuit analysis. Unit starts with the basic
definitions about the alternating quantity and then covers the concept of RMS and
average value, form factor and peak factor.
At the latter stage of unit, we give the idea of resistance, inductive and capacitive circuits,
calculation for their voltage, current, power and power factor. We also introduce three
types of powers active, reactive and apparent power. Detail discussions about the series
and parallel RLC circuits is also given in this unit.
The unit also covers the concept of series and parallel resonance with sufficient
description and examples.
Analysis of balanced three phase circuit, star-delta conversion and maximum power
transfer theorem are also the part of this unit.
81
Electrical
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
define the RMS and average values with form and peak factor,
determine the voltage, current and power for pure resistive, inductive,
capacitive circuits and circuit having their combinations,
determine the current, voltage and power in star and delta connected three
phase balanced circuits,
apply the maximum power transfer theorem and Thevenin theorem in ac and
dc circuits.
/2
T/ 2
T/2
82
AC Circuits
IM
0
/2
Cycle
It is the one complete set of positive and negative half of any alternating quantity.
Time Period
It is the time required in second to complete one cycle of any alternating quantity.
Frequency
Number of cycles per second is known as the frequency of alternating quantity. It
is the reciprocal of the time period and its unit is cycle per second or Hertz.
f = 1/T (in Hertz)
In India, the frequency of alternating supply is 50 Hertz, while in America and
Japan it is 60 Hertz.
Amplitude
It is the peak or maximum value of the alternating quantity. In Figure 4.2, Im
denotes the amplitude of the current wave.
Equation of Sinusoidal Alternating Quantity
The sinusoidal alternating current is written as
i = I m sin t
. . . (4.1)
where
. . . (4.2)
2
[T = Time period in sec]
T
. . . (4.3)
Phase
Phase of any alternating quantity shows the position of wave at any time after it
has passed through the zero position of reference.
Phase Angle
It is the angle of alternating quantity with respect to the reference position.
Phase Difference
When the maxima and minima of two sinusoidal alternating quantities (of same
frequency) do not occur at the same instant of time, then these two quantities are
said to have phase difference.
83
Electrical
Im
t
i = I m sin (t )
. . . (4.4)
This equation shows that current is lagging (or running behind) the reference wave
by an angle .
Leading Current by an Angle
Figure 4.4(b) shows the leading current by an angle by the reference wave of
Figure 4.4(a).
i = I m sin (t + )
84
. . . (4.5)
AC Circuits
Im
t
I rms =
[i (t )]2 dt
. . . (4.6)
I rms =
I I
I
I 02 + m1 + m 2 + m3
2 2
2
. . . (4.7)
85
Electrical
1
T
. . . (4.8)
i (t ) dt
f (t ) = f t + T
2
where
T = time period.
Then the average value of such waves for the complete time period is zero (because
positive and negative halves are equal in one time period). For such waves, the average
value is computed over the positive half of the period. This is sometimes called the half
cycle average. (All the waveforms of Figure 4.1, have such symmetry).
1
I rms =
T
[i (t )]2 dt
I rms =
1
2
1
2
2
Im
2
2
Im
2
[i (t )]2 d (t )
2
Im
sin 2 t d (t )
1 cos 2t
d ( t )
2
1 cos 2t
2
sin t =
I
sin 2t
= m = 0.707 I m
t
2 0
2
. . . (4.9)
86
1
T
i (t ) dt =
I m sin t d (t )
I
2I
I
= m [ cos t ]0 = m = m = 0.637 I m
. . . (4.10)
AC Circuits
Kf =
RMS value
Average value
. . . (4.11)
Kf =
0.707
0.637
Im
= 1.1
Im
Maximum value
RMS value
. . . (4.12)
I
K f = m = 2 = 1.414
Im
2
Any alternating quantity can be represented in complex form with real and
imaginary part : Like
i = a + jb
= c + jd
. . . (4.13)
In complex plane, x-axis represents the real axis (reference axis) and y-axis
represents the imaginary axis ( j-axis). Figure 4.6 shows the representation of
complex quantity on complex plane.
