CHAPTER 5: THE SKELETAL

SYSTEM

Classification of Bones

206 bones
Compact bone dense, looks
smooth and homogeneous
Spongy bone composed of small
needle-like pieces of bone and lots
of open space

SHAPES:
Long bones
longer than they are wide, shaft
with heads at both ends, compact
bone
ex: all the bones of the limbs
except the patella (kneecap) and
the wrist and ankle bones
Short bones
cube-shaped and contain mostly
spongy bone
ex: bones of the wrist and ankle,
sesamoid bones form within the
tendons, patella
Flat bones
thin, flattened, curved
two thin layers of compact bone
sandwiching a layer of spongy
bone between them
ex: skull, ribs, sternum (breast
bone)
Irregular bones
ex: vertebrae (make up the spinal
column) and the hip bones

Structure of a Long Bone

Gross Anatomy
Diaphysis shaft, makes up most
of the bones length, composed of
compact bone
Periosteum fibrous connective
tissue membrane that covers and
protects the diaphysis
Perforating/Sharpeys fibers
secure periosteum to the
underlying bone

Epiphyses ends of the long

bone; each consists of a thin layer
of compact bone enclosing an area
filled with spongy bone
Articular cartilage covers
external surface of epiphyses;
glassy hyaline cartilage; provides a
smooth surface that decreases
friction at joint surfaces
Epiphyseal line thin line of bony
tissue spanning the epiphysis that
looks a bit different from other
bones (In adults)
Epiphyseal plate flat plate of
hyaline cartilage; seen in a young,
growing bone; cause the
lengthwise growth of a long bone
By the end of puberty, when
hormones inhibit a long bone
growth, epiphyseal plates have
been completely replaced by bone
leaving epiphyseal lines to mark
their previous location.
Yellow marrow/Medullary cavity
cavity of shaft, primarily a
storage area for adipose tissue
(adults)
Red Marrow cavity of shaft that
forms blood cells (infants).
Confined to cavities in the spongy
bone of flat bones and the
epiphyses of some long bones
(adults)
Bone markings reveal where
muscles, tendons, and ligaments
were attached and where blood
vessels and nerves passed
2 CATEGORIES: Projections (grow
out from the bone surface) and
Depressions (indentations in the
bone; all the terms beginning with
T are projections, F are depressions
except facet

Microscopic Anatomy
Spongy bone has a spiky, open
appearance. Compact bone
appears to be very dense.

Compact bone is riddles with

passageways carrying nerves,
blood vessels, and the like, which
provide the living bone cells with
nutrients and a route for waste
disposal
Osteocytes mature bone cells
found within the matrix in tiny
cavities called lacunae arranged in
concentric circles called lamellae
around central (Haversian)
canals
Osteon or Haversian system
complex consisting of central canal
and matrix rings
Central canals run lengthwise
through the bony matrix, carrying
blood vessels and nerves to all
areas of the bone
Canaliculi tiny canals that
radiate outward from the central
canals to all lacunae; form a
transportation system that
connects all the bone cells to the
nutrient supply through the hard
bone matrix
The communication pathway from
the outside of the bone to its
interior is completed by
perforating (Volkmanns) canals
which run into the compact bone at
right angles to the shaft.
Bone has the ability to resist
tension and other forces acting on
it. Calcium salts give bone its
hardiness, which resists
compression
The organic parts (collagen and
fibers) provide for bones flexibility
and great tensile strength

Bone formation, growth,

remodeling

The skeleton is formed from two of

the strongest and most supportive
tissues in the body cartilage and
bone

Cartilage remains only in isolated

areas (bridge of the nose, parts of
the ribs, joints)
Ossification bone formation.
MAJOR PHASES:

