CHAP T ER

0))

O~E

S T R I x G E D I:\' S T R U .\1 E x T S

the comparatively brief history of or chestration the

string group-e-violin s. violas, 'cellos, and double-basses-e-lms
maintained its position as domin ant element of the symphony
orchestra: Countless scores from all periods bear evidence that their
composers regarded woodwind and brass rather as accessories and were
hesitant to entrust muc h of their essential musical material to any bur
strin ged instru ments.
Such an att itude is partly justifi able because of the superiority of the
strin gs in so many important respects. Strin gs arc tirel ess and em play
virtuall y any kind of music. They have a greater dyn amic range than
wind instruments and far more expressive capacity. T he tone color
of the string group is fairly homogeneous from top to bottom, variations in the different registers being much more subtle than in the winds.
At th e same time, stringed instruments arc the most versatile in producing different kinds of sound. As string tone is rich in overtones all
mann er of close and open spacing is practical. One docs not tire of hearing string tone as soon as one tires of wind tone; in fact, there exists
a sizable literature of compositions written for str ing or chestra with out
wind instruments.
The string section of a typi cal sympho ny orch estra usually consists
of sixteen first violins, fourteen second violins, twelve violas, ten
violoncellos, and eight double-basses. \ .ariations in these propo rtions
may be found. reflecting the predilectio ns of individual conductors, or
perh aps determined by some such circu mstance as the size of the CO lleen stage.

HROCGHOUT

1;-'; 5 T R U .\ \ E ;-'; T 5

5 T R I l" G E D I

5T R U

~I

EN T 5

Tt::OO;ISG

,a

T he four strings of each of the se instruments arc tuned as follows.

'rioliYl

Sc ro ll

'c ello

';011

IB u

Fig.

F
I

i-

double-bass

:> :8

In th e case of the do uble-bass th e actual sound is an oc tave low er than

th e writte n notes.
The pit ch of a vibrat ing string can be expressed in terms of ~he
freq uency. or rapidit y . of its vibrations. For instan~e. the upper 5t Tln g
of the viola sounds th e :\ whi ch in pr esent -d ay tumng has a frequen cy
of .HO vibration s per second.
. .
A stretched string can be varie d in pitch by \':1.rymg the tensl?".
Stri nge d instrument s arc tun ed hy tu rn ing th e tlltlmg pegs to w hich
the strings arc attached . T ightenin g a stri ng inc reases th e frequency
of its vibr ation; hence raises its pitch.
The weight of the string has an important influence 0I1the frequency
of its vibration. Thus the four strings on the same instrument may be
identical in length , but may differ w idely in pitch becau~e t~ey" arc
made to di ffer in weight. Furthermore, by making usc of thi s pnncI I~le,
th e strings can be tu ned to their various pitches without.th e nece~Slty
of toO great a difference in th eir tensions. T he lower-pitched srrmgs
are not only thicker, but they arc made still heavier by winding the gut
or steel with fine wire of copper. silver. aluminum. or other metals.
V ariation in the length of the string produces proportional variation
in pitch . A longer string vibra tes more slow ly th an a shor~e r on e, ot~ er
condition s being equal. It is fou nd, for example, that halvin g the stflng
length doubles the frequency and raises the pitch an oc tave .

F1:'o:GERI S G

The act ion of the left-hand finge rs stopping the string firml y against
the fingerb oard shortens the soun ding .lcngt h of th e string, thereby
raising th e pitch.

Fig.

1.

Violin

""

In th e d iagram, note tha t th e sou nding length of the string . to be set

in moti on by the bow, is th at bet ween th e sto pping finger and the
bridge. T he remaind er of th e string will of course be silent.
Since halving the st ring length raises the pitch an oc tave. the point
at which a string is stopped co sound the octave above its open. or unstopped. pitch will be exactly one-half the distance fr om nu t to bridge.
If we w ish to raise the pitch another oc tave we w ill find th e po int of
stopping one-half th e distance fr om this middle point to the br idge. or
three-fourths th e total string length fr om the nut.

, . I ..

open <l: rin!l'

Fig. J
The principle demonstrated is th at fingering a gi\"en inte rval does
not imply cove ring a fixed length of string. but a length that diminishes
as the hand moves coward the bridge. \V hen playing a succession of
equal int erv als on one string, th e finge rs measure off not equ al divisi.olls
of string length but pr oportional di visions. For example. on the VIOla
a major second above an open string means a distance of about d~
inch es. wh ereas the same interval in a "'er y high position measures less
than % inch . A majo r second abov e an ope n string on the violin measur es abo ut t% inches. on the 'cello about 2% inch es. and on the bass
abo ut -+ % inch es.
Another c haracte ristic of string fingerin g is that w hen the hand is in
a given po sition on one string th e fingers can readily stop tones on any
of the four strings. without the necessity of moving the hand . Each

1:-1 S T R U .\ 1 E;-; T S

S T R 1:-1 G E D 1 ;-; S T R U .\ 1 E;-; T S

position is ident ified by a number derived from the number of diatonic

steps between the first finger and the open string. In string technique ,
and also in the fingering of wind instr uments, the index finge r. not the
thumb, is called first finger.

A division of a sect ion int o more than two parts would be marked
div . in J (Fr., diu. .i 3; Gcr., dreiiecb geteilt ). necessitating indications
in the ind ividua l play ers' music to show wh ich part each is to play.
Sometimes the divided pans are ginn separate lines in the score, for
legibility. If the parts arc complex. better result s may be obtained by
dividing by desks {lt ., da leggii; Fr., psr pupitres; Ger., pultuieise }, the
odd-numbered desks taking the upper part.
If only half th e members of a section arc to play, the part is marked
balf ( Ir., la nms; Fr., 1.1 moitie; Ger. die H iilfte ) , T he players on the
left at each desk will then remain silent until given the indication all
(Ir., tutti ; Fr., tollS; Ger., olJJe) ,

~.
viohn
A-SUing

"
first

, ,

.
"

f1

posmon

second pcemon

, ,
)

.
u

third position

Fig. 4
Detailed description of the fingering systems of the several stringed
instruments will be given in succeeding chapters.

VIBRA TO

OOUBLE-STOPS

It is possible to srop notes on two adjacent strings in such a way that

rhe bow can sound bot h nores at once. This is called double-stopping.
T riple- and quadruple-stops (chords) are also feasible, although it
wi ll presen tly be seen that the simultaneous sound of three or four notes
cannot be prolonged by th e bow.

In the playing of stringed instruments the tone is given life and

warmth through the use of vibrato of the left hand. This is a combination of impulses involving the muscles of the hand . wrist, and arm. and
its effect at the fingertip is an almost imperceptible osci llation in pitch
of th e note. Th e vibrato is emp loyed on all stopped ton es except those
of short du ration and needs no indication for its usc. H owever, there
are times when one prefers the peculiar tone quality obtainable only
by suppressing the vibrato, in which case the direction senza vibrato
should be ginn,

Fig. 5
BOWIS'G
DI\'IDED STRlSGS

In the orchestra, double notes are customarily divided between the

tWO players read ing from the same desk. The part should be marked
divisi, Italian for divided (F r., dhises; Ger., geteilt) , most often abbr eviared to div. The right-hand player at each desk takes the upper
note. W hen the part returns to single notes it should be marked unisoni
{F r., unis; G er ., nicbt geteilt ), usually abb reviated unit, If dou ble nores
arc written, and the compose r wishes each player to play all the notes,
using double-stops, he writes a pre cautionary non div. (in German
sco res usually Doppelgriff ) . This ind ication is used only when there
is more than one note, to pr c\'ent dividing.

point

halr.s

Fig. 6. Violin Bow

Th e bow-stick is of fine, light wood. generally Pernambuco, which
is rem arkable for its elastic qua lity . T he stick is cu rved inward toward
the hair , and , when th e hair is tigh ten ed by means of the screw at the
heel of the bow, the resu lting tens ion brings int o play the resilience of
th e stick, an important facto r in the various bow strokes. T he hair is
horsehair. although in recent times other materials, such as nylon. have
B'

IX S TR U .\I EXT S

been tr ied. There arc ove r a hu ndred hairs in a violin bow. It is the habit
of string players to rub a specially prepared rosin on the bow hairs to
help in securing the right amount of friction on the str ings.
The bow is held firmly. yet lightly, between the finge rs and thumb

of the right hand, as shown in Fig. 6. The first finger is in a position

to exert varying pre ssure on the bow-stick, while the little finger L'\
used mainly to balance the bow, according to its position on the string.
(The so-ca lled Gennan style of bowing fo r the dou ble-b ass will be
described larer.}
The bow is drawn at right angles to the str ing. ordinarily at a place
abo ut halfway betwe en the bridge and the end of the finge rboard. For a
louder and more brilliant tone, and for the no rmal prod uction of hig h
notes, the bow is played nearer the bridge. Fo r soft er tones it is moved
nearer to the fingerboar d. T he hair may be placed flat, so that all the
hairs arc in contact with th e string; but usually th e bow is tu rned on
edge. so that only part of the hair is engaged. T his enab les the player
to control the amount of hair being used. For the violin and viola the
tilt is :l\vay from the player , for th e 'cello and. bass the opposite is more
convenient .
The part of the bow near the point is called the upper part of the
bow; that nea rer th e heel, the lower part . W hen the bow is drawn start ing at th e lower part and proceeding toward th e point, straightening the
elbow joint. the stroke is called down-bow. The opposite is up -bow.
Both are more clearly expressed by the F rench tire (drawn) for downbow, and pOllSse (pushed) for up-bow. Th e signs M ( down-bow)
and v (up-bow) arc in universal usc.