Im
a + jb
b
0
Re
87
Electrical
Polar Representation
i = r1 1
= r2 2
. . . (4.14)
r1 = a 2 + b2
b
a
and
1 = tan 1
Also
r2 = c 2 + d 2
and
2 = tan 1
. . . (4.15)
d
c
. . . (4.16)
and
r2 2
In Figure 4.7
r1 = OA = a 2 + b 2
and 1 is the angle made of line OA from the horizontal axis are show,
A
r1
1
Figure 4.7
r1 e j 1 ,
r1 e j 1 = r1 [ cos 1 + j sin 1 ]
= r1 cos 1 + j r1 sin 1
So,
a = r1 cos 1
and
b = r1 sin 1
. . . (4.17)
Example 4.1
Find RMS and average value of the output of half wave rectifier.
Solution
The waveform of current, output of the half wave rectifier is shown in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8
88
AC Circuits
1 2
i d ( t ) + 0 d ( t )
2
0
0
I rms =
1
I m sin (t ) 2 d (t )
2
Im
(1 cos 2t ) d (t )
4
I
I rms = m = 0.5 I m
2
Average value of current
I av =
1
2
i d ( t ) =
1
2
I
I m sin t d (t ) = m
Example 4.2
Find the form factor and peak factor for the above half rectified wave.
Solution
I
I av = m
Form factor
I
0.5 I m
= rms =
= 1.57
Im
I av
Im
Im
=
=2
I rms 0.5 I m
Example 4.3
RMS value,
(b)
Average value,
(c)
(d)
Peak factor.
Solution
Figure 4.9
89
Electrical
Time period =
(a)
I rms =
I av =
i d ( t ) =
2
Im
2
I rms =
(b)
2
Im
sin 2 t d (t )
I
(1 cos 2 t ) d (t ) = m = 0.707 I m
2
0
I
2I
(c)
I
0.707 I m
= 1.1
Form factor K f = rms =
I av
0.637 I m
(d)
Peak factor K p =
Im
Im
=
= 1.414
I rms 0.707 I m
Example 4.4
For the saw tooth wave shown in Figure 4.10, determine the form factor.
Solution
Time period of given wave is 2 sec. Expression of function f (t) for first time
period.
f (t ) =
10
t =5t
2
for 0 t 2
RMS Value
Frms =
Frms =
1
T
f 2 (t ) dt =
25 t 3
2 2
1
2
(5 t ) 2 dt =
25
2
t 2 dt
= 5.77
0
Average Value
1
Fav =
T
1
f (t ) dt =
2
5 r2
5t dt =
2 2
Form Factor
90
F
5.77
K f = rms =
= 1.154 .
5
Fav
=
0
5
(4) = 5
4
AC Circuits
SAQ 1
(a)
Find the rms and average value of the waveform shown in Figure 4.11,
where in the first interval f (t ) = 10 e 200 t . Also find the form factor.
Figure 4.11
(b)
Find the effective (or RMS) value for the average function.
v (t ) = 20 + 30 sin t + 60 sin 2 t
2
Applied voltage,
v = Vm sin t
. . . (4.18)
i=
V Vm
=
sin t = I m sin t
R
R
. . . (4.19)
Current, i is in phase with applied voltage, v. The waveforms and phasor diagram
are shown in Figures 4.12 and 4.13, respectively.
The circuit is shown in Figure 4.14. Again the applied voltage is given by
v = Vm sin t
v=L
di
dt
91
Electrical
Now,
v = Vm sin t
Vm sin t = L
V
di = m sin t dt
L
di
dt
V
i= m
L
sin t dt
V
V
= m ( cos t ) = m cos t
L
L
V
= m sin t
L
2
= m sin t
XL
2
. . . (4.20)
Vm
= I m , then
XL
i = I m sin t
2
. . . (4.21)
Here, we can see that current lags the applied voltage by angle
. The waveform
2
(a) Waveform
i=C
=C
92
dv
dt
dv
(Vm sin t )
dt
= C Vm cos t
. . . (4.22)
Vm
sin t +
XC
2
Xc =
where
AC Circuits
Vm
sin t +
1
2
C
. . . (4.23)
1
= Capacitive reactance in ohm.
C
If we put I m =
Vm
, then
XC
i = I m sin t +
2
. . . (4.24)
.
2
(a) Waveform
v = Vm sin t
Inductive reactance
X L = L
Capacitive reactance
XC =
1
C
93
Electrical
. . . (4.25)
| Z | = R 2 + ( X L X C )2
= tan 1
and angle
X L XC
R
This is the angle between the applied voltage v and the current i. is also known as the
power factor angle of the circuit.
