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Formulas

- Coulomb's Law
- Gauss' Law
- Application of Gausss Theorem
- Joule's Law
- Kirchhoff's Current Law
- Fundamental Postulates of Electrostatics In Free Space
- Wave
- Refraction and Reflection
- Electromotive Force
- Electrostatic Force
- Electric Potential
- Electric Potential Energy
- Electric Potential of Only One Charge
- Electric Potential Due to Discrete Distribution of Charges
- Electric Potential Due to a Continuous Distribution of Charges
- Electric Flux
- Outward Flux of the Electric Field Intensity
- Electric Flux Density
- Electric Field Intensity
- Electric Field
- Electric Field Due to a Continuous Distribution of Charge
- Electric Field Due to a System of Discrete Charges
- Two Points Charges
- Polarization Charge Densities
- Dielectric Properties
- Dipole System
- Electric Dipole
- Current Density
- Electrical Conductance and Electrical Resistance
- Conductor in Static Electric Field
- Electrical Capacitance
- Electrical Capacitance in an Electronic Circuit

Coulomb's Law
According to scientist coulomb, the electric force between two stationary poles is directly
proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
Let us consider two stationary poles have charges q1 and q2 and are separated by distance r,
then the electrical force (F) will be:
F q1 q2 and F 1/r2
F = K q1 q2 / r2
Where
K = is a constant which has a value of 9 109 Nm2C-2
r = distance in meter (m)
q1, q2 = charges expressed in coulomb (C)
F = electrical force in Newton (N)
Suppose we consider vacuum as the medium between the two poles, then constant K is
replaced by 1/4 0 where 0 is electrical permittivity of free space.
F = (1/4 0) (q1 q2 / r2)
Coulombs law is used to find the repulsive force acting between two electric charges. In case
of more than two electric charges are present, the superposition principle in addition to
coulombs law is applied to calculate the net electronic force acting on any one charge.
Superposition principle is defined as when more than one coulombian force are acting on a
charge, the resultant coulombian force acting on it is equal to the vector sum of the individual
forces.
In short, the coulombian force acting between two charges is not affected by the presence of
other charge that means coulombian force is a two body force.
According to Coulomb's Law that the magnitude of the electric field (E) created by a single
point charge (q) at a certain distance (R) is given by:

Where q is a point charge.

The electric field intensity of a positive point charge is in the outward radial direction and has
a magnitude proportional to the charge and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the charge. It means if we have an electric field caused by a positive point
charge. Then we can measure the strength of that field at different distance, which is R. The
further we measure the strength, the great become R, and the less become the strength of that
field at the particular place.
When a charge is not at the center of a coordinate, we can use the following equations:

since
thus:

Calculation:
Example-1: The force acting between two particles is equal to the weight of one of them.
The two particles are having same mass 1.6 kg and charge 1.6C. Calculate the distance
between them. The value of K = 9 109 and g = 10 ms-2.
K = 9 109
g = 10 ms-2
q1 = q2 = 1.6C
m = 1.6 kg
F = mass of one of the particles = mg, which gives:
F = K q1 q2 / r2 = mg
Isolating r from the equation we have:
r2 = K q1 q2 / mg
r2 = 9 109 (1.6 1.6) / (1.6 x 10)
r2 = 1.440 109
r = 1.2 103
Example-2: The force acting between two charges kept at a certain distance is A. Suppose
the magnitude of charges is halved and the distance between them is doubled, then the force
acting between them is?
a) A/4
b) A/16
c) A/8
d) A
We know that:
F=A
Charges are halved = q1/2 q2/2
Distance is doubled = 2r
Insert the values into F = K q1 q2 / r2, we have:
Fnew = K (q1/2) (q2/2) / (2r)2
Fnew = K q1 q2 / (16 r2)

And Fnew = F/16, since F = A, we have:

Fnew = A/16
Gauss' Law
Gauss law is based on the concept of integration of electric field over a closed surface. It is
one of the fundamental laws of nature.
The total electric flux linked with any closed surface is equal to the ratio of the total electric
charge enclosed by the surface to E is called as Gauss theorem.
Where E is electric field and dA is the area vector.
It helps to calculate the electric field due to any symmetric charge distribution.
Application of Gausss Theorem
Application of Gausss Theorem
Electric field due to an infinite long straight charged line:
Consider one example of an infinite long straight charged line having uniform linear charge
density () and a point P located at a perpendicular distance r from the linear charge
distribution. The electric field intensity at any point P and all the other points like P situated
perpendicular distance from the line will be equal as the line is of infinite length (L).
As per Gauss law, the electric field intensity at point P on an infinitely long straight charged
line is:

Here we have
= linear charge density
0 = electrical permittivity of free space
r = radius
= unit vector in the direction of radius.
Electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet:
Consider one example of a uniform charged infinite plane sheet having uniform surface
charge density , point P situated at a perpendicular distance r from the given plane, then the
electric filed intensity as per the Gauss law is:

Here we have
= Surface charge density
0 = electrical permittivity of free space
It shows that the electric field intensity at any point on the plane sheet is not depend on the
distance of the point from the plane.
Electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell:
Consider a spherical shell having surface charge density and radius R. The electric field
resulting from such a spherical shell is radial and hence electric field intensity is calculated

for a point lying inside and outside the spherical shell.

Point lying inside the shell:
Here point is lying inside the shell and having radius r smaller then the spherical shell radius
R. So, as per the Gauss law, the electric field intensity is zero due to charge enclosed by such
a surface is zero as the radius is concentric with the shell.
Point lying outside the shell:
Here point is lying outside the shell and having radius r greater then the spherical shell radius
R. So, as per the Gauss law, the electric field intensity is,

It shows that for a point outside the sphere, the entire charge of the sphere can be treated as
concentrated at its centre.
Electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere:
Consider a uniformly charged sphere having volume charge density and radius of sphere R.
The electric field resulting from such a sphere is radial and hence electric field intensity is
calculated for a point lying inside and outside the spherical shell.
Point lying inside the shell:
Here point is lying inside the sphere and the spherical Gaussian surface of radius r < R,
concentric with the sphere. Using Gauss law, the electric field intensity is

Point lying outside the shell:

Here point is lying outside the sphere and the spherical Gaussian surface of radius r > R,
coincide with the each other. Using Gauss law, the electric field intensity is

Calculation:
Example-1: A particle having surface charge density 4 x 10-6 c/m2, is held at some distance
from a very large uniformly charged plane. Calculate the electric field intensity at any point
lying on uniformly charged plane. Here 0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2N-1m-2.
Reason:
0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2N-1m-2
= 4 x 10-6 c/m2
E = / (2 0)
E = 4 10-6 / (2 8.85 10-12)
E = 2.26 105 NC-1
Example-2: Electric field intensity due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet is depends
on....................

a)
b)
c)
d)

Surface charge density

Electrical permittivity
Radius
Surface charge density and electrical permittivity.

Answer: Electric field intensity due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet is depends on
surface charge density and electrical permittivity.
Example-3: Gauss theorem depends on...............................
a)
b)
c)
d)

total electrical flux linked with any closed surface

integration of electric field over a closed surface
total electric charge associated with closed surface
none of above

Answer: Gauss theorem depends on integration of electric field over a closed surface

Joule's Law
Joule's law is given by:
Q = I2Rt
Corresponding units:
joules(J) = ampere2(A2) ohm() second(s)
Where:
Q is the heat generated
I is the current(constant)
R is the resistance of the conductor
t is the time
The unit of the heat generated is joule, which can be rewritten as:
joule = kg m2 / s2

Kirchhoff's Current Law

The total current flow into a surface is positive, therefore the current flow outside or leaving
the surface must be minus, therefore the current leaving the surface can be written as:

The current leaving the source is the total outward flux of the current density vector through
surface S. Using divergence theorem we have:

or

For a steady current the current density does not vary with the time, therefore
we have:

, and

and

Fundamental Postulates of Electrostatics In Free Space

E = / 0
xE=0
where is the volume charge density (C/m3), and 0
is the permittivity of free space, which is 10-9/(36) (F/m).
These two postulates state that a static electric field is irrotational and its divergence is / 0.
/ 0 can be used to determine whether a field is electrostatic field or not.