- first, the hyaline cartilage model

is completely covered with bone
matrix by bone-forming cells
called osteoblasts.
- the enclosed hyaline cartilage
model
is
digested
away,
opening up a medullary cavity
within the newly formed bone
- by birth or shortly after, most
hyaline cartilage models have
been converted to bone except
articular cartilages and the
epiphyseal plates
- old
cartilage
abutting
the
internal face of the articular
cartilage and the medullary
cavity is broken down and
replaced by bony matrix
- osteoblasts widen
add bone
tissue to the external face of
the diaphysis as osteoclasts in
the endosteum remove bone
from inner face of the diaphysis
wall; thus the circumference of
the long bone expands and the
bone
widens
(appositional
growth)
- process of long-bone growth is
controlled by growth hormone
and sex hormones.

bone is a dynamic and active

tissue; remodeled continually in
response to changes in two factors:
(1) calcium levels in the blood and
(2) pull of gravity and muscles on
the skeleton
PTH activates osteoclasts giant
bone-destroying cells in the bones
that break down bone matrix and
release calcium ions into the blood
When blood calcium levels are too
high (hypercalcemia), calcium is

deposited in bone matrix as hard

calcium salts
Bone remodeling essential if
bones are to retain normal
proportions and strength during
long-bone growth as the body
increases in size and weight
Bones of bedridden or physically
inactive people tend to lose mass
and to atrophy because they are no
longer subjected to stress
PTH determines when bone is to be
broken down or formed in response
to the need for more or fewer
calcium ions in the blood
Stresses of muscle pull and gravity
acting on skeleton determine
where bone matrix is to be broken
down or formed so that the
skeleton can remain as strong and
vital as possible
Reduction realignment of the
broken bone ends. Closed
reduction bone ends are coaxed
back into their normal position by
the physicians hands. Open
Reduction Surgery is performed
and the bone ends are secured
together with pins or wires then
immobilized by a cast to allow the
healing process to begin
4 MAJOR EVENTS IN REPAIR OF
FRACTURES
1. A hematoma forms blood
vessels are ruptured.
Hematoma blood-filled
swelling. Bone cells deprived
of nutrition die.
2. The break is splinted by a
fibrocartilage callus an
early event of tissue repair is
the growth of new capillaries
into the clotted blood at the
site of the damage and
disposal of dead tissue by
phagocytes. Connective
tissue calls of various types
form a mass of repair tissue
(fibrocartilage callus) that

contains some cartilage

matrix, some bony matrix,
and collagen fibers and acts
to splint the broken bone,
closing the gap.
3. The bony callus forms
fibrocartilage callus is
gradually replace by one
made of spongy bone, the
bony callus
4. Bone remodeling occurs
Bony callus is remodeled in
response to the mechanical
stresses placed on it to form
a strong permanent patch
at the fracture site

Skull

Formed by 2 sets of bones =

cranium (encloses and protects
the fragile brain tissue) and facial
bones (hold the eyes in an anterior
position and allow the facial
muscles to show our feelings
through smiles or frowns)

Cranium
Boxlike, composed of 8 large flat
bones (2 paired bones = parietal
and temporal)
1. Frontal bone
- forms the forehead, the bony
projections under the eyebrows,
superior part of each eyes orbit
2. Parietal bones
- form most of the superior and
lateral walls of the cranium
- meet in the midline of the skull
at the sagittal suture and
form the coronal suture,
where they meet the frontal
bone
3. Temporal bones

lie inferior to the parietal bones;

they join them at the
squamous sutures.
Bone markings:
External acoustic meatus
canal that leads to the
eardrum and the middle ear;
route where sound enters
the ear
Styloid process sharp,
needle-like projection;
inferior to the external
auditory meatus; neck
muscles use this as an
attachment point
Zygomatic process tiny
bridge that joins with the
cheek bone anteriorly
Mastoid process full of
air cavities, rough projection
posterior and inferior to the
external acoustic meatus.
Provides an attachment site
for some muscles of the
neck; mastoiditis Mastoid
sinuses are near the middle
ear and the brain that may
become infected
Jugular foramen allows
passage of the jugular vein
(largest vein of the head)
which drains the brain.
(internal acoustic meatus
anterior to it in the cranial
cavity which transmits CN
7&8. Carotid canal
anterior to it on the skulls
inferior aspect through which
the internal carotid artery
runs, supplying blood to
brain)