The current i is given by
i=
=
Z
Vm sin t
R 2 + X 2 tan 1
X
R
where X = XL XC
or
V
X
i = m sin t tan 1
|Z|
R
. . . (4.26)
If the circuit in inductive (XL > XC) then current i lags the v by angle tan 1
circuit is capacitive then i leads the v by angle tan 1
X
. But if the
R
X
.
R
VL = XL i,
VC = XC i
v = vR + vL + vC
. . . (4.27)
In general, if we apply Kirchhoffs voltage law in series RLC circuit then KVL equation
is given by
v=Ri+L
di 1
+
dt C
i dt
. . . (4.28)
Since the circuit is parallel the voltage v across all the elements remain same. The source
current i is distributed along the three elements by Kirchhoffs current law.
i = iR + iL + iC
94
in general,
i=
v 1
+
R L
v dt + C
dv
dt
. . . (4.29)
AC Circuits
1
in mho ( )
R
Inductive susceptance
BL =
1
( )
XL
Capacitive susceptance
BC =
1
( )
XC
1
Z
. . . (4.30)
P=
dw
dt
. . . (4.31)
dw dq
=vi
dq dt
Energy (Total work done) is given by
w=
P dt joules
or Watt-sec
. . . (4.32)
=I Z
. . . (4.33)
It is given by
P = VI cos Watt
. . . (4.34)
It is the power, which is actually consumed in any circuit. Its unit is Watt. The
above formula indicates that the power received by a load is not merely the
product of its rms values of its terminal voltage and current but includes an
additional multiplicative factor cos , called power factor of the load.
Reactive Power
It is the power taken by the reactance and its unit is volt-amp reactive (VAr).
It is given by
Q = VI sin VAr
. . . (4.35)
Electrical
S=VI
S=VI
Q=V I sin
Q=V I sin
S=VI
P=V I cos
(a) For Lagging or Inductive Load
. . . (4.36)
Magnitude S = P 2 + Q 2
Cosine of the angle of lead or lag between current phasor and voltage
phasor,
The ratio
True Power
Watts
=
Apparent Power Volt amperes
. . . (4.37)
The ratio
R Resistance
=
Z Impedance
. . . (4.38)
For a constant load power P and system voltage V, current and VI requirement vary
inversely as the load power factor. A lower value of p.f leads not only to enhanced cost
of power supply equipment but also to increased voltage drop and power losses in supply
lines due to the increased line current. High value of p.f is a desired operating condition
in power supply system.
Q = 2
or
Q=
1
Z
=
cos R
L=
. . . (4.39)
. . . (4.40)
R 2 + X L2
R
Q=
96
X L L
=
.
R
R
. . . (4.41)
AC Circuits
Example 4.5
In the given circuit, find the active, reactive and apparent power.
15
0.2H
i
o
2200 ;60Hz
Figure 4.21
Solution
i=
v
220 0o
=
Z 76.885 78.749o
and
= 0.98
Active Power
P = VI cos
= 220 2.861 0.195
= 122.7 Watts
or
P=I R
= 122.7 Watts
Reactive Power
Q = VI sin
= 220 2.861 0.98
= 616.83 volt-Amp reactive
or
Q=I X
= 617.1 VA
Apparent Power
S = VI
= 220 2.861
= 629.42 Volt-amp
or
S = P2 + Q2
= 629.2 Volt-amp.
Example 4.6
97
Electrical
Impedance,
(b)
Resultant current,
(c)
(d)
Quality factor.
R = 10
L = 0.1H
i
o
220 0 ; 50Hz
Figure 4.22
Solution
In polar form
Z = 32.97 72.345o
220 0o
=
Z 32.97 72.345o
cos =
=
R
Z
10
32.97
= 0.303 (lag)
98
Example 4.7
1
= 3.3 .