LEGATO

If no slurs are marked, each note calls for a ch ange in the dir ection
of the bow.

STR I XGE D I X S T R U .\I E:" T S

EX. L

Franck-Sy1l1phoJl y
AIkgro

VN. I ,,","'I D I1 ci
~@ e r
-

P: ' 7. cd. Eulcnburg

=ppo

"' - E

.. ..

......

.8 Sf1sunltlf1

R~pr i nlffi ."; th the VC'rmi... ;on o f the ""Ie

t ion . :\ew \ork.

J,gcn~

for E u!cn b l,lrg

~Iin;~lurc

Score,

C. f . re lcu Corpora -

These changes in the dire ction of the bow arc made by a good player
with practically no brea k in the continuity of the tone, by virtue of
a supple wrist and a skillful coordination of all muscular movements.
W hen slurs arc marke d, all norcs under one slur arc to be played
"in one bow" ; that is, wit h no change in direction of th e Low.
EX. 2 .

Schuberr-Sy 1l1pbon y
Andante

c on

710 .

p. ' 4. cd. Eulcnhu rg

mote

QE ;

II :
p

.'
-

Rr p r;n ted .,.-ilh Ihe p<"rnli,...;on 01 th~ sole

lion. xew Yor k.

~I;em.

":
lo r Eu len l.>u rg

:\h n i 3!u r~

5<:or" , C. f

Perees Corporl-

A violinist wou ld instinc tively begin th e phrase shown above with

an up-bow. The up- bow, in string style, is associated with the up-beat.
or anac rusis, whereas the down-beat, as in Ex. I. suggests a down-bow
to the player. It is impossible, and often inadvisable, to app ly this
p rinciple to every up-beat or down-beat, but the principle is conrinually in evidence in good bowing.
For a vigorous attack on a long note, to bc followed by a do w n-bow
ch ord or acce nt , it is we ll to begin dow n-bow. changi ng immediately
to up-bow. T his change of bow will not be perceived by the ear if
properly perfor med , and will permit the use of the more energetic
down-bow for both attacks.

EX,

3. Becrhon n-Coriof.1nus Overture

An ~ro

~.

~ !.

con brio

"v

6 _ -

p. I, cd. P hilharmonia

"

S T R I ~ G E D IN S T R U .\ 1E N T S

I N S T R U .\ 1 E N TS

10

as to the best W:lY to bow a given phrase. and are seen even now marking changes in the bowing of such w ell-establishe d classics as the
Beethoven symphonies.

"V

EX.

Th ere is a natural tendency towards crescendo in the up-bow, due to

the increasing leverage of the length of bov..' to the left of the string.
and likewise a tendency tow ards diminuendo in the down-bow. \,"hilc
these tendencies arc guarded against by the player. it is advi sable [0
recognize them when planning the bowing of a passage.
It is evident that the bow must move up as much as it moves down .
But if the up and do w n m otions arc of un equ al rime value it means th at
the Low must man at:1T1 u ne ve n spee d. thus nuk ing it difficult to maintain an even dynamic level. T he bowing indicated in Fig. 7 will incvirably cause the third and sixth beats to sound louder than the others,
since th e same length of bow must be used to play two sixteenth no tes
in up -bow as was used to play fo ur sixteenths in down-bow.

Fig. 7

+ Beethoven-SympbollY

no. 4

P' 4' , ed. Kalmus

&TtJ&.

S OS L E G:\TO

Perhaps the commonest bow stroke is that which changes direction

for each note. As mentioned above. the change can be nude without
break in the tone. But this stroke, known by the Fr enc h term ditscbe,
is usually perfo rmed so that one hears the articulation of th e bo w
ch anges. T he notes are not so detached from one another that th e effect
co uld be called staccato. The der.:lcbe can be described as nonlegato.
O rdinarily it is played in the middle or upper third of the bow.
EX.

5. Schubert-Sy1llphony no. 8

p. 57. ed. Philhar monia

A mo re even tone will be ach ieved by a bowing which resto res the
balance of up and down, both in quantity and rate of motion.

Fig. 8
In a legato phrase th e changes in directi on of the bow are de ter mined
by combined factors of in tensi ty. dynamic level, tempo, the length of
the bow. fingering, etc. A ny melody can be bowed effectively in ~any
different ways. and it is no wonder that concertmasters often disagree

T his noalegarc bow stroke is sometimes used at the point of the bow
to take advantage of its extreme lightness there , and at the hee l for the
added weight occasionally want ed.

I :"ST R U ,\ 1E :"TS

12

S T R I:" G E D I:" S T R U ~I E:-i T S

1l

At the point (Fr., Ii la pointe; It.. a puma d'arco; Ger., an der Spitu):
EX.

6. Bartok-COl1certo for O rcbestrs

p. 79. ed. Boosey

&

H awkes

Presto

Rt pr in ted w ith U1t

VlI . II
f)I V.

11j!~"..=n" d"~~~'~'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

~rmissjon

o f , ht copytipt owneB C. F. P t1t n Corporation,

~c'"

YOlk.

For vigorous emphasis and equality of stress, a series of down -bows

can be used, near the heel of the bow, the bow being lifted with a swift
up-bow ruc tion betw een the not es.
EX.

8. Srravinsky-Le Ss cre du I'rintemps

T rnlpo glUsto d = :;0
non JI~'.
n n .., r'l
1"'1

r'l

:"I

P'

I I,

cd. Russe

~.

,",s. It
~

COPYT;ghl

1 ~46

..-

.. ..

by IIn,t", & Svn (London ) LId l"K<! by pt"rmwion

nl"lrln

~.

" 011 Jiv

nMnn

nl"'lnn

ftM.

drv.

"" " "

e-a.

J~r~ Jt,,~c .

110 11

At the heel (Fr., au talon; lt., a/ talloue; Ger., am Frosch) :

m np'' '''a.

"on
I N.
Mnr'ln

l>-

"

n n

rim.

I>-

sempre nscc.

Co pyr ight 1921 by E d it ion Ru!o&t de MusiQue. l"oed by permi<sion.

EX.

7. Strauss-Don Qu ixote
J =116
(Jm Froscb]

\'N . I

( 1l1rI

F'ou b)

p. 56, ed. Philhannonia

A combination of legato and non legato is found in the bo wing
known as loure. This is indicated by a dash over each note, with slurs
to show the bow changes. The first finger regulates the rather gentle
break in the continuity of the ton e by controlling the pressure on the
stick, aided by a subtle slowing of the bow with the wrist.

INS T R U ~ I EN T S

14
E X.

9. Sibclius-S)'1J1pbony no.

- - - -

."
V><. ,

-- - -

- --

I 0.
,~

..

p. ), ed. Breitkopf

Allegren c

V>< . ,

STR I NG ED I NSTR U ,\ I E N T S

."

!BE

."

- - - - -

- --

--

Cop)r lcbl 19OJ.

rene"'~

! ! ! ! -

-- -

-~

Ib.nd.

eon mofO

...... .
-

I! ! !

......
---

---- -

Staccato playin g in fast tempo does not call for a lifting of the bow,
but the shorr, qu ick dow n- and up-bows made by the wrist alone, in
the middle of the bow, cause the stick to bounce. and this in rum causes
the hair to spring off th e string with each stro ke.
EX. II.

&;

p. )8, ed. Kalmus

- -- - - - -

- - - - -

- ~ - -~ - -

~f
1931, by B", u kopf

A nd~n rc

-- ---- --

~f

Becrhoven.-sympbony no.

- - -- - - - - - - -

-~-

EX. 10.

15

~'P"I

Rossini-O..-erture to Willinn T e//

p. 45, ed. Kalmus

STACCA TO

Staccato bowing is of two types-Hoff the string" and "o n the

stri ng." In moderate tempo and at a dynamic len I from piano to mezzo
forte, th e bow is dropped on the string with a sort of semicircular
merion at the middle of the bow . The bow rebounds, alth ough it is
partly lifted by the wrist. The It alian word spiccato ( detached ) is
applied by st ring players to bowing that makes use of a springing or
bouncing of th e bow-stick. It is also called saltando (jumping). There
is much disagreement over the exact application of these term s. But
fortunately the composer or orchestrator is not called upo n to indicate
more preci sely than by dots over t he notes, together with dyn amic
signs and tempo marks, the quality of music that means to a string
player spiccato, saltando, or off-the-string staccato.