4. Occipital bone
- most posterior bone of the
cranium; forms the floor and
back wall of the skull; joins the
parietal bones anteriorly at the
lambdoid suture. Foramen
magnum base of occipital
bone, large opening; surrounds

the lower part of the brain and

allows the spinal cord to
connect with the brain.
Occipital condyles lateral to
foramen magnum on each side,
rockerlike; rest on the first
vertebra of the spinal column
5. Sphenoid bone
- Butterfly-shaped; spans the
width of the skull and forms part
of the floor of the cranial
activity
- sella turcica (Turks saddle)
forms a snug enclosure for the
pituitary gland
- Foramen ovale large oval
opening in line with the
posterior end of the sella turcica
that allows fibers of CN5 to pass
to the chewing muscles of the
lower jaw
- 2 openings: optic canal (allows
the optic nerve to pass to the
eye) and superior orbital
fissure (CN 3,4,6 controlling
eye movements pass)
- Sphenoid sinuses central
part, riddled with air cavities
6. Ethmoid bone
- irregularly shaped and lies
anterior to sphenoid; forms the
roof of nasal cavity and part of
the medial walls of the orbits
- crista galli superior surface,
cocks comb; the outermost
covering of the brain attaches
to this projection; cribriform
plates each side of the crista
galli are these many small
holes; allow nerve fibers
carrying impulses from the
olfactory receptors to reach the
brain
- Superior and middle nasal
conchae extensions; form
part of the lateral walls of the
nasal cavity; increase the

turbulence of air flowing

through nasal passages
Facial Bones
14 bones compose the face (12
paired; mandible and vomer are
single)
1. Maxillae

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

The 2 maxillary bones fuse

to form the upper jaw,
keystone bones of the face
- All facial bones, except the
mandible, join the maxillae
- Carry the upper teeth in the
alveolar margin
- Palatine process:
extensions of the maxillae
that form the anterior part of
the hard palate of the mouth
- Contain sinuses which drain
into the nasal passages;
these paranasal sinuses
lighten the skull bones and
amplify the sounds we make
as we speak
Palatine bones
- Lie posterior to the palatine
processes of the maxillae
- Cleft palate: faiure of
palatine bones/processes to
fuse medially
Zygomatic bones
- Cheekbones; good-sized
portion of the lateral walls of
the orbits
Lacrimal bones
- Fingernail-sized bones
forming part of the medial
walls of each orbit
- Each lacrimal has a groove
that serves as a passageway
for tears
Nasal bones
- Small rectangular bones
forming the bridge of the
nose are the nasal
Vomer bone
- Single bone in the median
line of the nasal cavity

Vomer = plow; the bones

shape
- Forms most of the bony
nasal septum
7. Inferior nasal conchae
- Thin, curved bones
projecting medially from the
lateral walls of the nasal
cavity
8. Mandible
- Lower jaw; largest and
strongest bone of the face
- Joins the temporal bones on
each side of the face,
forming the only freely
movable joints in the skull
- Horizontal part of the
mandible (body) forms the
chin; two upright bars of
bone (rami) extend from the
body to connect the
mandible with the temporal
bone; the lower teeth lie in
the alveoli (sockets) in the
alveolar margin at the
superior edge of the
mandibular body
The Hyoid Bone
Closely related to the mandible and
temporal bones; the only bone of
the body that does not articulate
directly with any other bone
Suspended in the midneck region
about 2cm above the larynx
Horseshoe-shaped, with a body and
two pairs of horns (cornua), the
hyoid bone serves as a movable
base for the tongue and as an
attachment point for neck muscles
that raise and lower the larynx
when we swallow and speak
Fetal Skull
Adults skull represents only oneeighth of the total body length,
whereas that of a newborn infant is
one-fourth as long as its entire
body