cos
Current,
(b)
(c)
(d)
AC Circuits
Solution
x2=15.7
R=32
xc=79.5
v = 500V
R = 32 ,
X = XL XC
Impedance
(a)
Current i =
v
500 0o
=
Z 32 63.8 j
= 7 63.36o Amp
(b)
(c)
Example 4.8
Impedance,
(b)
Resultant current,
(c)
Power factor,
(d)
(e)
VR
VC
R=120
C=1F
100V
50Hz
Figure 4.24
Solution
99
Electrical
(a)
1
1
=
C 2 fC
XC =
2 50 1 10 6
= 3182.68
So the impedance, Z = R j X C
= 120 j 3182.68
Z = 3184.94 87.84o
In polar form,
(b)
Resultant current
i=
v
100 0o
=
Z 3184.94 87.84o
(d)
Power is absorbed by resistor only and that is also known as the active
power in the circuit
2
P=I R
= (0.03139)2 120
= 0.1182 Watts
(e)
I
87.84
V=100V
V=VR+VC
2.16
VC
100
AC Circuits
SAQ 2
(a)
(b)
The current in a circuit is given by (4.25 + j 12) Amp, when applied voltage
is (100 + j 50) volt, determine
(i)
(ii)
power consumed,
(iii)
(iv)
(ii)
(iii)
resonance
XL = XC
. . . (4.42)
In the series RLC circuit of Figure 4.26, the circuit current I is given by
VR
VL
VC
I
V volts, f Hz
I =
V
A
Z
Z = R + j L +
1
j C
= R + j L
1
j
C
101
Electrical
Z = R + j (X L XC )
or
1
C
X L = L and X C =
where
= R + jX
where (XL XC) = X (Net Reactance)
I=
Thus
V
V
=
Amp
R + j ( X L X C ) R + jX
VL
o
90
VR
I
(across R)
(across L)
I
90
VC
(across C)
V
(VL Vc)
VR
VC
XL = XC, Z = R + jO = R
Also,
I0 =
V V
=
Amp
Z R
cos =
R R
= =1
Z R
0 L =
1
0 C
. . . (4.43)
or
02 =
i.e.
f0 =
1
i.e. 0 =
LC
AC Circuits
1
rad/ sec
LC
. . . (4.44)
Hz
2 LC
VC
Figure 4.29 : Voltage Vector Diagram at Resonance (VL = Vc)
Impedance Curve
Impedance
XL = L
Xc = I/L
Angle Curve
Angle (between voltage and current) is given by
= tan 1
(X L Xc )
R
. . . (4.45)
Here, is known as the power factor angle. Figure 4.31 shows the variation of
with frequency.
At frequencies below 0 the capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive
reactace and the angle of the impedance is negative. If the resistance is low, the
angle changes more rapidly with frequency as shown in Figure 4.31. As
approaches zero the angle of Z approaches 90.
+90
Low R
High R
0
-90
103
Electrical
Admittance Curve
Admittance Y is reciprocal of impedance. Its variation with frequency is shown in
Figure 4.32.
1
Z
. . . (4.46)
Admittance
Y =
Low R
High R
w0
Figure 4.32 : Admittance Curve
Resonance Curve
Figure 4.33 shows the variation of current with frequency. Current is maximum at
I
resonance frequency 0. At rms value of current 0 , power becomes half of its
2
I
maximum value. So the points, corresponding to 0 on the resonance curve, are
2
known as the half power points. Frequency 1 and 2 corresponding to these two
points are known as the lower and upper half power frequency.
I
I0
I0 /
(rad/sec)
Band Width
The distance between upper and lower half power frequencies, measured in hertz
or in rad/sec, is called the banwidth BW.
or
BW = 2 1 in rad/sec.
. . . (4.47)
BW = f2 f1 in Hz
. . . (4.48)
f1 f 2
. . . (4.49)
104
Figure 4.34 represents a parallel resonating circuit where a coil is connected in parallel
with a capacitor C and the combination is connected across an AC voltage source of
variable frequency. Figure 4.35 represents the vector diagram of the given circuit.
IC
AC Circuits
Coil
IL
R
I
V
AC .f Hz
IC
ILsin
ILcos
IL
Figure 4.35 : Vector Diagram of the Parallel AC Circuit
Let
Here
IC =
V
XC
And
IL =
V
=
ZL
cos =
. . . (4.50)
V
R 2 + X L2
V
R 2 + ( L ) 2
R
Z
At resonance the capacitive current must be equal to the inductive part of the coil current,
i.e. the imaginary components of IL and IC must cancel each other at resonance.
i.e.
