METHODS OF

RESEARCH

Course Description
This course provides essential ideas, concepts
and principles in methods of research, as well
as the important skills needed by the
researcher in the various techniques and
procedures in the correct preparation and
presentation of research report. Required
output is project proposal.

Objectives
Show understanding on underlying concepts,
principles and basic methods of research.
Demonstrate skills in utilizing research
process
Apply research process in constructing
thesis/research proposal
Conduct group participatory research and
rapid rural appraisal system
Defend thesis/research proposal

Course Content

Introduction of Research
Research Problems and Objectives
Related Literatures and Studies
Research Methods and Design
Statistical Treatment
Data Processing
Collection of Data
Sampling Design
Data Analysis/Presentation & Interpretation

Course Content
Summary/Conclusion & Recommendation
Bibliography
Research/Thesis Proposal

Introduction to Research
1.1. Definition, Purpose, characteristics,
differences, kinds and classification of Research
Qualities of Good Research
Qualities of Good Researcher
Hindrances of scientific Inquiry,
Major needs and problems/demands of Research
Values of Research to Man
Types of Research
Classification of Research,
The variable
Components of Research Process,
1.2. Qualities of Good Research
Instrument
Validity, Types of validity, reliability,
methods in testing the reliability of research instrument,
usability
determining factors of usability of research

The Research Problem &

Objectives
2.1
The Research Problems, characteristics of
a Research Problem, Sources of Research Problem
The Research Objectives,
Statement of the Problem/Objectives,
Hypothesis, Theoretical and Conceptual
Framework, Assumptions,
Significance of the Study, Scope and Limitation of the
Study
Definition of Terms: Conceptual and Operational

Related Literature & Studies

3.1.Importance of Related Literature and
Studies
3.2, Purpose and Functions of related
studies,
3.3 Characteristics,
3.4. Sources and Where to locate the
sources,
3.5 Related Legal Bases, Related
Literature, Related Studies( Local, Foreign)

Research
Methods/ Research Designs
4.1.Historical Design:
Uses of historical
research, major steps of historical designs,
sources of historical research
4.2.Descriptive Design: Meaning,
characteristic, value, importance and
advantages, techniques, Types of Descriptive
Research : Descriptive- Survey, Descriptivenormative survey, Descriptive-status,
Descriptive
analysis, Descriptive classification,
descriptive-evaluative, descriptivecomparative, correlational survey, longitudinal
survey

4.3. Experimental Design: Meaning, concepts

of
causation,
distinguishing
features,
experimental designs, experimental plan,
Types of Experimental Designs: Single-group
design, Two-group design, two-pair group
design, parallel group design, counterbalanced
or latin square design, complete randomized
design, randomized complete block design,
correlational Design, Pre-test and Post test
design, case study design, Case work, Content
Analysis

Sampling Designs
5.1. Definition,
Purpose, Terminologies,
Principles, advantages
and Disadvantages of
Sampling,
Planning a Sample
Survey,
5.2. Determination of
Sample Size

5.3. Sampling Design:

(A) Scientific Sampling:
Restricted random
sampling, unrestricted
random sampling,
stratified random
sampling, systematic
sampling, multistage sampling,
cluster sampling
(B) Nonscientific sampling:
Purposive Sampling,
Incidental sampling,
Quota sampling

Collection of Data
6.1. Classification of Data According to
Source, Selecting method of
collecting Data,
Research Instruments or
Tools
6.2. The Questionnaire: Definition,
Advantages and Disadvantages,
Construction of Questionnaire,
Types of Questions, Guidelines in
Formulation, Problems in
responses, evidence of misleading
questions, the cover letter,
evaluating the questionnaire,
sample questionnaires

6.3. The Interview: Purpose and

uses of interview,
advantages and
disadvantages, types of
classes of
interviews, interview as
instruments, steps/
pointers, what
to avoid in interview

