CHAPTER 2

Transportation
Systems
And
Organizations

CHAPTER 2: Transportation Systems and Organizations

The transportation system in a developed nation is an

aggregation of vehicles, guide ways, terminal facilities and control
systems that move freight and passengers. These systems are usually
operated according to established procedures and schedules in the
air, land and on water. Every day decisions affect the existing
transportation systems.

CHAPTER 2: Transportation Systems and Organizations

MODES
OF
TRASPORTATION

travel time
frequency
comfort
reliability
convenience
safety

CHAPTER 2: Transportation Systems and Organizations

ADVANTAGES &
COMPLEMENTARY
OF MODES

CHAPTER 2: Transportation Systems and Organizations

Interaction of supply
and demand

CHAPTER 2: Transportation Systems and Organizations

Relationship between
transpo demand and
cost

CHAPTER 2: Transportation Systems and Organizations

Relationship between
transpo supply and
cost

CHAPTER 2: Transportation Systems and Organizations

Freight and passenger

traffic
Freight often carries goods and supplies for certain
activities of a certain community If freights are delayed
then arrival of goods are affected also.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING: CHAPTER 2

PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION is a generic term used to describe any and

all family of transit services available to urban & rural areas. Thus, it is
not a single mode but a variety of traditional and innovative services,
which should complement each other to provide system wide
mobility. Modes included within the realm of public transportation are:
Mass Transit. Characterized by fixed routes , published schedules
and vehicles such as buses and light rail or rapid transit, that
travel designated routes with designated stops.

Paratransit. Characterized by more flexible and personalized

service than conventional fixed routes, fixed schedules services,
available to the public on demand, by subscription or on a
shared ride basis
Ridesharing. Characterized by two or more persons traveling
together by prearrangement. Example: shared ride taxi.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING: CHAPTER 2

Public transportation is an important element of the total

transportation services provided within large and small metropolitan
areas. A major advantage of public transportation is that it can
provide high capacity, energy efficient movement in densely
travelled corridors. It also serves medium and low areas by offering an
option for auto owners who do not wish to drive, and an essential
service to those without the access to an automobile-examples:
students, senior citizens, single-auto families, and others who may be
economically or physically disadvantaged.
Industry involvement in public transportation is implemented
through several national organizations; collectively they can help key
areas of concern, including funding, cost-effectiveness and
productivity, public- private cooperation, coordination, community
relations, urban planning and development.
AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

FTA: Federal Transit Administration

FHWA: Federal Highway Administration.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING: CHAPTER 2

The future of public transportation is expected to include the

following elements:
1. As the population increases, the need for public transportation
should increase, but mobility will not be as great as desired due to
cost of providing the service.
2. Less federal funding will be available, placing a greater burden on
state, local and private sources.
3. Increased involvement in the private sector should result in greater
management flexibility as well as cost containment.
Though little in the way of new technology is expected, system
innovations are likely. Increased involvement in public transportation
at all levels should result in more effective support from state and local
governments.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING: CHAPTER 2

INTERCITY BUS TRANSPORTATION

In spite of its positive characteristics of safety and high energyefficiency, bus travel is generally viewed unfavorable by the
commuters. Buses are slower and less convenient than other modes of
transportation and often terminate in downtown stations that are
located in the less attractive parts of the city. Other factors such as
thorough ticketing , comfortable seats, and system wide information,
which the riding public is accustomed to receiving when travelling by
air, reinforce all negative image of intercity bus transportation.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING: CHAPTER 2

TRANSPORTATION ORGANIZATIONS
1. Private companies that are for hire to transport people and goods
2. Regulatory agencies that monitor the behavior of transportation
companies in areas such as pricing of services and safety.
3. Local agencies and authorities that are responsible for the
planning, design, construction and maintenance of transportation
facilities such as roads and airports.
4. Trade associations which represents interests of a particular
transportation activity, such as railroads or intercity buses, and
which serve these groups by furnishing data and information, by
furnishing a means for discussing mutual concerns.
5. Professional organizations composed of individuals who may be
employed by any of the transportation organizations but who
have a common professional bond and benefit from meeting with
colleagues at national conventions or in specialized committees
to share the results of their work, learn about the experiences of
others, and advance the profession through specialized
committee activities.
6. Organizations of transportation users who wish to influence the
legislative process and furnish its members with useful information.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING: CHAPTER 2