I C = I L sin
or
X
V
V
=
L
XC ZL ZL
where
or
sin =
XL
,
ZL
Z L2 = X C X L
105
Electrical
Z L2 =
Also
1
0 C
L
, i.e. Z L =
C
0 . L =
L
C
. . . (4.51)
R 2 + 02 L2 =
or
or
02 L2 =
i.e.
02 =
0 =
i.e.
f0 =
L
R2
C
1
R2
LC L2
1
R2 1
=
LC L2
L
1
2 L
L
C
L
R2
C
. . . (4.52)
L
R2
C
. . . (4.53)
f0 =
1
2 L
L
1
=
C 2 LC
. . . (4.54)
Again, at resonance, since the reactive components of IL and LC balance each other, the
only remaining part of the current is IL cos (= I)
I = I L cos
or,
V
V
R
=
.
Z Z L Z L
or,
L
Z L2 C
L
=
=
Z =
R
R CR
Z L =
. . . (4.55)
Then, the equivalent impedance of the parallel resonating circuit is L/CR at resonance.
This impedance is called dynamic resistance of the parallel circuit. Normally R being
loss, this impedance is very high at resonance and then the current is much lower in the
parallel circuit. Then, this circuit is also called rejector circuit.
Different Curves at Parallel Resonance
Figure 4.36 shows admittance (Y), impedance (Z) and power factor angle ()
curves, which show the variation of Y, Z and () with frequency.
(Y)
(Z)
o
+90
Admittance
Y Bc = C
Impedance
High R
Low R
BL = I/L
(a)
Low R
High R
(b)
-90
(c)
Figure 4.36
106
Net susceptance
AC Circuits
B = BC BL
B
= C 1/L
. . . (4.56)
at resonance B = 0.
Resonance Curve
Impedance Z =
L
CR
Leading p.f.
Lagging p.f.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
f0 =
1
2
1
R2
LC L2
Example 4.9
Find the resonant frequency 0 (or f0) for the given series RLC circuit
10
2 Henry
20F
v = Vm sin t = 50 sin t
Figure 4.38
Electrical
Solution
R = 10 , L = 2 Henry, C = 20 F
Under resonance :
XL = XC
1
C
L =
1
LC
0 =
and
f0 =
Current i is given by i =
2 20 10
1
2 LC
= 0.158 103
= 25.16 Hz
V
Z
But at resonance Z = R or 10
So
V sin t 50 sin t
i= m
=
= 5 sin t Amp
R
10
Example 4.10
5j
-3j
Figure 4.39
Solution
1
R 5j
mho ( )
=
R + 5 j R 2 + 25
Y2 =
1
4 + 3j
=
mho ( )
4 3j
25
R 5j
2
R + 25
4 + 3j
25
5
2
R + 25
3
=0
25
R 2 + 25
AC Circuits
3
25
R = 4.082
Example 4.11
A circuit shown in Figure 4.40 having a resistance of 5 , an inductance of 0.4 H
and a variable capacitance in series is connected across a 110 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate :
(a)
(b)
Current
(c)
(d)
(e)
Solution
Applied Voltage, V = 110 V
Resistance, R = 5
Inductance, L = 0.4 Henry
Resonant frequency, f0 = 50 Hz
1
As Resonant frequency f 0 =
2 LC
0.4 H
110 V, 50 Hz
Figure 4.40
(a)
1
4
f 02
=
L
1
2
4 (50)2 0.4
= 2.53303 10 5
= 25.3303 F
(c)
At resonant condition I =
V 110
=
.
R
5
= 22 A
(c)
(d)
Electrical
(e)
Q-factor =
0 L 2 f0 L
=
R
R
2 50 0.4
5
= 25.1327
Example 4.12
A 20 resistor is connected in series with a coil, a capacitor and an ammeter
across a 25 V variable frequency supply. When the frequency is 400 Hz, the
current is at its maximum value of 0.5 A and potential difference across the
capacitor is 150 V. Calculate :
(a)
(b)
RL
IM=0.5A A
VC=150V
25 V, 400 Hz
Figure 4.41
Solution
(a)
1
1
1
=
=
C 2 400 C 800 C
0.5
= 150
800 C
C=
or
(b)
0.5
= 1.3263 10 6 F
800 150
C = 1.3263 F
0.5 =
V
R + RL
25
( Applied voltage V = 25 V)
20 + RL
RL = 30
110
AC Circuits
SAQ 3
(a)