An other type of bouncing bow is usually called by the French jete

(thrown ). It is played near the point, and the how is not thrown but
dropped up on the string with a slight down-bow motion, and allowed
to boun ce of irs own accord. Groups of two to six not es can be played
in t his way, the indication being dots under a slur, sometimes with the
word sstmndo, or saluuo , to make sur e of the bouncing effect .

EX.

STR INGED I N S TR D M E N T S

IN ST R U M EN T S

16

p. 7 J. cd. Kalmus

r z. Rirnsky-Korsakoff-Capriccio Espagnol

EX. 13 .

Bruckner-Sy111pbony no. 9

J.66

SaLtillO
~.

Au u

.,,--'I

A"

"~

-..;...

.-..:.....:-

saltau)

..j-";'"

Et

- -i-..;...

-:...-;..-'

~
~

I'!' ......

v rvace

.tI"

"

..j-'--'---

~F.-

r.utlto

"f~

'-':-":'-

-..;...

-..;...

p'=

~
Cop yrlgh t 1924 by

rni'-~r~al

The bowing called nrartellato (hammered) is an on- the-string staccato (Fr., martele}, The bow is not permitted to leave the string and
the stroke is very swift, with abrupt start and stop. The sound of the
note, whether in piano or forte, might be imagined in the shape of an
oblong block with square ends. Although it is usually played with the
upper part of the bow, the martellato stroke may be used at the heel,
where the added weight of the bow contributes to the vigor of the
staccato.

1JIJ rC;1UHI1IJ

~
I~

Edition A. G . ; ren ew ed 1952 by F. W""s..

\ Vhen several notes under a slur arc marked with dots, the intended
staccato may be accomplished with a bouncing bow, usually up-bow.
as in Ex. 14. or with the bow held firml y on the string, sharp stop s
being made by the wrist. as in Ex. IS. The latter bowing is known as
slurre d staccato.
EX.

'4. Mahler-Sympbony no. 4

PP /egg.

' c.
PP kgg .

e- e.

.~ "

. . II . u.

Cop yri ght by M. P. Bd aid f ; sole ag en ts Boosey & Ua .... kes. l;sffi by permi... ion .

milt.

: srcatistimo

'-':-':-

_e

s rcsnssimo

diV.~~

salt illO

p. '42 , ed. Philharmonia

~ ~,.~

[OJ

..

17

P: 3, ed. Philharmonia

I N S T R U ~I ENTS

18
EX . 15.

Stravinsky-Orpheus
Andantt sosrencro

S T R 1 N G ED 1 N S T R U ,\ 1EN T S

P: 40 , cd. Bocscy & Hawkes

EX. 17.

19

\ \'ehcr- Eur.v<1m he Overture

1'. 96

roinu

JIll
~ .,

.-:.....:.-.

. -:...-"

II .....:-:

.....:.-.

"
? J. ;,
J /,r poillu

,.
p
Cop rr lcbl

1 9~

by

~~

-.:.....--

. ~.

I: u ....'l<cs. \:O("d by IKrm i""ion

The rhythm of do tte d eighth and sixteent h, in fast tempo, is most

often playe d as slurred staccato, even when not so marke d. Th is bowing is indicated by a slu r, w ith a dot on the sixteent h note. It is the first
note th at is shortened, however. T he same bowing is used for the
quarter note follow ed by an eighth in six-eight time.
EX. 16 .

Berlioz-Fantastic Symphony
~

\~S. j ,

Alk grrn:o non I!Oppo J =7:

"T"' V

v "!"'l v

p. '53. ed. Eulcnburg

v m."l~

FJ: .,.' J.,.... 9 (-s:-.,.

..

A'

-'-

~.
_-

Rt prlnt ed with the pe rm iss ion of th e sole ..gell15 t or Eulenbu, c Minl..lu re Scores : C. f. Peter$ Corpor..tion . Ne.. \ork .

For a light, crisp effect, this may be done at th e point of the bow,
wi th up-bow on the beats.

"

"

% I:i

"

: : ;;

>

I"

The various bow strokes desc ribed arc to be found in countless combinations. T rue knowledge of their appropriate use comes fr om long
stu dy and experience in playing a stri nge d inst ru ment, to which must
be added real unde rstanding of the music. T he stude nt of orchestration
should begin early th e practice of marking the bowi ng of string pans.
W henever he thinks of a phrase for strings he mu st always imagine
how it would best be bowed, wit hin the limits of his knowledge.
Th ro ugh trial and observa tion much can be learned abo ut this most
important :J.spccr of string wri ting.
It sho uld be realized th at bowings mar ked in printed scores are not
always literally followed in performance. Com posers arc seldom careful to indicate all bowi ngs. and some markings are the result of editing.
'Vhat the composer actually wrote is evidence of his wishes, and this
forms th e basis for stu dy by conductor and concertmaster as to the
best way to realize th e com poser's intentions. H ere, as in all matters of
art, th ere is plenty of room for differences of opinion and inte rpretation.

ACCENTS

Accents arc made pr incipa lly wit h the Low, but an accent may also
be imparted by the left hand, by means of a sudden quic kening of the
vibrato, by a more fo rceful finger stroke, or by both. It depends on
whether the accented note is made by lifting the finger (Fig. 9a) , or by
d ropping it on the str ing (Fig. 9b). T his left-hand accent is nearly always combined with the bow accent in vigorous and rhy thmic passages.

STR I N G ED I NSTR U .\ 1ENTS

I N ST R U M E N T S

20

fBi

W~~~
Fig. 9

Accents are of course relative to the general nuance of a particular

tone, whether soft or loud. There are different kinds of accents , created
by different modes of attack. The following figure attempts to show
graphically the shape of the tone in the most important of these forms.

>

~:==

<;=
Ip

C~

<>

<=?
Fig.

T o obtain a tone of very soft floating quality the strings may be

directed to play on the fingerboard (Fr., sur la touche; It., mila tastiera
or sui tasto; Ger. , am G riiibrett ) , T he bow is placed so far fro m the
bridge that it is actually over the upper part of the fingerboa rd, where
there is greate r amplitude in the vibrat ion of th e str ing.
Debussy- R ondes de Printemps

P' 36, ed . Durand

Mod crcmene amrne ) :n 6

R"b'W '~" -"-'"'~'~~

d :

':::'w{iUSf r
p--.,..

-~

e cec cberme

Strauss--Symphonia Domestica
P' 67. cd. Associated Music Publishers

10

EFFECTS OF COLOR

~~;

In this bowing, care must be taken that too much pressure is not put
upon the bow , lest it strike more than one string. Playing over the
finge rboard is impractical on the E-string of the violin, since the curve
of the body of the instrument interferes with the proper placing of the
bow. It is often indicated, nevertheless, for passages running up to high
positions on the E-string; although the directive cannot be followed
literally. it serves to suggest the tone quality desired.
Playing with the bow vcry close to the bridge, or even upon it (Fr.,
au cbeoalet; Ic., sui ponticello; Ger., am St eg) , produces a special kind
of sound, due to the bringing out of upper partials not usually heard.
The sound has been called glassy and metallic. T his effect is generally
combined with the bowed tremolo.
EX. 19 .

Composers in general seem to have been indifferent to these distinctions. one reason being perhaps that they are impossible to produce on
the pianoforte. T herefore it becomes a responsibility of the conductor to decide which ty pe of accent is meant by the composer's sign.
and to see that it is properly executed.

EX. 18.

21

- -

- 7~

ijFlzp
--

' -

=-

Perm ission granted by DUfallrl el Cie., Par is, copyright own ers; Elkan\"ogel , Ph iladelph ia, P..., agen ts.

div

".

pp

rul pomic 10

In )

WIth ..uth or iu tion of th e original pu blis hea Ed . Bote & G. Bock, Bu lin , Wie, baden.

\ Vhen sulia tastiera or sui ponticello is no longer wanted, the part is

marked modo ordinaria, or naturale.
T he bow may be tu rned over, so that the strings are struck with the
wood instead of the hair ( Ir., col legno) , T his is a bowing used for dry
staccato effects, the bow-stick tapping with a kind of off-the-string
staccato.

I:-':STRUME:-':TS

II
EX.

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS

zoo Britt en- Passacaglia from Peter Grimes

P' 16, ed. Boosey & H awkes

lJ

is to be drawn across the string. The return to normal bowing after

cot tegno is indic ated by areo.
PIZZICATO

crete.

../

u m prt creso.

The strin gs are frequ ently plucked, instead of bowed. The direction

pizzicato (abbreviated pizz.) indicates that this manner of playing is to

be continued until the word areo signifies that playing with the bow is

... u

to be resumed.

...
" ( C()1J fOrJA)

Copyright

1~5

~IC.

::>-

lemprt crete,

by BO<)!;ey & H u..!...... Ltd. l '..,d by permissi on.

Obviously, one can expect little sound to come from draw ing the
wood across t he string. since the amount of friction is vcry small. T here
are, neverth eless, some instances in scores of tremolo and legato bowing
collegno. It is interesting that Gustav Mahler felt it necessary to add a
footnot e in the score of his First Symphony to explain that the indication collegno and the bowing marked were no error.
E X. 1 I.