Data Processing

7.1. Data Processing: Definition

7.2. Data Matrix: Types of matrices
(Univariate matrix, bivariate,multivariate)
7.3. Dummy tables

Statistical Treatment
8.1. Univariate Statistical
Treatment,
Bivariate Statistical Treatment,
Multivariate Statistical
Treatment
8.2. Frequency Distribution and
Graphical Representation
8.3. Descriptive Statistics:
Measures of
Central Tendency, Measures of
Variability, Normal
Distribution of Standard,
Measures of Relative
Variability,
Measures of Kurtosis,
Measures of Skewness

8.4. Inferential Statistics:

Correlation,
Chi-square, z
test means, t-test,
f- test, Kruskal-Wallis Oneway
Analysis of variance
by ranks,
Friedman Twoway analysis of
variance by ranks

Data Analysis, Presentation and

Interpretation of Data
9.1. Data Analysis: Types of Data
Analysis (Univariate
Analysis, Bivariate Analysis,
Multivariate
Analysis, Normative Analysis,
Status Analysis, Descriptive
Analysis, Classification Analysis,
Evaluative Analysis, Comparative
Analysis)

9.2. Presentation of Data:

Textual
presentation, tabular presentation,
Graphical Presentation,
Purpose of Graphing, Advantages and
Limitations of Graphs,
Types of graphs, construction of
Individual Graphs

9.3. Group Derive Generalization

Summary, Conclusions and

Recommendations

10.1. Summary of Findings

10.2. Conclusion and Some dangers to
avoid in drawing up conclusions
10.3. Recommendations

Thesis Proposal
Writing

11.1.
Writing Requirements
11.2.
Content and Structure of Thesis Proposal:
The Problem: Rationale and Background, Review of
Related Literature, Methodology,Materials and methods,
results and discussion, summary, conclusion and
recommendations, Schedule of Activities,
Bibliography, Curriculum Vitae
11.3.
Form and Styles of a Research
Paper, Thesis and Dissertations

Sometimes it falls upon a generation

to be great. You can be that great
generation
Nelson Mandela

What is research?
Research is the manner in which we solve
knotty problems in our attempt to push
back the frontiers of human ignorance.
Research is a way of thinking.

What is research?

Importance of Research
To serve man and a
good life
Discover more facts
about unknown
phenomena
Find answer to the
problems by existing
methods and
information

Discover
unrecognized
substance
Discover pathways of
action
Order related, valid
generalization into
systematized science
Provide basis for
decision making

Importance of Research
Improves efficiency,
To satisfy
efficacy and quality
researchers curiosity
Improves exportations
To find answers to
of goods
queries
Respond to economic
Acquire better and
recovery and austerity
deeper understanding
To expand and verify
existing knowledge

Characteristics of Good Research

EMPIRICAL

Direct experience of
observation

LOGICAL

Valid procedures and

principles

CYCLICAL

Starts with problem and

ends with problem

ANALYTICAL

Utilizes proven analytical

procedures

CRITICAL

Exhibits careful and

precise judgment

METHODICAL

Uses systematic methods

and procedures

REPLICABILITY

Repeated to arrive at valid

and conclusive results

Characteristics of
A Good Researcher
R

esearch Oriented

fficient

cientific

ffective

ctive

esourceful

reative

onest

conomical

eligious

Applications of Research
From the viewpoint of

The service
provider

The administrator
Manager/Planner

How many people

are using the service
or the product?

What are the needs

of the community?

Why do some
people use the
service/product while
others do not?

How effective is the

service product?

What types of
service/product are
needed by the
community?
How many service
providers are
needed?

The consumer

Am I, a consumer,
getting value for
money?
How good are the
service providers?
What are the longterm effects of the
product I am using?

The professional

Which is the most

Effective intervention
for a particular
problem?
What is the relationship between X and
Y?
How valid is a
particular theory in
thepresent theory?