A series RLC circuit has a resonant frequency of 220.6 Hz and is fed from
125 V source. At resonance the voltage across inductance and capacitance is
4151 Volt. The resistance of circuit is 1.06 . Find QLC of the circuit.
(b)
(c)
(i)
current,
(ii)
(iii)
Figure 4.42
111
Electrical
Figure 4.43 shows that 3-phase voltage and their instantaneous values are given by,
Vaa = Vm sin
= Vm sin t
= Vm sin t
360o (electrical)
,
n
Similarly,
I RY = IYR
This form of double subscript notation makes the calculations in 3-phase circuits
simple and less ambiguous.
Phase Sequence
Phase sequence is the sequence or order in which the three current/voltages attain
their maximum values one after the other.
Let the three phases, Vaa , Vbb , and Vcc shown in Figure 4.44 refers phase A, B and
C, respectively. Then for the waveform shown A-B-C is the phase sequence. Since
only two directions, i.e. anticlockwise and clockwise of rotations are possible, only
two types of phase sequence are possible. By convention phase sequence ABC or
RYB is taken as positive and ACB or RBY as negative.
112
AC Circuits
(b)
Delta connection.
In star connection similar ends the 3-phases are jointed together to form the neutral as
shown in Figure 4.45(a), star connection is denoted by Y and the common or neutral
point is denoted by n, it is also called star point.
Vb = Vm sin ( 120o )
. . . (4.57)
Vc = Vm sin ( 240o )
113
Electrical
=0
. . . (4.58)
. . . (4.59)
This is the important property of 3-phase balanced system which has made possible the
star and delta connection of three phases, without any circulating currents.
Figure 4.46
In star connection
VL = 3 V ph
. . . (4.60)
I L = I ph
. . . (4.61)
P3 = 3 VL I L cos Watts
= 3 V ph I ph cos
. . . (4.62)
I L = 3 I ph
P3 = 3 VL I L cos Watts
= 3 V ph I ph cos
114
. . . (4.63)
AC Circuits
Figure 4.47
Star-Delta Connection
Figure 4.48
R12 = R1 + R2
. . . (4.64)
Figure 4.49
R23 = R2 + R3
. . . (4.65)
. . . (4.66)
115
Electrical
Figure 4.50
R12 =
Ra ( Rb + Rc )
Ra + Rb + Rc
. . . (4.67)
Figure 4.51
Similarly, the resistances between terminals 2 and 3 and 1 and 3 are given by :
R23 =
( Ra + Rc ) Rb
Ra + Rb + Rc
. . . (4.68)
R13 =
( Ra + Rb ) Rc
Ra + Rb + Rc
. . . (4.69)
R1 + R2 =
Ra ( Rb + Rc )
Ra + Rb + Rc
. . . (4.70)
R2 + R3 =
Rb ( Ra + Rc )
Ra + Rb + Rc
. . . (4.71)
R1 + R3 =
Rc ( Ra + Rb )
Ra + Rb + Rc
. . . (4.72)
After solving the Eqs. (4.70), (4.71) and (4.72) we can determine three unknown
resistances Ra, Rb and Rc in terms of R1, R2 and R3.
R R + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra = 1 2
R3
. . . (4.73)
R R + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb = 1 2
R1
. . . (4.74)
R R + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc = 1 2
R2
. . . (4.75)
AC Circuits
R1 =
Ra Rc
Ra + Rb + Rc
. . . (4.76)
R2 =
Ra Rb
Ra + Rb + Rc
. . . (4.77)
R3 =
Rb Rc
Ra + Rb + Rc
. . . (4.78)
2.
3.
Line voltage VL = 3 V ph
or,
4.
VL = V ph
1
V ph =
VL
3
Line current I L =
I L = I ph
I ph =
5.
3 VL I ph cos
= 3 V ph I ph cos
3 I ph
1
3
IL
3 VL I L cos
= 3 V ph I ph cos
Example 4.13
Obtain the equivalent inductance at terminal AB in circuit shown in Figure 4.52.
Figure 4.52
Solution
Inductances also follow the same rule as the resistances for series, parallel and stardelta connections. First we convert the star connection a b c n to corresponding
delta connection.