Mahler-Sy111phony no.

The right first finger plu cks the string, over the fingerboard, and the
other three fingers hold the bow against the palm of the hand. The
thumb may rest on the edge of the fingerboard to steady the hand , although this position is not always necessary or practical. The playing
position of 'cello and bass permits pizzicato also with the thumb, especially for chords arpeg giared from the bottom not e upw ard.
Changing from arco to pizzicato requires an appreciable amount of
time, varying according to the position of the bow at the instant. A
larger interval must be allow ed if the pizzicato follows a down-bo w at
the point, whereas after an up-bow at the heel the change can be
practically instantaneous.
-

p. 9 I, cd. U niversal

EX. 12 .
Fcier lich

und gcmesscn"
A
..-.'

col JtgM

.. .

~.

A~.

A~.

Debu ssy-Pe/leas et Afelisande

---. . .
. . ......

,.

Sourdemcnt a~ tt

P' 23 I, ed. Durand

limil t

c
pp

cel ltrw

.-

ppp
A

~.

-r-,

0\...

"--.

A
~.

."--..

pp

....

hz.

pp ~-

In'CO

PJI -=-

simil
-~

Perm ission granted by Dur..nd et Cle., Pari s, cop yright cw ners ; Elkan Vogel, P hiladelphi.., P..., ..gen t.

colltgno
Y

\i

v
V
ppp

These effects, although not common, are much better known today.
Some composers write col legno bsttuta (Ger., geschlagen) for the tapping, and col /egno tratto (Ger., gestrichen) to indicate that the woo d

T he return to arco after pizzicato is slightly more inconvenient, as

it involves the quick adjustment of the bow into playing position. Ac tivity like that in the following example is not uncommon, however.

ST R 1NG E D I N STR U .\ 1 E:" TS

I :" S T R U ,\ t E N T S

H
EX. 2 3 .

P' '+5. cd. Eulcnburg

Berlioz-Harold in l tsty

pi=.

pi=.

'"

....

."

."

~"
~

pi=.

~"

..,

."

pi=.

erco

pi=.

~"

"C

r
pi=.

/
pm.

/
pi=-

."
~"

pi=.

Ravel-D.tphnis et Chloe

p. 132, ed. Du rand

Anime ee t res rude

\'N . I
DIV.

'"~-

..,

~"

pi=.

~"
~

."

r-eo

pi=.

EX. 24-

."

Rc pr in lHl ..dill th., petmiM.i o n of th e so le a len \5 fo r Eu ien bu'l

l ion . :"ew Yor k.

positions the string is so short th at the pizzicato is of a hard. dry qu ality .

which at times may be used [0 advantage.

~~

n .

25

~Iinia.tu'e

\'S . II
DI \ ',

PCO

."
Sco re" C. f . Peters Corpora-

p
,~

DI\' .

~ "."

T he pizzicato is by its nature a form of staccato. The sound dies

away qu ite promptly. Differences are to be noted in this respect be(ween small and large instruments, violin and double-bass, for instance.
The longer and heavier strings sustain the to ne mu ch better than th e
shorter ones. O pen str ings arc more resonant than those stopped by the
fingers. T he sound of the fingered notes can be prolonged a littl e by
vibrato.
The quality of tone in pizzicato can be varied by pluck ing at different points on the string, and by the manne r of plucking, from a
gentle st roking with the fleshy part of the fingertip to a twanging of
such violence that the string strikes against the fingerboa rd. There is
also a difference acco rding to the position of the left hand. In higher

Perm ission In.n lffl

b~

Dura nd el Cie_. Pu is, Ipyr i&ht O"'7Iers; Elk:1.n\oRt"l. Ph il"dd p h ia. P it.- .

all~nta..

The rapidity of passages in pizzicato is necessarily limited by the

difficulty of continued pluck ing by one finger. The trick of alterna ting
first and second fingers in fast pizzicato, acquired by somc players. is
by no mcans universal. Factors affect ing the practicability of fast pizzicato playing include the size of the instrument, the dynamic level uf
the music. the amount of continuous pizzicato demanded, and the complications in the passage from the standpoint of changes from one string
to another. T he following is an example of successfu l pizzicato writing
at a rapid tempo.

I N S T R U ~I E N T S

26
EX. 25 .

S T R I N G E D IN S T R U ,\ 1 EN T S
P' 5 I , ed. Ka lmus

D ukas-c-L' A pprentj ~Sorcier

EX. 2 6 . Stravinsky-Symp hony

Va! .J.= u6

dim.

pizzo
vc

."

P'

Moder ato alla br cve(d =66)

izz.

."

in C

dim.

-zr-:

' I~

"

27
2 I,

r:" one.

~f

,
'N. "Ia!l
v

." f-= f

di".

unit,

"-

-.
M

Il*

Copyright 19% by Schot! & Co. Ltd. \:""d by permission.

ed. Schott

oizz:

Chords of three and four no tes in pizzicato arc arpeggiatcd from the
bottom up. unle ss otherwise marked. A serie s of qui ckly repeated
chords may be more effectively played by alternati ng back -and -forth
movements, using one or several finge rs. The direction of the strokes
may be shown by perpendicular arrows, or by the usual signs for upand down -bow. Sometimes quasi guitara is added.
EX. 27.

p. 38, cd . D urand

Ravcl- L'Enfanl ct Ies Sortiliges

Allegro non tJ'oppo
.
.,
/ ZZ.

\'

r"I

I'

'"

.. \'N.

V "

$
4'~

", "

Pennlssion ll;ranted by D urand et Cle . Par is, cop yrig ht ownera: Elka.n\"o gd, P b iladdphi a, Pa,. agenl .
0

Pizzicato may also be performed with the fingers of the left hand
when the notes are so arranged that a finger is fr ee to pluck the str ing,
or when a fing er is so placed that it can pluck as it is raised after stopping
a note, Left-hand pizzicato is indicated by a cross over or under the
notes.

Permiss ion gr ant ed by Dura nd el Cie., P1.,is, copyrigh t o.... ners : E lhn\"ogd , Ph iladelp hia, Pa., a&enl.

The arpcggiared effect can be held to a min imum by a sharp, sudden finger stroke, T w o notes can be plucked simultaneously with two
fingers. A straight b racket is the accepted indication for this,

STR INGE D IN STRUM EN T S

IN STR U ,\ IEN TS

2B
EX. 28 .

P:4. ed. Cheste r

Stravinsky-Ragtime
J.

"'S.l

Pl~Pl

". v

'If

Copyright fo r a ll cou ntri" J .t W.

pr z.z.

H AR.\ lOXI C S

ofrp t gg.

T he vibration of a string is a composite of a number of separate.

simult aneou s vibrations. wh ose frequ encies vary in th e ratio I , 2 , 3, 4. 5.
ere. These vibrations arc represented in the following diag rams. Points
marked n arc called nodes.

"
Ch6r ~r

IJ d _. London.

Although possibilities of new sounds to be obtained by pizzicato have

nor been expl ored by composers in general. some new effects have been
used. such as pizzicato sui pomice/lo and sul tasto; pizzicato harmonics;
pic king with the fingernail near the nut; and snapping the string agains t
the finge rboard. The last is indicated by the sign 6.
EX . 29 .

Bartok-Violin Concerto
Vj\~ ce.

J =a

. 140

1'=-0

-~

~... , , - - - - ~ ......~ T \

'",---_.. '-::::::::::::: "'"

~1\ , -- - --

"',u ' "

" "

vc .

Fig.

I I

could

vIDmiotts
I'" o=nd

196
12

It will be noticed that the ratio of the divisions of the string show n

"!f
pi=. 6

"'-:::::::::? ',,__ J

II

!.J
~m
~ j9J
U

__ /

Let us assume t he string to be the G-string of a violin . Fig.

th en be translated into musical sounds, thus:

"!f
phz. 6

.#--------_.1\

--- <:::::=:::=>

.., ~1\ . . ._---... , ~

Fig.
\'N . II

"

P: 5' . ed . Boosey & H aw kes

e

29

in Fig. I I is the same as that of the frequencies shown in Fig . 12.

These sou nds pr esent in a single tone are called harmo nics. Number
one is th e first har monic, or fundamental to ne. The others are calle d
seco nd, thi rd, fourth, and fift h harmonics, overtones, or f-Jrtials.
Higher harmonics than these arc present also, in diminishing strength.
The number and comparative strengt h of the harmonics mak ing up a
tone give it irs individua l tone color, or timbre, enabling us to distinguish

."
CoPl'ri gh t 1946 by Hawk ... & Son (Lolldon) Lt d l: Sfd by pcr mi....ion .