Electrostatic Force
The force on a stationary charge q1 in an electric field E is:
F=qE
If we put a charge q2 into the electric field caused by q1, where q1 is at the center of the
coordinate. Then the force F12 due to electric field intensity E12 of q1 at q2 is given by:

Electric Potential Energy

Let us consider one example, bring a unit positive charge from and infinite position to any
point in the electric field, working opposite to the electric field. Take ample care to see that
charge does not possess any velocity and has zero kinetic energy at the specified point. Now,
work done on the charge is stored in a form of energy with the charge as particle itself is in
state of motion and having some kinetic energy which helps to do work on the charge. This
energy acquired by the charged particles is the potential energy of the particle n the particular
electric field.
For point P, potential energy is

Where, q is the magnitude of electric charge.

Electromotive Force
An electromotive force (emf) is the potential that is inside an electric source, such as
batteries, and the potential inside the source must terminate the potential outside the source.
Therefore the emf is given by:

Electric Potential ( Electrostatic Voltage )

It is defined as the work done in an opposite direction to the electric field, to bring a unit
positive charge from an infinite position to any point in the electric field is called the static
electric potential or electrostatic potential (V) at that particular point.
Suppose P is the point, where work is done by moving a unit positive charge opposite to the
electric field, then electric potential is

Unit of electric potential = joule/coulomb = volt (V)

Suppose Q is the point, where work is done by moving a unit positive charge opposite to the
electric field, then electric potential is

Now,

Electric Potential is a function of position and is a scalar quantity and the equation above
shows the potential difference between the two point P and Q.

Electric Potential Due to Discrete Distribution of Charges

Suppose we have q1, q2, ..qn are the electric charges distributed discretely and r1, r2,
rnare the position vectors, respectively, then electric potential at point P due to electric charge
qnis calculated as below.

The total electrical potential at point P is the sum of all electrical potential of all charges of
distribution.
V = V1 + V2 + .+ Vn

Electric Potential of Only One Charge

The electric potential of only one charge is given by:
,
where R is the distance between the charge q and the point where we measure our voltage. So
the only thing that has an influence on voltage is the distance R. The bigger R becomes, the
smaller will V be.
If we want to measure the voltage from point P1 to point P2, then the voltage can be
determined by:

,where Rp1 is the distance from the charge q to P1, and Rp2 is the distance from q to P2.
From the equation below

we can conclude that the bigger the difference between Rp1 and Rp2 becomes, the greater
become the voltage between them.

Electric Potential Due to a Continuous Distribution of Charges

Suppose we have volume charge density () and its position vector is r then to calculate the
electric potential at point P due to the continuous distribution of charges, entire charge
distribution is integrated.

Where we have:
= Volume charge density
dT = Small volume element
r = position vector at point P
r = position vector at dT
Uniformly charged spherical shell:
Point lying outside the spherical shell:
Here point is lying outside the uniformly charged spherical shell and the radius is greater then
R, hence electric potential is

Electric field outside a uniformly charged spherical shell is equal to the electric field
generated by the shell as the s hell is concentrated at the center.
Point lying inside the spherical shell:
Here point is lying inside the spherical shell and hence the radius is smaller then R, and the
electric potential is

Like in the electric field intensity we have three different formulas for each type of charge
distribution.
Line Charge Distribution

, where is the line charge density.

Surface Charge Distribution

, where is the surface charge density.

Volume Charge Distribution

, where is the volume charge density.

Calculation:

Example-1: A point lying inside a hollow charged sphere has .. electric potential.
a) Directly proportional to the distance from the centre of the sphere
b) Constant
c) Inversely proportional to the distance from the centre of the sphere
d) None of above
Answer: A point lying inside a hollow charged sphere has constant electric potential.
Example-2: Unit of electrical potential is ..
a) joule / coulomb
b) joule/ coulomb2
c) joule/volt
d) volt/coulomb
Answer = joule/coulomb
Example-3: Potential energy acquired by the charged particle in a particular electric field is
associated with the . of the particle itself.
a) Velocity
b) Density
c) Kinetic energy
d) None of above
Answer: Potential energy acquired by the charged particle in a particular electric field is
associated with the kinetic energy of the particle itself.
Electric Flux
Flux is a mathematical concept which can be interpreted physically. In case of an arbitrary
surface, electric field is calculated by dividing imaginary surface into small elements of
surface. Each element of surface is considered as a flat surface and is represented by a vector.
The magnitude of this vector is equal to the area of surface element and direction is along the
normal to the surface. If the surface is a closed one, then such vector is to be coming out of
the close surface.
Suppose a vector an is an area vector of nth element and the electric field at that element
is Enthen,
En an = electric flux
Electric flux is a scalar product and has a definite number. The unit of electric flux is Nm2/C
or Vm.