117
Electrical
Figure 4.53
1+1+1
= 3H
1
Figure 4.54
So, the circuit of Figure 4.52 is redrawn as shown in Figures 4.54 and 4.55.
Figure 4.55
So,
Leq =
3
H is in parallel with 3 Henry.
2
Leq =
1.5 3
= 1 Henry
1.5 + 3
Example 4.14
A balanced star connected load is supplied from a symmetrical 3-phase 440 Volt
system. The current in each phase is 40 Amp and lags 30o behind the phase
voltage. Find
118
(a)
phase voltage,
(b)
power,
(c)
(d)
phase impedance.
AC Circuits
Solution
For three phase star connected load voltage applied VL = 440 Volt
(a)
V ph =
440
= 254.03 Volt
3
Power P3 = 3 VL I L cos
= 3 440 40 cos 30o
Q3 = 3 VL I L sin
= 3 440 40 sin 30o
Phase impedance Z ph =
V ph
I ph
254.03 0o
40 30o
= 6.35 30o
Example 4.15
A delta connected balanced 3-phase load is supplied from a 3-phase 400 V supply.
The line current is 30 Amp and the power taken by the load is 10 kW. Find
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Solution
Delta Connection Load
Line current IL = 30 Amp
Phase current I ph =
(a)
30
= 17.32 Amp
3
Phase impedance Z ph =
V ph
I ph
400 V
17.32 Amp
= 23.095
(b)
(c)
cos =
P
=
3 VL I L
10 1000
3 400 30
= 0.4811
(d)
Electrical
SAQ 4
(a)
(b)
line current,
(ii)
power, and
(iii)
power factor.
(ii)
Load current iL :
iL =
VTH
( RTH + RL ) + j X TH
| iL | =
VTH
2
( RTH + RL ) 2 + X TH
dPL
=0
dRL
120
2
VTH
2
( RTH + RL )2 + X TH
RL
AC Circuits
( R + R )2 + X 2 R 2 ( R + R )
TH
L
TH
L
TH
L
2
VTh =
=0
2
2
(
R
R
)
X
+
+
TH
L
TH
2
( RTH + RL ) 2 + X TH
= 2 RL ( RTH + RL )
2
RL2 = RTH
+ X T2H
or,
2
2
RL = RTH
+ X TH
= | ZTH |
. . . (4.79)
VTH
( RTH + R) + j ( X TH + X )
iL =
. . . (4.80)
Load power
VTH
( RTH + R ) 2 + ( X TH + X ) 2
PL = | iL |2 R
2
VTh
( RTH + R)2 + ( X TH + X ) 2
For getting the maximum power of PL, denominator of equation should be small.
For that select X = Xth.
2
VTh
Then
PL =
dPL
= 0 R = RTH
dl
( RTH + R)2
. . . (4.81)
iL =
VTH
RTH + RL
121
Electrical
2
VTH
( RTH + RL )2
RL
dPL
=0
dRL
. . . (4.82)
RL = RTH
. . . (4.83)
So load resistance should be equal to the internal resistance of circuit for receiving
the maximum power.
The maximum power from equation
2
VTh
Pmax =
V2
RL = TH
4 RL
( RL + RL )2
Pmax =
2
VTH
4 RTH
. . . (4.84)
122
where
AC Circuits
Figure 4.60
Solution
First we apply the Thevenin theorem and draw the Thevenins equivalent circuit.
Remove the load resistance RL.
Figure 4.61
Figure 4.62
V AB = VTH
= 5 + 4i
123
Electrical
10
=5+4
6
= 1.66 Volt
Calculation for RTH :
Replace all the sources by internal resistance. (Internal resistance of ideal
voltage source is zero)
Figure 4.63
RTH = R AB
= 2 // 4 + 6
24
+6
2+4
= 7.33
Thevenins Equivalent Circuit
According to maximum power transfer theorem
RL = RTH = 7.33
iL =
1.66
= 0.1132 Amp
7.33 + 7.33
Figure 4.64
Maximum power
Pmax = iL2 RL
= 0.09398 Watts
= 93.98 m Watts
Example 4.17
Find the load for which the source will transfer the maximum power if load is
connected across the terminal A and B, under the following conditions :
124
(a)
(b)
load is complex
AC Circuits
Figure 4.65
Solution
Calculation for VTH
i=
20 0o
= 1.692 + 0.461 j Amp
11 3j
Figure 4.66
ZTH =
5 (6 3 j )
= 2.88 0.576 j
11 3 j
Figure 4.67
= 2.88 + 0.576 j
125
Electrical
Figure 4.68
SAQ 5
Determine the value of load ZL such that the maximum power is transferred for the
network shown in Figure 4.69. Also find the value of maximum power in watts.