INSTRU~IENTS

S T R I I' G ED I N S T R U \ 1 E N T S

th e sound of a clarinet fro m th at of a 'cello playing the same note. We

do no t hear this combination of harm onics as a cho rd. The fundamental
tone is so much stronger than its up per part ials th at we are regularly
deceived int o assuming th at it alone is w hat we hear.
If a vibrating str ing is touched "ery lighdy at one of the dividing
nodes sho wn in Fig. II , it will be preve nte d from sounding its fun damenta l. but it will conti nue to vibrate as in the diagr am. according to
the node chose n. and it will sound the co rrespo nding note shown by
Fig. 1 2. For exampl e, the G -stri ng is to uched lightly at a point onethird of its length fr om the nut, w hile maintained in vibration by th e
bow. T he enti re string vib rates as in no. 3 of Fig . I I . T he note soun ded
is that shown as no. 3 of Fig. 1 2 . T he same result is obtained by tou ching the other node of the same number, two-thirds of the way fr om
nut to br idge .
T ones produced in this man ner are called by string players harmonics
(Fr., sons barntoniques; Ir., arm onici; Ger., Flsgeotenonev . T heir timbre is quite different from normal stopped tones, since only th ose
part ials are sounding that have a node at the point to uche d. Th ey are
ind icated in not ation by ( a) placing a small circl e over th e note intended to sou nd as a harm oni c. or (b) writing a diamon d-shaped note
at the pitc h wh ere the node producing th e desired note is found on the
string.

can also be done on the 'ce llo, using th e thumb and th ird finger . The
node whi ch has been found th e most dependable is that of the fourth
harm on ic, one- fou rt h th e new stri ng length, at a point represent ed in
notation by the int erval of a perfect fourt h above th e note sto pped
by the first finger. The resulting to ne is therefor e t wo oct aves above
the sto pped tone. T hese harmonics are called artificial harmon ics, as
differentiated from natural har monics, wh ich have ope n str ings as fundament al tones. Art ificial harmonics are indicated in no tation by ( d)
placing a small circle above the note to be heard as a harmonic, or (b)
wr iting the fundamental ro be stop ped by the first finge r as a norma l
not e and th e node a fourth above as a diamond-shaped note ( Fig, 1+).
The actual pitch of the rone int ended is often adde d above, as (c) .

30

V
IO
Ll!'! F

,..

JI

b.

I.'i
Fig. 14

Com posers frequent ly usc the notation (.1) fo r all harmo nics, leaving
the meth od of pr odu cti on to the player, wh ether as artifi cial or as natural harm oni cs. The notati on (b) is some times used when the low er
tone is an open string. T his is incorrect but easily understo od.

~/G

..

TRILLS
)

Fig. 13

The indication sui G means that all is to be play ed on the G-string

(Ger., G-Sait e) . Another means of designating the string to be used,
preferred by the French, is that of R oman num erals, the highest string
being alw ays I (e.g., IV' corde ) .
ARTIFIC IAL H ARMOSI CS

On the violin and viola it is possible to sto p a tone with the first
finger and at the same time tou ch a node wit h th e fourth finger. This

Trills are perform ed by the motion of one finger , since the finger
stopping th e lower of th e two tones is held down throughout. Both
major and minor tri lls arc good in all range s, th e only exception being
th ose on the lowest note of the instrument, where the alt ernation of
open str ing and stopped note do cs not produce as effective a trill as
those on stop ped not es.
It should be remembered th at a str ing trill in th e or chestra means a
trill played simultaneously by a whol e section. Sixteen first violins
will not likely agree on the rhythmic quantities of a trill on a long note,
and the effect will not have th e clear articu lation of the same trill given
say to the first flute, played by a single player.
c

I:" S T R U .\ 1 C :-IT S

32

STR I:"GCD I:-ISTRlJ ,\IC:"TS

TR L\IOLO

A trill with a harmoni c inrerval larucr th an a majo r second is a fing'cred tremolo. If a real tre molo is int~nded. rath er th an an alternation
;If two notes at a stipu lated speed (sometimes culled measured tr emolo) .
it is advisable to write time values fast enough ( 0 insure a real tremolo,
o r to add the wo rd tremolo, or tremo tando. Slurs are ncccss:uy to show
th e legato movement of the bow.
EX. 30.

Dcbussy-L'Aprcs-11lidi d un Fsune

p. : S, cd. Kalm us

,- _ -

one str ing, the two notes arc held as a do uble-sto p; and the tremolo
effect has to be nude by an und ulating motion of th e how. alternately
touching the two strings. This ty pe of tremolo is not th e same as th e
true fingered trem olo, sinc e it lacks th e clear art icu lation of the finger
strokes.
EX. 31 .

BrJhms-Sympboll y

P'

110. I

fUr

13 toucbe

........

......

I O:!,

ed. Kalmus

.--...,
\'S . I

TJios modere
~

JJ

, ~

- - -

- -

vx. II
div.

In the preceding example some of the g rou pings. such as Violin I.

measure 4. can be played as fingered tremolo (measured), while ot hers
require two st rings. like those in th e first measure . On the other hand,
all are possible as double-stops, with undubting bow.
The bowed tremolo is made with quick up- and down-bow str okes.
the left hand holding the note or notes. It is a chara cteristic orchestra l
effect, capable of grc:lt dynamic range and variety of accentuation.

...

di....

PI'
P~ rm h..ion gr.nl~d

l"P - =

=--

by Edition s j u n ]obcrt. Par is, copy right o.... nns : E lka n Vogd. Phila delp hi a, Pa. ,

a,enlS.

The division of the first violins in the first measur e of Ex. 30 would
seem on first glance to be only theoretical, but it is a way of making
sure that both notes of the interval sound at each change of bow.
\ Vhen the interval exceeds the limit of extension of the fingers on

EX.

S T R I N G E D IN S T R U ,\ 1E N T S

I N S T R U ,\ 1 E N T S

p. 8, ed. Durand

3'. Debussy-La Aler

Retenu
"~:

....

(l

Tempo ( ]1 ' I I 6)
pi::::.

\I N . ,

,, ~

...

.1111'. '

'

..

t'

malta dim .

....

Pumlilion Il'lnled by

-.I~ p

Dur~nd

Cl Cle. , Paris,

t motto dim .
o wne Tl:

copyr i~1

Elk.n \'o ~l.

rhUldelph ll , Pa.,

I~na.

Equa lly idiomat ic in orchest ral writing is the continued repetit ion of
bow strokes, ditacbe, on a series of notes, CO give more energy and
volume to the strin g tone.
EX.

33. Mozarr-Sylllphony, K. 543

p. 8, ed. Philharmonia

3S

MUTES

The mute is a three-pronged device made of woo d, metal, bone, or

oth er materials, which can be fitted on ro the bridge for the pur pose of
absorbing some of the vibrations befo re they can be transmitted to the
reson ating body of the instrument. The tone quality of muted strings
is difficult of descrip tion. bur, once heard, its characteristic sound is
easily remembered. \V hile one of the results of muting is to reduce the
dy namic power of the body of strings, the radical change in tone color
is far more important. ;\Iuting should not be regarded as the primary
means of getting the strings to play softly. A fine pianissimo can be
achieved without mutes, and, furthermore , the special effect of forte
wit h muted strings mar sometimes be just what is wanted.
T ime must be allowed for putting on and taking off mutes, at least
a couple of measures in moderate tempo. T he more time the better, to
avoid confusion and fisturbance. X umerous inventions to [acilirare a
quick change have appearcd, such as mutes with a spring clip, or mutes
permanently installed on the strings back of the bridge, to be pushed
up against the bridge for muti ng. It cannot be said that any of these
have met with comp lete accep tance by string players.
A gradual change to muted tone can be managed by directing the
players to put on mutes one by one, or by desks, marking the point at
which all are to be mute d.
The indication to put on the mute is the Italian can sordina, or can
sardina-plural sardine, or sordini (Fr., avec sourdines; G er., mit
Dampier, or gedii7llpfr).
T o call for removal of the mutes, th e passage is marked senza sordini
(Fr., sans sourdines; G er., obne Dampfer), or via sordini (Fr., dtez. les
sourdines; G er., Dampfer weg ).

SCORDAT L'RA

A change fr om the normal tuning of the strings is called scordatura.

This has been employed to extend th e dow nward range of basses and
'cellos on rare occasions. In Don Q uixote Strauss asks the solo viola to
tun e the C-string to B, and a similar change is asked of the 'cellos in
Casella's Partita for Piano and Orchestra. T he strings do not give th eir

36

I :-; S T R U .11 E :-; T S

best ton e w hen altered more tha n a minor seco nd, and the incon ven icncc and disturbance caused by retuning during performance seem to
over balance th e slight advanta ge gained .
.
The use of scordatura fo r a c hange of tone color 15 ano ther ma tt er .
In Mahler's Fourtb Symphony the solo violin in the second .mon rncnt
hJS all fou r strimrs tuned up a whole tone, to make it sound " like a cheap
fiddle." The CC~lCCrrlllaS[er prepares a second instrum ent to usc for
this mov eme nt, so th at retuning is avoided.