When a baby is born, its skeleton is

still unfinished
Fontanels fibrous membranes
connecting the cranial bones
Rhythm of babys pulse can be felt
in these soft spots
The largest fontanel is the diamond
shaped anterior fontanel; The
fontanels allow the fetal skull to be
compressed slightly during birth.
Because they are flexible, they
allow the infants brain to grow
during the later part of the
pregnancy and early infancy
Fontanels are gradually turned into
bone during early part of infancy;
can no longer be felt by 22-24
months after birth

Vertebral Column

Spine; Axial support of the body;

extends from the skull, which it
supports, to the pelvis, where it
transmits weight of the body to the
lower limbs
26 irregular bones connected and
reinforced by ligaments in such a
way that a flexible, curved
structure results
Before birth: 33 separate bones
called vertebrae; 9 of these
eventually fuse to form the two
composite bones (sacrum and
coccyx); of the 24 single bones, the
7 vertebrae of the neck are
cervical vertebrae, the next 12 are
the thoracic vertebrae, and the
remaining 5 supporting the lower
back are lumbar vertebrae
Individual vertebrae are separated
by pads of flexible fibrocartilage
intervertebral discs that
cushion the vertebrae and absorb
shocks while allowing the spine
flexibility
In a young person, the discs have
high water content and are spongy
and compressible. As a person
ages, the water content of the

discs decreases and becomes

harder and less compressible
The discs and the S-shaped
structure of the vertebral column
work together to prevent shock to
the head when we walk or run and
make the body trunk flexible
Primary curvatures spinal
curvatures in the thoracic and
sacral region; present when we are
born; the 2 primary curvatures
produce the C-shaped spine of the
newborn baby
Secondary curvatures
curvatures in the cervical and
lumbar regions; develop some time
after birth. In adults, this allows us
to center our body weight on our
lower limbs with minimum effort;
The cervical curvature appears
when a baby begins to raise its
head, and lumbar curvature
develops when the baby begins to
walk
Common features of vertebrae:
- Body/Centrum: disclike,
weight-bearing part of the
vertebra facing anteriorly in
the vertebral column
- Vertebral arch: formed
from the joining of all
posterior extensions
(laminae and pedicles)
from the vertebral body
- Vertebral foramen: canal
where spinal cord passes
- Transverse Processes: two
lateral projections from
vertebral arch
- Spinous process: single
projection arising from the
posterior aspect of vertebral
arch (fused laminae)
- Superior & inferior
articular processes: paired
projections lateral to the
vertebral foramen; allow
vertebra to form joints with
adjacent vertebrae

Cervical Vertebrae (7)

Form the neck region of the spine
First two: atlas and axis; different
because they perform functions not
shared by other cervical vertebrae
Atlas no body; superior surfaces
of its transverse processes contain
large depressions that receive
occipital condyles of the skull; nod
yes
Axis pivot for the rotation of
atlas; has a large upright process
(dens) that acts as a pivot point;
rotate head from side to side, no
Smallest, lightest vertebrae;
spinous processes are short and
divided into two branches
Transverse processes of cervical
vertebrae contain foramina where
vertebral arteries pass on their way
to the brain above

Thoracic Vertebrae (12)

Larger than cervical vertebrae;
only vertebrae to articulate with
the ribs
Body is heart-shaped and has 2
costal facets on each side (receive
head of ribs)
The two transverse processes of
each thoracic vertebra articulate
with the nearby knoblike tubercles
of the ribs
Spinous process: long and hooks
sharply downward

Lumbar Vertebrae (5)

Have massive, blocklike bodies
Spinous processes: hatchet-shaped
Sturdiest of the vertebrae
Sacrum
Formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae
Superiorly, it articulates with L5,
and inferiorly it connects with the
coccyx