Figure 4.69
4.12 SUMMARY
This unit describes the basic concepts of single and three-phase ac system. Unit provides
the detailed analysis and derivations as needed by topics. Here we determine the voltage
current power and power factor for resistive, inductive and capacitive circuits. Also we
apply Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws in series and parallel RLC circuit. Complete
analysis of balanced three-phase circuit along with the star-delta conversion is given in
the unit. Also the proper comparison is done between star connection and delta
connection.
A very detailed description of series and parallel resonance is given in the unit with all
important characteristics. Different curves like impedance curve, angle curve, admittance
curve, and resonance curve are drawn for both types of resonance.
At the end of the unit maximum power transfer theorem is stated for both ac and dc
circuit. Since the concept of Thevenin theorem is required for applying the maximum
power transfer theorem so same is also defined in the unit.
=
126
1
T
[ f (t )]2 dt
1
0.005
0.05
1
=
T
1
f (t ) dt =
0.05
0.05
10e
200 t
AC Circuits
dt
Fav = 1
Form factor =
(b)
Frms
= 2.24
Fav
30
60
= (20) +
+
2
2
2
SAQ 2
(a)
Z
i
v
= 6.3247 j 6.0933
i
S = VI * = (P + jQ)
= (100 + j 50) (4.25 j 12)
= 425 + j 212.5 j 1200 + 600
= 1025 j 987.5
= 1423.299 43.9325o
P=I R
R=
But
P
I
720
(12) 2
=5
P = VI cos
127
Electrical
P
720
=
= 0.35294
VI 170 12
cos =
P.f.
= 69.33275o
V 170
=
= 14.1667
I
12
Impedance =
Reactance = XL
tan =
XL
Z
XL = 37.556
=L
L=
XL
= 99.61 mH
SAQ 3
(a)
R=1.06
125V, 220.6 Hz
Figure for Answer to SAQ 3(a)
At resonance, I =
given that
125 125
=
= 117.92 Amp
R
1.06
I XL = I 2 fL = 4151 volt
4151
4151
=
= 0.0254 H
I 2 f 117.92 2 220.6
L=
f =
2 LC
f2 =
1
2
4 LC
C=
C = 20.5 10 6 F
Quality factor, Q =
(b)
R=40
WL 2 f L
=
= 33.2
R
R
L=0.75 H
250V, 50 Hz
Figure for Answer to SAQ 3(b)
128
Resonance frequency, f0 = 55 Hz
1
2
4 L f 2
AC Circuits
1
2 LC
C =
1
2
(2) f 02 L
C = 11.165 F
1
2 fC
1
2 50 11.165 10 6
= 285.096
250
V
=
= 3.9294 Amp
63.6234
Z
(i)
Line current, I =
(ii)
Power factor =
(iii)
R
40
=
= 0.6287 (leading)
Z
63.6234
= 925.8429 Volt.
(c)
0 =
L CR12
2
L CR2
1
LC
L
C
L
2 10 3
=
= 25
C 80 10 6
R1 = R2 = 5 .
SAQ 4
(a)
230
3
= 132.79 Volt
V ph
Z ph
132.79
10 36.87o
Electrical
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(b)
Pre-phase load
Resistance R = 15 , inductance L = 0.03 H
Reactance of coil
X L = L = 2 50 0.03 = 9.42
Phase voltage V ph =
400
3
= 230.94 Volt
V ph
Z ph
230.94
= 13.04 Amp
17.71
SAQ 5
(a)
VTH = V AB = 4 i
30 20o
=4
3j+4
130
(b)
AC Circuits
ZTH =
4 (3 j )
5 j = 1.44 3.08 j
4+3j
= 1.44 + 3.08 j
Power will be dissipated in resistive part only.
iL =
VTH
24 16.86o
=
Z L + ZTH
1.44 + 1.44
= 99.92 Watts
131