C H AP TE R

T W O

T HE V IOL IN
Fr., 'I.: iO/Ol1; Ir., 'i,,';0IiI10 ; Ge r., Vi oline

il E over-all length of ~c violin is 23% inc hes. -' Iinoe variations

in pro portions and size are found in different models . T he
body is 14 inches long. the neck a littl e unde r ; ~ inches , and
th e sounding length of the strings-that is, from nu t to bridge- is
slightly ove r 12% inch es. The length of the bo w is 29 inch es.
The top. or belly. of the instru ment is usually of pine or spruce. the
back of map le in one or tw o pieces. Ebony is used for the tailpiece.
fingerboard, nut. and tuning pCb"S. Inside the body. the arched belly is
reinforced by a strip of wood ca lled the bass-bar, gl ued beneath the
G -string edge of the fingerboard . A wo oden sou nd post is held in place
by te nsion bet we en top and back at a carefully chose n spot ncar the
E-string side of the br idge. having the double function of support and
com municarion of vibrations. T he {-holes arc characteristic openings
of traditional shape at either side of the bridge (Plate on page 38) .

F1S GERLSG

The violin is supported between the ch in and the left shou lder. A
chin rest attach ed at the left of the tailpiece helps hold the instrument
so that the left hand is fr ee to mov e up and down the fingerboard. The
neck of the violin lies between the thu mb and th e palm of the lef t hand,
and the left elbow is held fat to the right, enabling the fingers to fall
almost perpendicu larly upon the strings .
31

THE V IOLIN

39

An important feature of articulation in string playing is that some

notes arc made by dropp ing the fi nger on the string, whi le ot hers arc
made by lifting th e linger. If the scale fragment in Fig. 15 is played in
one legato bow, the ascending notes are articu lated by striking and the
descendi ng notes by lifting. Also to be noted is that, afte r striking, the
fingers remain on the string until there is necessity for moving them,
as shown in the figure.

)--1

Ilinn indical~ nng~a hdd do ..n)

Fig. ' 5

The manner in whi ch the fingers are lifted or d ropp~ affects the
clarity. rhyt hm. and tone quality of the sounds produced. T he finger
action varies from exceedingly energetic strokes (Ex . H ) to an extrem ely light and fleet articulation ( Ex. 35)'
EX.

34. Schumann-SY111phony no. Z

P: 172 , cd. Philharmonia

Alltgro moho vivace

Vl'! . I

EX.

35. Mendelssohn-Ita/ian Symphony

p. '40, cd. Eulcnburg

:OJ
4[Sh?''';; tEP e EU:.:: :uk d

The Violin

Rtprlnltd with the pt'rm h~iQn 1>1 !h t 501t a., en ts for EII!enbll rl lolini. lll r( S<:oru: C. f . P(IUI Corpora.
tk&, Nrw \ "orL

I :-J S T R U ~l EN T S

T ilE VI OLI N

Th e following diagram gives the location of the finger s for all the
natural note s in the first position .

Ex. 36, open G is assumed to be a satisfacto ry equivalent of F double

sharp.

40

""

...

:'

G ",

'

0 ",.

'

J
, , 2er
A",.

EX.

36. \Vagncr- T annlJ.lw er: Baccbsnete

, ,
.....

vs .

4# '

41

p.

20,

cd . Kalmus

A.llfgro

; IE

ji

E "'.

Fig. ,6

X ore th at the first finger is drawn bac k close to th e nut for F on the
E-string. the inter n I being a minor seco nd, instead of a majo r seco nd
as on th e other stri ngs. T he diagr am should be studi ed also for relati onships involving more than one str ing. For example, from first finger on
one string to second finger on the next higher string is a minor sixth;
fr om first finger on one string to fou rth finger on the next higher string
is an octave; fr om second finger on one str ing to third finger on the
next lower string is a perfect fourth, ere. Perfect fifths lie across the
strings at right angles.

OPES

Open str ing tone s arc usually avoided in expressive melodic phrases.
but they arc regularly empl oye d in fast scales and figures. Their sound
is characteristic of stringed instruments, and mar even be exploited as
such (Ex. 37) .
EX.

37. Brahm s-S)'111phonJ no. 4

P: I H, ed . Kalmus

..

""

STRI~GS

Duplicati on by the fourth finger of th e open string notes A. D, and

E is an advanta ge peculiar to the first position . There is. however. a
marked difference in tone quality between the opcn su ing tones and
those stopped by the fingers. The former sound clearer and richer in
overtones, because the string vibrates between the bridge and the hard
wood of the nut rat her th an the flesh of the finger tip. But witho ut th e
cont rol of th e finger th e ope n to ne is susceptible to little mod ification
by the bow, and it tends to sound wit h undue prominence. Furthermore, its pitch cannot be ad justed whi le playi ng (conside r the note A as
subdorninanr of E. and then as leading tone of fib). These discrepancies
of intonation are generally tolerated as a necessary evil, notably in the
usc of natural harmonics, whose pitch is dependent on that of the ope n
string fundament al, and also in enharmonically notated passages. In

\'JrI. II

ACCID E XT AL S

A not e affected by an accide nta l is played with th e same finger as

the nat ur al norcoO n rhe G -string, the first finger plays Ab , Ab, and A ~ .
Also th e first finge r must play the sharped open string note G:. The
student should make a diagr am similar to that in Fig. 16, marking the
location of the finger s on the strings for the playi ng of the follow ing
passage.

TH E VIOLI:-;

1:-; S T R U ~I E :-; T S

42

12

T wo notes in ch romatic secp relat ionship are by tradition played

w ith the same finger. Th is requi res a more or less rapid shift of t he finger on the str ing ; hence, with a legat o bowing. a certa in amount of
p0rt amcnro is unavoidable.

4t, :

b.

j
"

t
I

e,

ffi
r i" ill
, j
a
3 " 3

012'

44, , "' "17 r

CHRO:'\ IATIC PROGRE5SIOS

F;g. , 8
Musically. the difference betw een (.J) and (b ) , in Fig. 18 is one of
ton ality. T he fragmen t (d) is understandable in the key of G , and ( b)
in th e key of Ab. to mention two possible inte rpretations. T he un ort hodox fingering shown in (c) is enti rely feasible. and the pr inciple
of using a sepa rate finger for each chromati c step has in practice partiall y superseded th e time-honored one, as by this means a more distinct
arti culation is obt ained, with out sliding or portamenro.
There can be no doubt of th e supe riority of fingering (c) for rapid
passages, but it should be recognized tha t at a slow er tempo the dif ferentiation in harmonic meaning suggested by (a) and (b) may be
sacrificed, not to mentio n th e elimination of certai n slides firmly established in wh at we know as "v iolin sty le." It is true that harmonic devclopm ent s in th e twenti eth cen tury often demand complete acceptance of th e enharmonic notation of the tempered scale, but th e ch oice
of fingering should be gove rned by musical rath er than by mechanical
co nsiderations.
These two alte rnat ive fingerings are shown in th e following scale.
Obviously th e sound of th e finger slides is eliminated if a dbache bowing is used, but the lower, older fingering remain s awkward even then.

-4

1 -1

43

1 2

Fig. '9
ISTONATION

. G oo.d in to~ation (th at i.s. play.ing in tune) is a perpetual preoccupan on With all instrumcntalisrs. Wind as well as strin g play ers. It is not
an absolute bur a relative value. howeve r. Observation and expe riments
have demonstrated th at in practi ce perf or mers do not adhere to anv of
the scienti fical.l)' codified standards of pitch. such as equal rcmpcrarnenr,
Pythagorean, Just. or mean-t on e inton ation. Nor do cs the player accept
the rones he produces by using the proper fingering, crc., without subjecting them to constant control and correction through th e car (except, of .course, in the case of instruments like the harp or the piano.
~hose pitch cannot be adjusted while pbying) . It can be said that leadtog-ton es a.nd chro.ma ti c~ lIr .rJised nores arc playe d sharp and \'ery
~Ios~ to their melodi c destin ations, whereas flatted notes are played low
10 pitch, and that th ere operates a co nti nual harm onic ad justment to
the sounds of othe r instrument s.
T~e ~eculi~r \'i?r::m c): noticeable in the tone of a group of strings
playin g 111 unison IS due In pan ro the minute differences in pitch that
occur through out the grou p.
PO SITIOS T EC IIS IQIJE

As the hand is moved to higher positions new groups of notes lie

under the fingers.

I x 5 T R U ~I E ~ T S

+I

T HE
e:

[ -un ng

A-wmg

D-m ing
2

,
,

G.StriI'Ig
1

second position

2
a
t hir d povincn

Fingering at the top of the fingerboard is difficult not only becau se

of th e smallness of the int ervals and the extended position of the hand,
but also because the strings arc spaced fart her apart at the bridge tha n
at th e nut, to facilitate bowin g.
T he E m oo octaves above th e open Estring may be recommended as
a good practical upper limit. exclusive of harm onics, for orchestral
violin parts.

,
,

2
Io urt b pu'>illon

YI OLl~

H AL F POSITIOS

T he hand is said to be in half position when the first finger is a half

step from the nut and the second finger plavs notes usually played by
the first finger . Certain combinations of notes arc more conveniently
fingered in this rather cramped position (Ex. 39) .