Classification of Research

According to Purpose
1

Illuminative Research

Directive Research

Predictive Research

 Predictive or prognostic research has the

purpose of determining the future operation of
the variables under investigation with the aim
of controlling or redirecting such for the
better.
Directive research determines what should be
done based on the findings.
Illuminative research is concerned with the
components of the variable being
investigated

Classification of Research

According to Goal

Basic or Pure
Research
Applied
Research

 Basic or pure research is done for the

development of theories and principles.
Applied research is the application of the
results of pure research. This is testing the
efficacy of theories and principles.

Classification of Research

According to Levels of
Investigation

Experimental
Descriptive

Exploratory

 In exploratory research, the researcher

studies the variables pertinent to a specific
situation.
In descriptive research, the researcher
studies the relationships of the variables.
In experimental research, the experimenter
studies the effects of the variables on each
other.

Classification of Research

According to Type of Analysis

Holistic
Analytic

 In the analytic approach, the researcher

attempts to identify and isolate the
components of the research situation.
The holistic approach begins with the total
situation, focusing attention on the system
first and then on its internal relationships.

Classification of Research

According to Scope

Action
Research

 This type of research is done on a very

limited scope to solve a particular problem
which is not so big. It is almost problem
solving.

Classification of Research

According to Choice of Answer

1
Developmental

2
Evaluation

 In evaluation research, all possible courses of

action are specified and identified and the
researcher tries to find the most
advantageous.
In development research, the focus is on
finding or developing a more suitable
instrument or process than has been available

Classification of Research

According to Statistical Contents

Quantitative

Non-quantitative

 Quantitative or statistical research is one in

which inferential statistics are utilized to
determine the results if the study. Inferential
statistics such as correlation, chi-square,
analysis of variance, etc. are used to test the
hypothesis.
Non-quantitative research. This is the
research in which the use of quantity or
statistics is practically nil.

Classification of Research

According to Time Element

Descriptive

Experimental

Historical

 Historical research describes what was.

Descriptive research describes what is.
Experimental research describes what will be.

What is a Variable?
are quantities that can be changed by the
experimenter.
Quantity susceptible of fluctuations of change
in value or magnitude under different
conditions. (Calmorin 2007)
a quality or characteristics that two or more
mutually exclusive values or properties
(Sevilla et. Al. 2002)

Types of Variables
This is a stimulus variable
chosen by the researcher to
determine its relationship to
an observe phenomena

Independent
Variable (IV)
This variables intrudes or
interferes with the IV and DV
but its effects can either
reinforce or weaken the IV and
DV

Intervening
Variable

Types
Variable

Dependent
Variable
(DV)

This variable controlled by the

researcher in which the effects
can be neutralized by
eliminating or removing the
variable

Control
Variable

Moderator
Variable

This is a response variable

which is observed and
measured to determine the
effect of the independent
variables.

This is a secondary or special type

of variable chosen by the
researcher to determine if it
influences, alters or modifies the
relationships between the
independent and dependent
variables thus produces an
interaction effect

Mathematics Scores and Number of Hours Study in

Mathematics as Perceived by Students

No. of
Hours

Age, Gender,
Socioeconomic,
attitudes
towards study

No. of
Hours

Categorical Variables
Categorical variables are also known as
discrete or qualitative variables.
Categorical variables can be further
categorized as:
Nominal,
Ordinal,
Interval

Nominal
Nominal variable is one that has two or more
categories, but there is no intrinsic ordering to
the categories.
For example, gender is a categorical variable
having two categories (male and female)
Hair color is also a categorical variable
having a number of categories (blonde,
brown, brunette, red, etc.)

Ordinal
An ordinal variable is similar to nominal
variable the difference is that there is a clear
ordering of the variables.
For example, suppose you have a variable,
economic status, with three categories (low,
medium and high)

Interval
An interval variable is similar to an ordinal
variable, except that the intervals between
the values of the interval variable are equally
spaced.