Outward Flux of the Electric Field Intensity

The total outward flux of the electric field intensity is given by:

and using Gauss's theorem ( Divergence Theorem ) we have:

, where

and Q is the total charge contained in volume V.

It states that the total outward flux of the electric field intensity over any closed surface in
free space is equal to the total charge enclosed in the surface divided by 0.
Using Stokes's Theorem we also have:

, which asserts that the scalar line integral of the static electric field intensity around any
closed path vanishes. E dlis the voltage alone that path, therefore it must be 0, when the
path is closed. If there are 100 different paths between two points, the voltage between these
two points is always the same no matter which path we choose. It only depends on the start
and end points.

Electric Flux Density

The electric flux density is given by:

and

Electric Field Intensity

Electric field intensity is given by:

defined as the force per unit charge.

Electric field is the force needed to move a single charge q, and the force F is given by:
F = qE
The electric field E is proportional to F and has the same direction of the force F.

Electric Field
The area around a system of charges in which the effect of electric charge existing is called
the electric field of that particular system of electric charges.
Let us consider F as total force acting on a charge q due to some system of charges.
Fq
F/q = quantity obtained is independent of q = E
E depends on the magnitude of the electrical charges of the system, arrangement of electric
charges and position vector of charge.
The force acting on a unit position charge at a given point in a system of charges is called the
electric field or electric field intensity at that point.
When more than one electrical charge is present, the electric field is equal to the vector sum
of all individual electric fields due to all the charges.
Electric field intensity = E = F/q = KQ / r2
Continuous distribution of charges:
Suppose we want to calculate the total electric force acting on any external charge q due to a
continuous distribution of charge, then we have to imagine small elements of charge dq. The
resultant force on q can then be calculated by taking vector sum of all the forces acting on
charge q due to each of these small elements.
The continuous distributions of charges are three types:
1. line distribution

2. surface distribution
3. volume distribution

Line distribution:
Here charge is distributed continuously over a line and is not uniform, so it will be different
at different points on the line. It is called as linear charge density (). Line is divided into
small segments of the length dl. The force acting on any electric charge q having position
vector due to electric charge ( r ) | dl | present on the line is calculated and is integrated over
the entire line distribution of charge
Surface distribution:
Charge is distributed continuously over a surface and surface charge density is (r), small
segments of area da , then the force acting on any electric charge q having position vector due
to electric charge (r) da present on the area element is calculated and is integrated over the
entire surface.
Volume distribution:
Suppose electric charge is distributed continuously over some volume and the volume charge
density is (r), small segments of volume d v, then the force acting on any electric charge q
having position vector due to electric charge (r) dv present on the volume element is
calculated and is integrated over the entire volume.
Calculation:
Example-1: When an electron and proton both are present in an electronic field
..
a) Only the magnitude of forces are same
b) Acceleration produced in them are same
c) Magnitude and acceleration produced in them are same.
d) None of above.
Answer: When an electron and proton both are present in an electronic field only the
magnitude of forces are same
Example-2: Match the following properties.
(A)

(B)

Line charge density

charge per unit volume of the line

Surface charge density

Force acting on unit charge

Volume charge density

charge per unit length of the line

Electric field intensity

charge per unit surface of the line

(A)

(B)

Line charge density

charge per unit length of the line

Surface charge density

charge per unit surface of the line

Volume charge density

charge per unit volume of the line

Electric field intensity

Force acting on unit charge

Example-3: An assembly is situated on X-axis, having the same magnitude of charges q at

positions X=1, X=2, X=4, X=8 and so on. Calculate the electric field intensity arising due to
the given assembly of charges at point X=0.
Reason:
Electric filed intensity: E = Kq / r2
E = Kq [1/12 + 1/22 + 1/42 + ]
E = Kq [1 + 1/4 + 1/16 + ] applying mathematic formula S = a/1-r for infinite geometric
series
E = Kq [1/(1-1/4)]
E = Kq [1/(4-1)]
E = 4Kq / 3

Electric Field Due to a Continuous Distribution of Charge

The following formulas can be used to determine the electric field E caused by a continuous
distribution of charge, which are categorized into three different types.
Line Charge

where is the line charge density.