Fig. : 0

The series m 3~' be co nt inued upward. wit h the qualification that on

th e lower strings high notes arc increasingly difficult of produ ct ion because of the shortness of the str ing in proportion to its thick ness. O n
the E-stri ng, tones can be played up to th e end of the fingerboard. and
even beyond. whe re diatonic intervals becom e smaller tha n the thickness of the fingenips. The G: wri tten by Str auss in the following example lies in the thirte enth position , and has a sounding str ing length
of a littl e more than an inch and three-quarters. It is played by t\V O
desks of violins, doubled at the unison by piccolo. and supported at the
oct ave below by flute, Eb clarinet. and two ot her desks of violins.
EX.

38. Strauss-A /50 Sprscb Zsrubustra

p.

st. cd. Aibl

EX.

39. Stra\'insky-Apollon J /usJgete

Cop)Tilhl 1928 hy Ed ilio n RllS-e

h7 permi.iorl.

d~ "' us iqu~_ R ~n .e d ~dilion

Fig.

Rep r in led ,,.j Ib tbe pe 'mi......ion of th e copl,il:l,l o,,-nen C. f . Pete,s Corp<l':lt;on.

~e>"

York .

."50 by Boost) & Ih.wk ..._

l:~

In the first position the left hand is capable of a str etch of an augmented fou rth . and even a perfe ct fifth. from first to fourth finger. In
higher positions. extension of the fo urth finger bey ond the range of
the position is common procedure (Fig. 11).

@~
~ '

copl-ri ct t

FOURT H FI:"GER EXTES SIO:-;

J_
os .' 0

-~g . -

P: 18. ed. Boosey & Hawkes

21

46

IX S TR U .\I EXT S

T H [

In chan gi ng f rom one position to anothe r, a slidi ng finger acts as a

guide to the interva l of change. The ha nd m ay Ol(W C to any of th e
positions. but th e commonest shift is that f rom first to third , th ird to
fifth position. erc ., invol ving a slide of a third, usually fo r the first
finger (Fig . 22).

(-' X . 4 0 .

p-r
At

~ u:,W.

j rd,

l""-

I""-

eI

e a

Fig.

I'

&.. .

St rauss-Der R oscnlea..'alier

P: 330, ed. Boosey & H awk es

~,.

#1

r - '"
I

....

,dL

\'111. II

..

22

T he gu iding finger is nor necessarily the sto pping finger in the new
position. Fig. 23 (a) is a cha racteristi c position shift. Th e first finger
slides fr om B to D , bur th e fo urt h finger stops G befo re D is hear d.
The slide can be nude so q uickly as to he inaudible. bur it is often
permitted to sound fur expressive intensification . O t her shifts are
shown in ( b) , ( e) . and (d).

h 2

47

. ..-. ..
.- ,. '.-.
~.

Su ppression of th e po rtam enro in t he following example w o uld certainly be inappro priate.

SHIFT OF POSITIO:S

~ ~,..

\ '1 0 LI

\ A.

Cgpyrlchl 1910 by Adolf FUf'lt "rr, ~",i Kn"" 19H to Boovy &< lIu.-l,u, l.td l'scd b y pocrm i16IOD . ( For
Pon....,.l I t.a.ly, Germ~n y, Dan" L l"SS R as 01 19J3: l u ' omer , Lid . Lo ndon.)

-r-:

GLISSA X OO AS D

P O R rA:\-{ E ~ T O

A t rue gl issand o is made with one finger, o n one st ring, w ith legato

, lot.

- ' 41
4t h .

'w .

I"'"

I"'"

I"'"

....

5th.

....

. dL

bow, and when it is prope rly executed all inter vening stages of pit ch
are so unded between the indicated limits.

F ig , 23
EX. 4 1.

\ Vhen taste and t he sty le of the mus ic allow, the finge r t hat is to
play th e secon d note may nu ke a sligh t po rtament o o n t he st ring just
before reaching the note. In a desce ndi ng shif t, th e port:unetlto o n
quitting the uppe r note is kep t to a minimum, the thumb acting as a
guide to the lower position .
T he sliding sounds can be reduced to ncar impercepribiliry, o r they
can be eliminated alt ogether, by skillful manipulatio n of the bow and
fingers. H o wever , th ey arc idiomatic in st ring playi ng, and sometimes
a parti cular finge ring th at w ill produce them is deliberately ch osen .

Ran l- Dapbnir et Chloe

P' ' 97, ed. Durand

Th is glissando is sco red as un ison and octaves for first an d seco nd

violins, violas, half t he 'cellos, and basses, all on th eir open A- strings,
sliding up and down two octaves in fast tempo.

T HE VIO LI N

I S S T R U~l E N T S

In Ex . 42, G -st ring and A- string are de signated, althou gh the glis-

EX.

44 . .\1ahlcr-Sy mpbollY 110. 4

sandos writt en could not be made on any other strings.

EX ,p .

\ ' !, . I

~ --=.. F ' - IV'"

=~~_ PPI'

PI'

JI.III/

p. 1 19 . ed . Ph ilharmonia
.~

T u nquillo

p. 8. ed . Ph ilhannonia

Bartuk-D.mce Suite

49

-:Wi ! I
Likewise the glissando in the next example cannot be literally exeIt is evident that composers fail to distinguish between ponemento
and gliss.Jlldo, and it is unnecessary that a pedantic dist inction should
be made. Portamcnto seems to imply a manner of connecti ng melodic
tones, and one thinks of a glissando as cove ring a fairly wide interval,
bu t these conditions are not mutua lly exclusive. Care should be taken in
the notation to show as accurately as possible the exact effect intended.
A straight line from one note to anothe r is commonly used as a sign
of porramento, although there is often doubt as to how complete a
slide is wanted. In E-,<. 43 a real glissando with one finger could be made
where the lines are marked, but, on the other hand , the lines may be
taken simply as suggesting a musical style in which more than usual
emphasis is ginn to the portamentos associated with position shifts.
Ex. 44 is more problematical. A complete portamento from the C down
to the E is out of the question . since the upper note is (00 high to take
on the G -strin g. The most the performer can do is to make a small slide
at the beginning and end of the descent.
EX.

43. M ahler-Sy m phollY 110 . 4

"N . I

P' I 18, ed. Philharmonia

cuted . After the open E is reached. somcrhing like a rapidly fingered

chromatic scale or parcial glissando on the lower strings must be substituted.

EX.

4 5. Ravel- La V alse
.\ Iouvemcnl de

P' 39. ed. Durand

,~Il.e

vie n nosse

~, ~ ~ .t-f~
Po:nn iaNon

p~n tffl b}" D u , ~n d

.~
P I Z'Z-

f l Cif F aris. eopyril(hl ",".-nfl"S; Ella.n-\ 'Oli;fl . P h ilad el p h il , Pa.- . II:MIS

WIDE SKIPS

T o judge the degree of diffi culty in fingering wide leaps one considers the str ings involved and the position displacement necessary . The
skip of two octaves and a major sixth in Ex. 46 passes from the G-string
to the E-string. and the hand must move from first position (third finger
C) to seventh position ( fourth finger A ). This is equi valent to a slide
from C up to B for the thi rd finger. an interva l of a major seventh on
one string.
EX.

46. Brahms-SY711phony no. 3

""".1

p. 49. ed. K almus

IN S T R U ~ 1 E N T S

50

TH E VIO LI N

Similarly. it is necessary to cross over two st rings in the next example,

bur it happens that the left hand does not have [Q change position to
play the two lower notes on the G -string. All are in the sixt h position.
except th at the initial B is better pl ayed on the more brill iant E-string

right instant. It must be admitted, however, tha t keen cars arc not decei ved .

EX. 50. Berg-Lyric Suite

P' 36, ed . Universal

in third position.
EX.

47. H olsc- T be Planets

l 'sed hy P<'rmlulon 01

J. Curw on

p. ' 9. ed, Boosey & H awkes

Open st rings may take part in passages in which t he hand remains in

a high position.

& Sons, Ltd .

Skips made on one st ring arc apt to dema nd more displa cement of the
hand . In t he following exam ple, the leap of a tenth from F~ to A mean s a

EX,

51. Hindemith-Sym phony ill E Flat

p. 126, ed. Schott

shift from first to seventh position, just as ~for the much greate r interval
in Ex. 46.
EX.

48. ,\ Iahler-Sy mp bony no. 9

~ ~

All",.
v

~. ,

N
,

. ,.,

==:
.-.... .
'.

p. 11 8, ed. Boosey & H awk es

' r-::-.. v~
i~
~ ~~.;"""' .e,"'~

S UIii2Ei
"~ "
. . "
...

"

I =
_-

---= r-

Copyr ichl 1911; ree ewed 19-10. by C"ivu...... Edition A.. G . l..w, by permission.

If the 1\v0 notes are to be slurred, th e interval must be arranged so

th at either a single string, or two adjacent strings, can be employed,
since the bow cou ld not play legato and at the same time jump over
intervening strings,
EX.

49. Reger-A Romantic Suire, op.

1Z

P' 48, ed . Bore & Bock

W ith au U1orizatfon of th e orici n ai pu blish t B Ed . Bol t .. C . Bod< . Ikrlin .