Stage 1
Define

Stage 2
Plan

Stage 3
Conduct

Stage 4
Analyze

Stage 5
Interpret

Develop
Idea

Define
Variables

Pretest
Experiment

Reduce
Data

Draw
Inferences

Review
Literature

Design
Experiments

Collect
Data

Calculate
Statistics

Generalize
Results

State
Problem

Develop
Hypothesis

Def. Controls
& Apparatus

Estimate
Parameters

Define
Procedures

Test
Hypothesis

Select
Subjects

Report
Experiment

How to Write the Introduction

The introduction should not be long as long as

the following questions are answered:
What was the problem or what is the research all
about?
Why was it necessary to solve the problem or
work on it, or why is the problem/work
important, or why did I do the work?
What were the findings of previous authors who
worked on aspects related to the problem or
what has been done about it before I started the
work?
What did I expect to accomplish(objectives) or
prove (hypothesis)?

Stating the Problem

1.
2.

3.

State the problem clearly

Discuss problem by giving information:
- why it is a problem
- how long it has been a problem
- the situation in which it is encountered
- other pertinent information
Cite previous works or review relevant to the problem

Importance of the Problem

1.

2.

3.
4.

It is usually economic as in applied research or

academic as in basic research.
Basic research has no purpose other than to
produce new information.
Applied research is problem-oriented.
If study deals with unknown crop, describe it
briefly and discuss its importance usually in the
first few sentences of the introduction

Example: Statement of
Importance
The identification of genotypic variation in
either the response to ethylene or ethylene
production in rosal could lead to a more
focused breeding effort in the genetic
improvement of postharvest longevity of this
flower.

Formulating the Objectives

and Hypothesis
1.State what you hoped to come up with or accomplish, not
what you did.
e.g. survey, examine, quantify, or investigate tells reader
what you did. evaluate, compare, characterize, determine,
or recommend tells reader what you did with data to come
up with conclusions.
2. Avoid enumerating data in your objectives
3. New objectives must be reflected in the study.
4. If a hypothesis (expected answer) is given, the scope of the
paper is usually reported instead of objectives
5. Some authors and journal editors advise that the
introduction states the principal results while the Results
and Discussion presents the evidences and argues with
them. Follow style recommended by journal

Examples of Objectives
and Hypothesis

The objective of this experiment was to develop

quantitative data for maximum pollen depositions of
Eugenia sp. For self- and cross-compatibility
studies.
This lack of starch suggests that either decreased
starch synthesis or increased starch degradation may
be involved in the internal breakdown of the tissue.
This paper reports results of experiments

Other Information
in the Introduction

1.
2.

3.

4.

Define uncommon scientific terms.

Definition could be a sentence by itself or part of
sentence mentioned in passing to ensure readers
from other scientific fields can fully understand the
paper.
If there are basic assumptions (framework) state
them in this part of the paper
Mention place and duration of study in this section
if more appropriate than in the methods section

Review of Literature

A brief review of literature (published work) is

usually built into the introduction to answer the
question, What has been done relative to the
problem at hand?
More extensive citations may be seen in the
discussion, where appropriate, to elaborate
statement, to show what the results mean, or to
support ideas.

Importance of the Review

Allows researcher to know and show the state of

knowledge about the subject matter.
Provides the researcher approaches and ideas to
help him plan the research and avoid or solve
problematic situations that may arise during the
study.
Ensures that there will be no duplication of work and
researchable areas will be covered

Organizing the Review

Make an outline of the topics to be presented

Classify pertinent abstracts of the reviewed
literature into topics.
Group similar findings so there is an organized and
orderly presentation of results
Compare or contrast findings where appropriate
Present one idea per paragraph
Do not include a literature that has no bearing on
the problem

Organizing the Review

Padded reviews are undesirable

Complementary papers by same author should be
limited and avoided, if possible
Cite results but never tabulated data
Do not cite opinion of an author, unless it is essential
as in an argument
If opinions are necessary, cite the results first that
formed the basis of opinion

Organizing the Review

State research findings in your own words to suit

the purpose of the paper being written but be
careful not to misinform the reader
If information was from secondary source, check
the citation from the original publication
Do not rely on another authors citation
Do not forget to write complete citation of
secondary source in the list of literature cited

Enclose in quotation word-for-word citations

Common Pitfalls in Reviewing

1.
2.