Surface Charge

where is the surface charge density.

Volume Charge

where

and
is the volume charge density.

Two Points Charges

If we put a charge q2 into the electric field caused by q1, where q1 is at the center of the
coordinate. Then the force F12due to electric field intensity E12 of q1 at q2 is given by:

Dielectric Properties
Based on the dielectric properties it is possible to determine whether or not a material can be
categorized as a simple medium.
Given the equation of polarization density P:
P = 0 Xe E
where:
0: electric permittivity of free space
Xe: electric susceptibility
E: electric field

A material can have one or more of the following characteristics.

Linear: if the electric susceptibility is independent of E.
Isotropic: If the polarization has the same direction as E.
Homogenous: If the susceptibility is independent of space coordinates.
A material is a simple medium if all three properties are satisfied.

Electric Dipole
The Electric dipole is defined as a system having two equal but opposite charges separated by
a finite distance. Assume that -q and q are two charges with the same amount of energy but
opposite directed. The electric dipole is the product of the charge q and the vector d (which
has a direction from -q to q ), electric dipole is also known as electric dipole moment and can
be expressed as the equation below:
p = qd
The electric field E caused by -q and q at the point P is:

If the dipole lies along the z-axis, then we have:

p = az p = p(aR cos - a sin)
and
R p = R p cos
Therefore we can express the electric field E as below:

The unit of electric dipole is coulomb meter [Cm].

The total electric charge on an electric dipole is zero, but its electric filed is not zero, as the
position of the two opposite charges is different.

Calculation:
Example-1: An electric dipole is placed in an electric field of a point charge, then:
a) torque acting on it may be zero
b) torque acting on it may not be zero
c) torque acting on it is always zero
d) None of above
Reason: An electric dipole is placed in an electric field of a point charge, and the torque
acting on it may be zero because electric dipole is having two equal and opposite charges.
When two different forces act on them, the resultant force may become zero, and keeps the
dipole moment in translational equilibrium. As the two forces have different lines of action,
the dipole will experience a torque and it may be zero.

Example-2: The electric dipole moment of NaCl atom is 3.4 x 10-30 Cm. The charges on both
atoms are unlike and of same magnitude. The distance between the charges is 0.1A, then the
magnitude of this charge is?
a) 17 x 10-20 C
b) 68 x 10-20 C
c) 34 x 10-20 C
d) 34 x10-10 C
Reason:
We know that p = qd
p = 3.4 10-30
d = 0.1 A = 0.1 10-10 m
q=?
p = qd
q=p/d
q = (3.4 10-30) / (0.1 10-10)
q = 3.4 10 10-20
q = 34 10-20 C
Example-3: An electric dipole is placed at the centre of a sphere. The flux passing through
the surface of the sphere is?
a) Zero
b) can not be zero
d) infinity
d) none of above
Reason: Answer is zero
An electric dipole is place at the centre of sphere, and so the total electric charge on sphere is
zero. The flux is passing through the surface of the sphere and the flux linked with any
surface is the surface integration of the electric field over the given surface. So, the flux of
surface of the sphere is zero.

Electrical Conductance and Electrical Resistance

The electrical resistance in a conductor is given by:

Corresponding units:
ohm() = meter(m)/(siemens per metre (S/m) square meter(m2))
The conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, thus:
G = 1/R = S / l
Corresponding units:
siemens(S) = 1/ohm()
R: resistance
G: conductance
: conductivity
S: the cross-section area of the conductor
V: voltage
I: current
l: the length of the conductor

Electrical Capacitance
Electrical Capacitance is given by:

Corresponding units:
farad(F) = coulomb(C) volt(V)
If V12 is the voltage between two conductors 1 and 2, the capacitance will be:
C = Q / V12
For a parallel plate capacitor the capacitance is given by:

S: the area of the plates

d: the distance between the plates
V12: the voltage, which can be determined by
For a cylindrical capacitor the capacitance is given by:

L: the length of the cylinder

b: the outer radius
a: the inner radius
: the permittivity of the dielectric material in between
Vab: the voltage, which can be determined by:

For a spherical capacitor the capacitance is given by:

Ri, R0: inner and outer radius

: the permittivity of the dielectric material in between.
Vio: the voltage, which can be determined by:

Electric Field Due to a System of Discrete Charges

The electric field or electric field strength is the electrostatic force acting on a small positive
test charge placed at that point.