PRIVATE TRANSPORTATION COMPANIES

Transportation by water, air, railway, highway, or pipeline is
furnished either privately or for hire basis. Private transportation, such
as automobiles or company-owned trucks must conform only to
safety and traffic regulations.
For-Hire Transportation Companies are classified as:
1. Common Carriers : available to any user
2. Contract Carriers : available by contract to particular
market segments
3. Exempt : for hire carriers that are exempt from regulation

CHAPTER 3
Characteristics of the
Driver, the Pedestrian,
the Vehicle and the Road
The highway & traffic engineer must understand
not only the basic characteristics of the driver, the
pedestrian, the vehicle and the roadway but how
each interacts with each other. Information obtained
through traffic engineering studies serves to identify
relevant characteristics & define related problems.
Traffic flow is of fundamental importance developing
and designing strategies for intersection control, rural
highways, and freeway segments.

The four main components of the highway mode of

transportation are the following:
1. DRIVER
2. PEDESTRIAN
3. VEHICLE
4. ROADWAY
To provide efficient and safe transportation a knowledge of
the characteristics and the limitations of each of these four
components is essential. Their characteristics are also of primary
importance when traffic measuring devices are to be used in the
highway mode.

DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS
One problem that faces traffic and transportation engineers
when they consider driver characteristics in the design is the varying
skills and perceptual abilities. This is demonstrated by the wide range
of peoples skills or abilities to hear, see, evaluate and react to
information.
There are a number of factors that could affect the
performance of a driver in the highway but among them, the
following are the most prominent:
AGE
INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL
FATIGUE
TIME OF DAY

DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS
THE HUMAN RESPONSE PROCESS
VISUAL RECEPTION
Receipt of stimuli by the eye (driver & pedestrian)
Knowledge of human vision will therefore aid in solving several
problems in traffic engineering
Principal characteristics of the eye include:
VISUAL ACUITY
PERIPHERAL VISION
COLOR VISION
GLARE VISION
GLARE RECOVERY

Visual Acuity
Ability to see fine details of an object

Classified into 2 types:

highway emergencies)

(these types are important in traffic and

Static Visual Acuity. The drivers ability to identify an object

when both the object and the driver are stationary. Factors that
affect Static Visual Acuity are:
o Background brightness
o Contrast
o Time
Static Visual Acuity increases with an increase in illumination
up to a background brightness of about 3 candles per sq. ft.
and then remains constant even with an increase in
illumination. When other visual factors are held constant at an
acceptable level, the optimal time required for identification
of a stationary object is between 0.5 - 1.0 sec.

Visual Acuity
Ability to see fine details of an object

Classified into 2 types:

(these types are important in traffic and

highway emergencies)

Dynamic Visual Acuity.

o Ability to clearly detect relatively moving objects, not
necessarily in his/her direct line of vision
o Most people have a clear vision within a conical range of
3 to 5
o Fairly clear vision of within a conical range of 10 to 12.
o Vision beyond this range is blurred.

Peripheral Vision
Ability to see beyond the cones of clearest vision.
Cone for peripheral vision could be one subtending to 160 which is
greatly affected by the speed of the vehicle.
Age affects peripheral vision.

Color Vision
Ability to differentiate one color from another.
Combinations of black, white and yellow have been shown to be
those to which the eyes is most sensitive.

Depth Perception
ability of a person to estimate speed and distance.
to compensate transportation authorities standardize the size,
shapes, and color of traffic and road signs
this ability varies from one individual to another

HEARING
PERCEPTION

PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS
o VISUAL CHARACTERISTICS
o HEARING CHARACTERISTICS
o WALKING CHARACTERISTICS
walking speeds vary roughly from 3 - 8 ft/s
significant differences have also been observed between male
and female walking speeds
at intersections, the average walking speed of males is 4.93 ft/s
and 4.63 ft/s for females.
however, for design purposes a conservative value is necessary,
the MUTCD (Manual on uniform Traffic Control Devices)
suggests the use of 4.0 ft/s for design
disabilities are also considered in the design of pedestrian
control devices.