Alae winglike; articulate laterally

with the hip bones forming the
sacroiliac joints
Forms the posterior wall of the
pelvis
Its posterior midline surface is
roughened by the median sacral
crest, the fused spinous processes
of the sacral vertebrae; flanked
laterally by the posterior sacral
foramina
vertebral canal continues inside the
sacrum as the sacral canal and
terminates in a large inferior
opening called sacral hiatus

Coccyx
formed from the fusion of 3-5 tiny,
irregularly shaped vertebrae;
tailbone

Thoracic Cage
Bony thorax; forms a protective,
cone-shaped cage of slender bones
around the organs of the thoracic
cavity (heart, lungs, major blood
vessels)

Sternum
Breastbone; flat bone and the
result of fusion of 3 bones
manubrium, body, xiphoid
process.
Attached to the first 7 pairs of ribs
3 important body landmarks
1. Jugular notch concave upper
border of the manubrium; can
be palpated easily; generally at
the 3rd level of thoracic vertebra
2. Sternal angle results when
the manubrium and body meet
at a slight angle to each other,
so that a transverse ridge is
formed at the level of 2nd ribs;
provides a handy reference
point for counting ribs to locate
the second intercostals space
for listening to certain heart
valves

3. Xiphisternal joint point

where the sterna body and
xiphoid process fuse; lies at the
level of the 9th thoracic vertebra
Sternal puncture needle is
inserted into the marrow of
sternum, and sample is withdrawn

Ribs
12 pairs from the walls of the bony
thorax
True ribs first 7 pairs, attach
directly to sternum by costal
cartilages
False ribs next 5 pairs, either
attach indirectly to sternum or are
not attached to sternum at all
Floating ribs last 2 pairs of false
ribs lack the sternal attachments
Intercostal spaces (spaces between
ribs) are filled with the intercostals
muscles that aid in breathing

Composed of 126 bones of the

limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdles,
which attach the limbs to the axial
skeleton

Bones of the Shoulder

Girdle

Each shoulder/pectoral girdle

consists of 2 bones clavicle and
scapula
Clavicle collarbone; slender,
doubly curved bone; attaches
manubrium of the sternum
medially and the scapula laterally
where it helps form the shoulder
joint; acts as a brace to hold the
arm away from the top of the
thorax and helps prevent shoulder
dislocation
Scapula shoulder blades,
triangular and are commonly called
wings because they flare when
we move our arms posteriorly;

each scapula has a flattened body

and 2 important processes the
acromion (enlarged end of the
spine of the scapula) and the
beaklike coracoid process
Acromion connects with the
clavicle laterally at the
acromioclavicular joint. The
coracoid process points over the
top of the shoulder and anchors
some of the muscles of the arm.
Suprascapular notch medial to
coracoid process, nerve
passageway
Scapula not directly attached to
axial skeleton; loosely held in place
by trunk muscles. 3 borders:
superior, medial, lateral. 3 angles:
superior, inferior, lateral.
Glenoid cavity shallow socket
that receives the head of the arm
bone; lateral angle
Shoulder girdle is very light and
allows the upper limb to have free
movement. Factors:
- Each shoulder girdle
attaches to axial skeleton at
only one point:
Sternoclavicular joint
- Loose attachment of the
scapula allows it to slide
back and forth against
thorax as muscles act
- Glenoid cavity is shallow;
shoulder joint is poorly
reinforced by ligaments
Drawback: shoulder girdle is
easily dislocated

Bones of the Upper Limbs

30 separate bones
Foundations of arm, forearm, hand

Arm
Humerus typical long bone; at its
proximal end is a rounded head
that fits into the shallow glenoid
cavity of the scapula

Anatomical neck slight

constriction inferior to head
Anterolateral to the head are 2
bony projections, greater and
lesser tubercles (sites of muscle
attachment), separated by
intertubecular sulcus
Surgical neck most frequently
fractured part of the humerus,
distal to tubercles
Deltoid tuberosity large, fleshy,
deltoid muscle of the shoulder
attaches; midpoint of shaft; rough
ended
Radial groove runs obliquely
down the posterior aspect of the
shaft; marks the course of radial
nerve
Trochlea distal end of the
humerus is this medial; looks like a
spool, and the lateral ball-like
capitulum. Both articulate with
bones of the forearm
Above the torchlea anteriorly is a
depression called coronoid fossa;
posterior surface is the olecranon
fossa. These 2 depressions flanked
by medial and lateral
epicondyles, allow the processes
of ulna to move freely when the
elbow is bent and extended