If is the electrostatic force experienced by a test charge q at a point, then the electric field
intensity at that point is given by

S.I unit of electric field intensity is Newton/coulomb (NC-1).

If the test charge is not small, then the electric field may be affected by the test charge and
hence we modify the above equation as follows:

Consider a system of charges q1, q2, ..qn placed at distances r1, r2.rn with respect to
some origin. Then the electric field intensity due to all these charges at a point is found out
using the Principle of superposition. Let
of charges q1, q2, ..qn. Then the resultant electric intensity
charges is given by the superposition theorem.

intensity due to the number

at that point due to these

Electric field intensity due to the nth charge is

Magnitude of the electric field intensity is given by the equation:

Example1: Two point charges of 1C and -1 C are separated by a distance of 100 . A point
P is at a distance of 10 cm from the midpoint and on the perpendicular bisector of the line
joining the two charges. The electric field at P will be

(a)

9 N/C

(b) 0.9 V/m

(c)

90 V/m

(d) 0.09 N/C

Solution: The point lies on equatorial line of a short dipole. So,

Example2: Three charges 2q,-q and q are located at the vertices of an equilateral triangle
.At the center of the triangle
(a)

the field is zero but potential is non-zero.

(b) the field is non-zero ,but potential is zero.

(c)

both field and potential are zero.

(d) both field and potential are non zero.

Solution: (b)

Obviously, E 0.Hence the field is non-zero but potential is zero.

Example3: ABC is an equilateral triangle. Charges + q are placed at each corner. As shown
in figure. The electric intensity at centre O will be

Solution: Unit Positive charge at O will be repelled equally by three charges at the three
corners of triangle
By symmetry, resultant

at O would be zero.

Polarization Charge Densities

If we define a polarization vector P, which is the volume density of electric dipole moment,
that can be written as:
dp = Pdv'
The polarization can be calculated from the contributions of surface and volume charge
distributions, thus:

Surface polarization charge density:

= P an
Volume polarization charge density:
= - P

Dipole System
Assume that -q and q being two charges with the same amount of energy but opposite
directed. If the distance (very little separation) between the two charges is d, the
voltage V between -q and q will be expressed as:

where P = qd and R is the vector from the middle of d to the point where the voltage is
measured.

Current Density
Before we discuss current density, its necessary to know about electric current. Electric
current is defined as the amount of electric charges passing through a unit cross sectional area
of the conductor in a unit time. It means electric current is produced due to the flow of
electric charges. The branch of electricity that studies the process associated with the flow of
current is called current electricity.
Electric charges are conserved that means it is neither created nor destroyed at any point in
the conductor. Suppose the electric charge Q flow through any cross-sectional area of the
conductor in time interval t, then the average electric current I flowing is given as:
I = Q / t
Unit of electric current = ampere (A)

The rate of flow of the electric charge passing through different cross-sectional area of
conductor may not be same all the time and the flow of the electric charge may not be
perpendicular to the cross-sectional area of the conductor. Let us consider point P of the
curved cross-sectional area of the conductor and a is the area of the surface near point P.
Then the current density (J) is given as:
J = I / a cos
Current density is defined near any point is defined as the amount of electric current flowing
perpendicularly to the unit cross-sectional area near that point.
The current density can also be expressed as:
J=Nqu
Since the current is given by:
I = Q/t = N q u an s = N q u s
Where:
N is the number of charge carries per unit.
q is the charge each one carries.
u is the velocity the charges has when they move across the surface s, which has a unit
normalan.
t is the time variation.
Since N q = , the current density can also be expressed as:
J=u
Example: Match the following properties:
(A)
Electric current
Current density
Current electricity
Electric charge
(B)
Branch of electricity that studies electric current
neither created nor destroyed
Electric charge flowing in a unit time
Motion of electric charges
Electric current Motion of electric charges
Current density Electric charge flowing in a unit time
Current electricity Branch of electricity that studies electric current
Electric charge neither created nor destroyed

Conductor in Static Electric Field

Introduction:
Conductor is a substance or object that allows electricity to flow through it with low
resistance. Conductor implies that the outer electrons of the atoms are loosely bound and
free to move through the material. Conductivity of conductors is between semiconductors and
superconductors. Under static conditions the E field on the conductor surface is always
perpendicular to the surface.