perception reaction
process
the process through which
a driver or pedestrian
evaluates and reacts to a
stimulus.

commonly known as PIEV time

PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS
1. PERCEPTION. the driver sees a control device, warning sign or
object on the road
2. IDENTIFICATION. the driver identifies the object or stimulus
3. EMOTION. the driver identifies what action to take in response of

the stimulus
4. REACTION or VOLITION. the driver executes the action decided
(sometimes during the emotion process)

vehicle
characteristics
criteria for geometric design of
highways are partly based on
vehicle characteristics

VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
o

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS

weight and size of the vehicle

motion of the vehicle (speed and acceleration)

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Dynamic Characteristics
Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion: air
resistance, grade resistance, rolling resistance, curve
resistance, and friction resistance. The extents to
which these forces affect the operation of the vehicle
are discussed in this section.

Air Resistance
A vehicle in motion has to overcome the resistance of
the air in front of it as well as the force due to the
frictional action of the air around it. The force required
to overcome these is known as the air resistance and
is related to the cross sectional area of the vehicle in
a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion
and to the speed of the vehicle.

Air Resistance
2

(2.15 )
Ra = 0.5

Where:
Ra = air resistance force (lb)
p = density of air (0.00238 lb/ft3) at sea level; less at higher
elevation
CD = aerodynamic drag coefficient (current average value for
passenger cars is 0.4; for trucks this value ranges from 0.5 to 0.8,
but a typical value is 0.5
A = frontal cross sectional area, (ft2)
u = vehicle speed, (mph)
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)

Grade Resistance
When a vehicle moves up a grade, component of
the weight of the vehicle acts downward, along the
plane of the highway. This creates a force acting on
the direction opposite that of the motion. This force is
the grade resistance. A vehicle traveling up a grade
will therefore tend to lose speed unless accelerating
force is applied. The speed achieved at any point
along the grade of a given rate of acceleration will
depend on the grade percentage.

Rolling Resistance
There are forces within the vehicle itself that offer
resistance to motion. These forces are due mainly to
frictional effect on moving parts of the vehicle, but
they also include the frictional slip between the
pavement surface and the tires. The sum effect of
these forces on motion is known as rolling resistance.
The rolling resistance depends on the speed of the
vehicle and the type of pavement. Rolling forces are
relatively lower on smooth pavements than on rough
pavements.

Rolling Resistance
FOR PASSENGER CARS

Rr = (Crs + 2.15Crvu2)W
Where:
Rr = rolling resistance force (lb)
Crs = constant (typically 0.012 for passenger cars)
Crv = constant (0.65x10-6 sec2/ft2 for passenger cars)
u = vehicle speed, (mph)
W = gross vehicle weight (lb)

Rolling Resistance
FOR TRUCKS

Rr = (Ca + 1.47Cbu)W
Where:
Rr = rolling resistance force (lb)
Ca = constant (typically 0.2445 for trucks)
Cb = constant (0.00044 sec/ft for trucks)
u = vehicle speed, (mph)
W = gross vehicle weight (lb)
The surface condition of the pavement has a
significant effect on the rolling resistance.

Curve Resistance
When a vehicle is maneuvered to take a curve,
external forces act on the front wheels of the vehicle.
These forces have components that have a retarding
effect on the forward motion of the vehicle. The sum
effect of these components constitutes the curve
resistance. This resistance depends on the radius of
the curve, the gross weight of the vehicle, and the
velocity at which the vehicle is moving.

Curve Resistance
2

(2.15 )
Rc = 0.5

Where:
Rc = curve resistance force (lb)
u = vehicle speed, (mph)
W = gross vehicle weight (lb)
g = acceleration of gravity ( 32.2 ft/sec2)
R = Radius of curvature, (ft)

Power Requirements
Power is the rate at which work is done. It is usually
expressed in horsepower where 1HP = 550 lb-ft/sec. The
performance capability of a vehicle is measured in terms of
the horsepower the engine can produce to overcome air,
grade, curve and friction forces and put the vehicle in
motion.