Forearm
In anatomical position, radius is
the lateral bone (thumb side of the
forearm)
Styloid process both radius and
ulna
Radial tuberosity tendon of the
biceps muscle attaches
In anatomical position, ulna is the
medial bone (on the little finger
side)
Coronoid process (anterior of
ulna); olecranon process
(posterior of ulna);separated by the
trochlear notch; These 2
processes grip the trochlea of the
humerus in a pliers-like joint

Hand
Carpal bones (8) arranged in 2
irregular rows of 4 bones each;
form the part of the hand called the
carpus (wrist); bound together by
ligaments that restrict movements
between them
Palm of the hand consists of the
metacarpals. Phalanges bones
of the fingers; each hand contains
14 phalanges

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

Pelvic girdle formed by 2 coxal

bones called hip bones
With sacrum and coccyx, the hip
bones form the bony pelvis
Bones are large and heavy,
attached securely in the axial
skeleton; bearing weight is the
most important function of the
girdle
Each hip bone is formed by the
fusion of 3 bones: ilium, ischium,
pubis
Ilium connects posteriorly with
the sacrum at the sacroiliac joint,
is a large flaring bone that form
most of the hip bone
Iliac crest important landmark to
those who give injections; ends
anteriorly in the anterior superior
iliac spine and posteriorly in the
posterior superior iliac spine
Ischium sit-down bone; forms
the most inferior part of the coxal
bone
Ischial tuberosity roughened
area that receives body weight
when you are sitting
Ischial spine superior to the
tuberosity; important landmark for
pregnant women because it
narrows the outlet of the pelvis
through which the baby must pass
during birth

Greater Sciatic notch allows

blood vessels and the large sciatic
nerve to pass from the pelvis
posteriorly into the thigh (keep
away from injection)
Pubis most anterior part of a
coxal bone
Obturator foramen an opening
that allows blood vessels and
nerves to pass into the anterior
part of the thigh; pubic bones of
each hip bone fuse anteriorly to
form a cartilaginous joint, the
pubic symphysis
Acetabulum vinegar cup; deep
socket where the ilim, ischium, and
pubis fuse; receives the head of
thigh bone
Bony pelvis divided into 2 regions:
false pelvis (superior to the true
pelvis, area medial to the flaring
portions of the ilia); true pelvis
(surrounded by bone and lies
inferior to the flaring parts of the
ilia and pelvic brim

Bones of the Lower Limbs

Carry out total body weight when

we are erect
Bones are much thicker than upper
limbs

Thigh
Femur thigh bone; only bone in
the thigh; heaviest and strongest
bone in the body
Its proximal end has a ball-like
head, neck, and greater and
lesser trochanters
These markings and the gluteal
tuberosity, located in the shaft, all
serve as sites for muscle
attachment
Femur slants medially as it runs
downward to join with the leg
bones; brings knees in line with the
bodys center of gravity

Distally on the femur are the

lateral and medial condyles
(articulate with the tibia below);
posteriorly these condyles are
separated ny the deep
intercondylar fossa; anteriorly on
the distal femur is the smooth
patellar surface which forms a
joint with the patella