Local researches are often neglected

Researchers jump unnecessarily to conclusion that
no researches are done on the subject matter
Local works are generally unpublished and not
many of those published are deposited in
abstracting and indexing services
Foreign works are easily accessible, thus local
works are often neglected

Determining which Literature

to Review

Cite from reliable sources

Use books and reviews with caution late and
interpretative and not original; data are often
second hand therefore unsuitable for technical
publication; but some are useful due to extensive
citations for general information
Unless essential, never use magazines,
newspapers, pocketbooks and similar publications
meant for business
Avoid old publications

Materials and Methods

Value of paper is judged from the materials and

methods
A good method may not necessarily mean a good
paper but a doubtful method already makes a paper
questionable.
Readers should be able to adopt the methods
employed without mistake; they should be able to
understand what the researcher did

Details to Include in Materials

and Methods

Confine methods to things actually done

Conform to the objectives
Standard features are replication and design state
number of replications, and statistical design used
State indices/rating and statistical analysis used
No need to describe all details of each equipment
e.g. type of balance used to take the yield

Materials and Methods

Equation of common knowledge need not be

explained
State date/year when research was conducted if it
affects the results some editors do not publish very
old results
Do not enumerate data taken but explain how these
were obtained
Should be brief as possible

 Materials and Methods

All information that will be used in the footnote to

make tables understandable should be removed from
the materials and methods.
If information about treatments is found in the tables
in the Results and Discussion, there is no need to
enumerate the treatments in the methods

Citing Published Methods

Cite published methods used as is

If published method is used but modified it, state method in
the text and describe your modifications in detail
If you cite a published recommended procedure such as that
of the Phi. Recommends, you can also say Plants were
grown using standard commercial practices.

Results and Discussion

Results answer What did I observe?

Discussion answers What does it mean?
Results/discussion is the heart of the publication
It communicates the facts, measurements, and
observations of research worker (Whimser, 85)
Presents representative rather than repetitive
data
It is not the amount of data presented but how
meaningful the data are that counts.

Results and Discussion

Use of an Outline

helps presents results/discussion systematically

Lists contents in a format which best tells the readers

the scope of the study

Helps present results logically rather than

chronologically

Subtopics in the outline provide an easy overview of the

areas covered in the results and discussion

Results and Discussion: Format

No single formula for a good format

Results and discussion could be presented together
or separately
Usually, results are presented and discussed, one
table after another
No need to mention again data shown in earlier table
except in concluding paragraph
Do not discuss Table 2 then point out data in Table 1

Results and Discussion:Format

Present results separately from the discussion
when:

you need to interrelate data in explaining or

discussing the results

You have to discuss two or more studies

together

There is a repetition of explanations or

confirmation of the results by works of others
Present results in sequence table by table.
Explain each finding.

Results and Discussion:Format

Summary and Recommendations

most summaries start with one sentence on

scope and objectives of the study

In many journals, no summary if there is an

abstract and recommendations are included in
the discussion

Extract summary/conclusions from the results

and discussion

If results are presented separately from

discussion, follow sequence of topics in
discussion but limit information presented
from the results.

Results and Discussion:Format

Discuss final worth of the study, its implications, and

usefulness
Make recommendations on how to benefit from the
findings
Present new avenues for research to be explored
Comment on reliability of results
Make sure summary/recommendations satisfy
objectives

Results and Discussion:Style

Style is the way you write. It means the way words are
put together in sentences, the way sentences are
arrange into paragraphs, and the way paragraphs are
group into a composition

Results and Discussion:Style

Technical style is the way you write when
dealing with technical subject matter. It is
distinguished by a calm, restrained tone, by
an absence of any attempt to arouse motion,
by the use of specialized terminology and by
an accepted mechanical convention of the use
of abbreviations, number, and symbols.