Under Static Electric Field:

Assume that some positive (or negative) charges are introduced in the interior of a conductor.
An electric field will be set up in the conductor; the field exerts a force on the charges and
makes them move away from one another. This movement will continue until all the charges
reach the conductor surface and redistribute themselves in such a way that both the charge
and the field inside vanish.

Since E field can be expressed as:

E = -V, if E= 0, the integral of V must be a constant, thus for E = 0, the voltage must be the
same everywhere in the conductor.
If we put a conductor in a static electric field in the beginning the electric field will penetrate
inside the material. As time passes the free electrons in the conductor will move in the
opposite direction of the electric field and the holes will move in the same direction with the
electric field which causes the positive charges and negative charges being collected on
opposite sides of the material creating a field opposing the static electric field and a current
density in the same direction with the electrostatic field. We can investigate the current
density formula and the below graph for a better understanding of these situations.

In part (1) the electric field is penetrating through the material causing a current density in
the same direction.

In part (2) as a result of the current in the material there happens to be an electric field
opposing the external electric field so now only part of the external electric field is
penetrating and the magnitude of the current density got smaller (can be seen by looking at
the formula). The electric field inside the material is still in the + x direction with a
magnitude equal to E - Ei.

In part (3) the same action continues as in part (2) and J gets smaller and Ei gets bigger. As a
result the electric field penetrating through the material got even smaller than part (2).

In part (4) E = Ei which means there is no more electric field in the material and the current
density is zero. We can see that the negative charges are collected on the left side and positive
charges on the right that creates a potential difference and the electric field Ei. We have to
remember that and electric field is from positive to negative, the external electric field
attracted the electrons to its source and repelled the protons away from its source.
The charge distribution on the material depends on the shape of the material and there will
never be tangential component of electric field on the surface because it would cause the
charges on the surface to move. That means under static conditions the E field on a conductor
surface is everywhere normal to the surface which makes its surface an equipotential surface.

In the above picture there is another conductor and in static condition E equals Ein so that the
net electric field inside the material is zero.
Ein is the electric field created by the charges inside the material and if we take the external
electric field (E) away the charges will redistribute inside the material making the internal
electric field zero again. The redistribution process takes a certain amount of finite time
depending on the conductivity of the material.

Example (1): Under static conditions, what will be the electric field and charge in a
conductor?
Solution:
Under static conditions, both the electric current and the charge in a conductor
will be zero.

Example (2): Under static conditions, what will be the normal and the tangential component
of the electric field is equal to on the surface of a conductor?

Solution: Under static conditions, the tangential component of the electric field is always
zero on the surface and the normal component is equal to surface charge density on the
conductor divided by the permittivity of space.
Example (3): Where do most static electric charges collect?
(a)In a copper wire
(b)On the surface of a non-conductor
(c)In a spark
Answer :(b)
Example (4): Which of the following will usually create static electricity?

(a)Rub a wet rag on a plastic comb

(b)Rub a coin with a plastic comb
(c)Rub a plastic comb with some rabbit fur
Answer :( c)
Example (5): What can cause electrons to jump across a gap and cause a spark?
(a)The force from a large positive charge on the other side of the gap
(b)Lightning causes many things to happen
(c)Heating up the gap
Answer :( a)

Electrical Capacitance in an Electronic Circuit

To determine the total electrical capacitance in an electronic circuit the following formulas
can be used depends on how the circuit is connected.
In a series connection circuit the relationship between the total electrical capacitance, voltage
and the total electrical charge is given by:
V = Q/C = Q/C1 + Q/C2 + ... + Q/Cn
thus
1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + ... + 1/Cn
In a parallel connection circuit the total electrical capacitance is given by:
C = C1 + C2 + ... + Cn
and for the total electrical charge:
Q = Q1 + Q2 + ... + Qn