Leg
Tibia shinbone; larger and more
medial; medial and lateral condyles
articulate with the distal end of the
femur to form the knee joint;
patellar ligament attaches to the
tibial tuberosity (roughened area
on the antereior tibial surface);
medial malleolus forms inner
bulge of the ankl; anterior border
anterior surface of tibia with
sharp ridge, unprotected by
muscles
Fibula lies alongside the tibia
and forms joints; no part in forming
the knee joint; lateral malleolus
distal end of fibula that forms outer
part of ankle
Foot
Tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
2 functions: supports body weight
and serves as a lever that allows us
to propel our bodies forward when
we walk and run
Tarsus forming posterior half of
the foot; composed of 7 tarsal
bones; body weight is carried
mostly by the 2 largest tarsals:
calcaneus (heel bone) and talus
(ankle)
5 metatarsals from the sole, 14
phalanges form the toes
Bones in the foot are arranged to
form 3 strong arches: 2
longitudinal, 1 transverse
Ligaments bind the foot bones
together; tendons help hold bones
firmly in the arches position but

still allow a certain amount of give

or springiness; weak arches are
fallen arches or flat feet

Articulations; 2 functions: hold

bones together and give the rigid
skeleton mobility
Classified in 2 ways: functionally
and structurally
Functional classification focuses on
the amount of movement the join
allows. Synarthroses immovable
joints; amphiarthroses slightly
movable joints; diathroses feely
movable joints
Structurally, there are fibrous,
cartilaginous, synovial joints; based
on whether fibrous tissue,
cartilage, or a joint cavity
separates the bony regions at the
joint

Synovial Joints

Fibrous Joints

Bones are united by fibrous tissue

Ex: sutures of skull
In sutures, the irregular edges of
the bones interlock and are bound
tightly together by connective
tissue fibers, allowing essentially
no movement
Syndesmoses connecting fibers
are longer than those of sutures;
joint has more give; joint
connecting distal ends of the tibia
and fibula

Cartilaginous Joints

Bone ends are connected by

cartilage
Ex: slightly movable; pubic
symphysis of pelvis and
intervertebral joints of spinal
column where articulating bone

surfaces are connected by pads of

fibrocartilage
Hyaline cartilage epiphyseal plates
of growing long bones
Cartilaginous joints between the
first ribs and sternum

Joints in which the articulating bone

ends are separated by a joint
cavity containing synovial fluid;
account for all joints of the limbs
4 distinguishing features:
1. Articular cartilage covers
the ends of bones forming the
joint
2. Fibrous articular capsule
joint surfaces are enclosed by a
sleeve or capsule of fibrous
connective tissue; capsule is
lined with a smooth synovial
membrane
3. Joint cavity articular capsule
encloses a cavity which
contains lubricating synovial
fluid
4. Reinforcing ligaments
fibrous capsule is usually
reinforced with ligaments
Bursae flattened fibrous sacs
lined with synovial membrane and
containing a thin film of synovial
fluid
Tendon Sheath elongated bursa
that wraps completely around a
tendon subjected to friction

Types of Synovial Joints

Based on Shape

Plane joint
- articular surfaces are flat,
short slipping or gliding
movements are allowed
- movements of plane joints
are nonaxial
- Ex: intercarpal joints of wrist

Hinge joint

cylindrical end of one bone

fits into a trough-shaped
surface on another bone
Angular movement is
allowed in just one plane
Ex: elbow joint, ankle joint,
joints between phalanges
Unaxial; allow movement
around one axis only

Pivot joint
- Rounded end of one bone
fits into a sleeve or ring of
bone
- Unaxial joints
- Ex: proximal radioulnar joint
and joint between the atlas
and the dens

Condyloid joint
- knuckle-like; egg shaped
articular surface of one bone
fits into an oval concavity in
another
- Allow the moving bone to
travel from side to side and
back and forth, but bone
cannot rotate around its long
axis
- Movement occurs in 2 axes,
biaxial
- Ex: knuckle joints

Saddle joints
- Each articular surface has
both convex and concave
areas like a saddle
- Biaxial joints; allow the same
movements as condyloid
joints
- Ex: carpometacarpal joints in
the thumb

Ball-and-socket joints
- spherical head of one bone
fits into a round socket in
another
- multiaxial joints; allow
movement in all axes; most
freely moving synovial joints

Ex: Shoulder and hips