Results and Discussion:Tense

Use the past tense to report observations

Use the present tense for general truths and
references to stable conditions
Information from a research study published in a
primary journal is considered knowledge and is
referred to in the present tense
Use of present tense implies that findings are still
generally applicable and true up to the present
Be consistent with your tenses

Bibliographic Citations
Books

Author(s)/Editor(s)/Corporate Author(s). Title of

publication. Place of publication: Publisher, year.
Pagination. - (notes)
Examples:
Marei, Sayed A. The world food crisis.
London:Longman Group Ltd.,
1978. 134p.

Librero, Aida R., ed. Technology assessment for

agriculture in the
Philippines. Los Baos,
Laguna: Philippine Council for
Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources
Research
and Development, 1990.
299p. - (Book Series No. 92).
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and
Natural
Resources Research and
Development. PCARRD annual
report 1989.
Los Baos, Laguna: PCARRD, [1990]. 108p.

Bibliographic Citations
Periodicals

Author(s). Title of article. Name of

Journal/Periodical Vol. No. (Issue No.):
pagination, Month, year.
Example:

Soliven, Max E. More on the culture of Perante

orange. Greenfields 18(4):14-15, apr 1988.
Research Reports (Project)

Author(s). Tile of publication. Place of

publication: Publisher(s)/Implementing Agency,
year. Pagination. - (notes).
Garcia, Arnulfo G.; Bergonia, Evelyn A. Minimum
input farming systems. Los Baos, Laguna:
University of the Philippines Los Baos, 1987.
136p. - (PCARRD Proj. No. 89-291-21).

Bibliographic Citations
Research Report (Study under a Project)

Author(s). Study title. Project Title. Place of

Publication: Implementing Agency, year.
Pagination. - (Notes).

Bergonia, Evelyn A., Garcia, Arnulfo G. The potential

of some selected intercropping patterns in reducing
pest incidence and damage. Minimum Input Farming
Systems. Los Baos, Laguna: University of the
Philippines Los Baos, 1987. 68p. - (PCARRD Proj. No.
89-291-21, Study 2).
Theses and Dissertations

Author. Title of thesis/dissertation. M.S. Thesis/

Ph.D. Dissertation, University, year. pagination.

Bustamante, Jose L. The production of five field

crops in a field infested by Chromolaena odorata (L.)
R.M. King and H. Robinson. M.S. Thesis, University of
the Philippines Los Banos, 1984. 123p.

Bibliographic Citation
Proceedings

Author(s). Title of proceedings. Place of

Publication:Publisher, year.pagination. - (Notes)
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural
Resources Research and Development. Rattan:
proceedings of the national symposium/workshop on
rattan; Ecotech Center, Lahug, Cebu City; June 1-3, 1988.
Los
Baos, Laguna: PCARRD, 1990. 182p. - (Book Ser.
No. 99).
Article/Paper from Proceedings

Author(s). Title of article/paper. In: Title of Proceedings,

Place of Publication: Publisher, year. Pagination
Eusebio, Josefa S. Contribution of the home garden to family
nutrition. In: Home Gardening Program in
the Philippines. Los Baos, Laguna: Philippine Council for
Agriculture,
Forestry and Natural Resources Research
and
Development, 1988.89 p. - (Book Ser. No. 69).

Bibliographic Citation
Paper Presented in a Workshop/Seminar
Author(s): Title of paper. Paper presented at Title of
Workshop/Seminar; Place; date.
Librero, Aida R Inventory of research
manpower in agriculture and
natural resources in the
Philippines. Paper presented at
the Workshop on Manpower Resources in
Agriculture and
Natural Resources
Research;
Singapore; October 21-23, 1981.