.
P=

Where:
P = horsepower delivered, HP
u = vehicle speed, (mph)
R = sum of resistance to motion, pounds (lb)

fin

The time traveled by a vehicle between the time the

driver observes an object in the vehicles path & the time
the vehicle actually comes to a stop is longer than the
braking distance, since it includes the distance traveled
during perception-reaction time. This distance referred to
is the Stopping distance S

S =1.47ut 30()

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2

A student trying to test the braking ability of his car,

determined that he needed 32ft more to stop his car
when driving downhill on a particular road than when
driving uphill at 55mph. Assuming the coefficient of friction
between the tires and the pavement is 0.30, determine
the braking distance downhill and the percentage grade
of the highway at that section of the road.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3

A motorists traveling at 55mph on an expressway intends

to leave the expressway using an exit ramp with an
allowable speed of 30mph. At what point on the
expressway should the motorist step on her brakes in
order to reduce her speed to the maximum allowable on
the ramp just before entering the ramp? Assume that the
coefficient of friction between the tires & the pavement is
0.3 and that the alignment of this section of the road is
horizontal.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4

A motorists traveling at 55mph down a grade of 5% on a

highway observes an accident ahead of him. If the
motorist was able to stop his vehicle 30ft from the
accident site, what was the distance from the accident
when he saw the accident. Assume perception-reaction
time to be 2.5 sec and f=0.3.

Estimating Velocities
It is sometimes necessary to estimate the speed of a
vehicle just before it is involved in an accident. This may
be done by using the braking distance equations if skid
marks can be seen on the pavement.
1. Measure the length of the skid marks for each tire and
determine the average. This value is assumed to be the
braking distance of the vehicle.
2. Determine the coefficient of friction fk by performing
trial runs at the site under similar conditions. This involves
using almost identical vehicles at known speeds uk and
measuring the distance traveled Dk
3. Find the velocity uu using the obtained coefficient of
friction in step 2

Estimating Velocities
2

fk = 30
However if the speed of the vehicle upon impact is known
it can simply be expressed as:

uu =

2
2
( +1

)^1/2

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5

In an attempt to estimate the speed of the vehicle just

before it hits a traffic signal pole, a traffic engineer
measured the length of the skid marks made by the
vehicle and performed trial runs at the site to obtain an
estimate of the coefficient of friction.
Length of skids: 585ft, 590ft, 580ft and 595ft
Speed of trial run by traffic engineer: 30mph
Distance traveled during trial runs: 300ft
Speed of the vehicle on impact is found at 45mph

Turning Radii
When a vehicle is moving around a circular curve, two
main forces in the radii direction are on it; an OUTWARD
RADIAL FORCE (centrifugal) and an INWARD RADIAL
FORCE. The inward force is due to the friction between the
tires and the roadway.

Turning Radii

Centrifugal Force

Fc =

Where:
ac = acceleration due to
curvilinear motion
ac = u2
R
u = speed of the vehicle
R = radius of the curve
W = weight of the vehicle
g = acceleration of gravity

Centrifugal Force
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A 1000lb car traveling at 55mph approaches a curved portion of the
highway. Determine centrifugal force that the car will experience if the
radius of the curve is 210ft.

Fc =

Fc =

ac =

1000 [(80.67)(0.911)]2
(210)(32.2)

Fc = 371.594 lbs.

Fc =

Minimum Radius of a Highway Curve

An existing horizontal curve on a highway has a radius of 268 ft. which
restricts the speed on this section of the road to only 60% of the design
speed of the highway. If the curve is to be improved so that its
maximum speed will be the design speed of the highway, determine the
minimum radius of the new curve. Assume that the coefficient of side
friction is 0.15 for the existing curve and that the rate of super elevation
is 0.08 for both the existing curve and the new curve to be designed.
SOLUTION:
Solve the maximum permissible speed on the existing curve.

R=

2
(+)

268

2
32.2(0.08+0.15)

Determine the design speed of the highway.

let x be the DSHighway
60%DSHighway =30.307 mph
DSHighway = 50.512 mph

; = 44.551 fps
= 30.307 mph

R=

2
(+)

(50.5121.47)2
= 32.2(0.08+0.14)
=744.458 ft