Wi~baden.

A ski llful player can give a fairly good imp ression of a legato skip

across intervening strings by light ening and slowing the bow at the

CH Oi CE OF F1 XGERIS GS

l\fore than one fingering is possible for any succession of notes, and
the one selected is not always tha t which is most convenient for the
fingers. Simplifi cation of bowing. by eliminating suing changes. is
sometimes a predominant consideration. O ften a fingering with more
position shifts is adop ted in orde r to presene the unity of tone color
and special quality of a single string, or to give a part icular expressive
tum to a melody. The stu dent's att ention is called to the importance
of developing an appreciation of these differences in the sounds produced by stringed instrum ents.
In recent years one not es a strong tend ency to ward a liberation of
violin fingering techniqu e from the traditional system of positions. It
cannot be denied that many forced and unnatural fi nger positions are
the result of "correct" fingering, and that these produce bad intonation.
Accomplished and experienced players find that they prefer to discover
fingerings most suited to the shape of the hand , of th eir own individua l
hand, without reference to con ventional patterns and positions, so that
the notes to be played lie convenient ly unde r the fingers that are to

T ilE VI O Ll ;-';

1;-'; 5 T R U .\ 1 E;-'; T 5

52

play them. Doubtless these principles will one dar be incorporated into
the teaching of violin playing.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STRISGS

While there is much more unity of timbre in a stringed instrument

than in a woodwind, there exists in this respect within the homogeneity
of the violin a striking variety and even contrast of colors and dynamic
range . This is largely because of the differences in sound between the
four strings. Since the pitch ranges of the strings overlap, the possibilities for variety are multiplied, and we cannot designate characteristics of
low, medium, and high registers, as we do for wind instruments.
The E-str ing is made of steel. T he radical change to t his material fr om
gut, in the int erests of g reater brilliance and durability, occur red in
th e first quart er of the present century and was felt by many to be a
disaster because of th e loss of a certain silky and mellow quality.
A-strings are of gut, although some orchestra players now use a metal
A . The Dvsrring iseither of gut or gut wound with aluminum wire. Th e
Gcsrring is always a wound string, silver or copper wire over gut being
the commonest material . D- and G-strings entirely of metal are also
used.
T he tu ning pegs to which the st rings are attached are held in position
by the friction of a good fit. A knot or a loop attaches the other end of
the string to the tailpiece. Metal strings require a special screw device
on the tailpiece for tuning fine differences.
T he E-string has the most carrying power. Forceful and even strident at times, it is also capable of an ethe real quality, luminous and
clear, when played softly (Ex. 52).
EX.

51 . Milhaud-Second Symphonic Suire

n ". 1

P: 69, ed. Durand

~
~;g

Pennissl OD ....rued by DlIt.nd ct Cie., Puis. cop yt iant ow ners ; Elkp-VOSCI, Ph ill.dclph iJ,. PL sc nb.

53

The A- string is fairly strong in the first position . losing some brilliance and power as the string becomes shorter in upper positions. For
a soft, expressive phra se in that range, it is generally preferable to move
up the A-string rather than pass over to the E ( Ex. 53) .
EX. 5) .

Brahms-Symphony no. J

P' 6], ed. Kalmus

VS . I

The least powe rfu l str ing is the D-string. It has a quie t, subdued
quality in contrast to the G, and is especially suited to certain calm
types of expression (Ex . 54).
EX.

54. Beethonn-Piano Concerto no. 4

n .

P' a, ed. Philharmonia

w ! B ig
The G -string is next to th e E-string in sonorous strength. It is excellent for broad melodies rising as high as th e seventh or eighth position,
although it has a ten dency to hoarseness in the extreme high ron es. A
cautious limit for melodies on th e G- string would be an octav e and a
fourth above th e open string (Ex. 55) .

I:\' S T R U ~I E:\' T S

54
E X.

55. hl ahlcr-SYlllpl!oIlY 110. 3

\ v.

TilE VIOLl:\,

P' 213. cd. Boosey & Hawkes

Rne n
';l'

11Ior rn J o

.1

Most violin music will req uire the use of more than one string for
a given phrase. Th e passing from one string to anot her is don e in a way
to reconcile thei r di ff erences and as far as possible to pr esen'e continuity of colo r and intensity.

".

DOt:nLE-sTOPS ASD CHORDS

l ....d b}" prrm iu ion o r l"n in rs.al E d;! ,,," .,. G.

T he next example illust rates a way of avoidi ng loss of volu me and

fo rce by using the G-string instead of the weaker D.
EX .

56. Bartok-Concerto for Orchestra

Anda nte

\\

-=;

P' ;6, ed. Boose)' & H awkes

..

'~". " , I :'Z 7 __ '_ _

QD

S:

OM 0

, :: .,- :'fi

umpuf

COPl riJ h t 19"6 "b y H ~ .. -k~ &: Son ( Lo n d on) t .ld. l""" b y pr rm iu 'on .

Fig, 24

The above representa tion of bridge. strings, and bow shows how
little ch ance in the elevation of the rinhr
lund is ncccssarv
fo r the bo w
0
.
to play on different stri ngs. Th e Low can be drawn in a plane to engag e
two strings at once. w hatever the posit ion of the left hand ( Fig. 2sa) ,
It cann ot be draw n acros s three str ings at once, unless enough pr essure
is pur upon it to depress the midd le string of the three int o the same
plane with the ot her two. T his is done in three -parr cho rds that arc
loud and of short du ration ( Fig. 2Sb ) . O therwise, in both three-part
and four-parr chord s. eithe r th e top note or the two to p notes are held
after play ing the low er no tes as grace note s (Fi g . 2SC and d). It is the
Custom ro play th e lower notes before the beat. If suc h anticipation is
not desired, a notation like rhnr show n in ( e) should be employed.
~

Loud accented notes on the G-string can be for ceful to th e degree of

ferocity.
EX .

57. ROllsscl-Sympbony in G Minor

P: 39, ed . Durand

Pu mlulon llrantcd by Durand rt Cie. , Pari s, cop yright ownr u ; Elk Jn 'oJ:rl , Philadelphia. Pa ., a grn ts.

To signify that a passage is to be played on a certa in string, the passage may be marked sui G (o r D or A ), with a dortcd line cont inuing
as far as necessary. O ne should realize. however, th at a violinist selects
his finge ring acco rding to the mu sical and techn ical dema nds of the
moment, and ordinarily such indication s are need ed only w hen a special
effect is inten ded,

played

' '/

'/
"V
Fig. ' ;

f O' iN

1:-: S T R U ,\ 1 E:-: T 5

T HE VIOLl:-:

The notation in Fig. 25 (c) makes fo r fussiness in the sco re, and co mposers generally h:1XC been content to w rite the phi" chord, rely ing on
the musical intelligence of performer and conducto r for a proper
rhythmic execution. In the opening tutti chords of the Eroica, t he first
violins must sound the four strings as nea rly simultaneously as t hey
can, to match the staccato of the other instruments. (T he example is
ginn in condensed score. All inst rumen ts ar c not ated at actu al pirch.)

One finger can stop t w o adjacent stri ngs at once (the interva l of a
perfect fifth), but it cannot Stop three or four.
Th e less awkw ard and strained the hand position the Letter the chord
will sound, and the less likely that it will be Out of tunc . One good
rul e is to try to have th e higher-numbered fingers on higher strings.
The following two contrasting cases will illust rate th is.

56

EX.

P'

58. Bccth o\'cn-SY111phou y no . 3

Alit gro

,"
I~"

~on

I,

ed. K almus

boo

.l" .~

'i

"'.

'"

"". --

~",S~

c tr
Fig. 26

The hand position for (.1 ), with its outward slant. is practically th at
of th e relaxed hand when the fo rearm is held upwards. In (b), not only
m ust the hand be forced into a t w isted position. hut also th e free vibration of the E- an d A-strings is ap t to be inter fered w it h. It is not th at
t he chord is un playable but that ( a) is mu ch mo re cert ain and effective.
Com plex and awkward finger combinations need more time to set in
place t han simple and convenient ones.
O pen strings arc frequently used in chords and double-stops. T hey
may be com bined with stopped notes in higher positions (Fig. 27).

r
H '"-f~

.~

"'".

II ~ \ 'II,.

"
D-8 , . .

57

"'*

,..
..

~
~'S _

II

\,, 'd .

(Jrdpos.)

vc

T he student can bcsr determine t he practicability of any mu ltiple

stopping by the method of making diagrams showing rhe location of rhe
fingers, at least until he gains enough experience to be ab le to picture
t hese positions in his imagination. T he practice of making suc h diagrams will go far toward giving him that expe rience. T he foll ow ing
points will be found usef ul in writing chords for t he violin.

r:

---

4 t
......... ,

Fig. ' 7
The un ison of stopped ton e and open string is very resonant , especially in t remolo.
EX,

59' Prokofiefl-c-Coc nr

P: 11 J. cd. Guthcil

INSTR UM ENT S

58

TH E VIOLIN

The finger positions for thre e- and four-part chords arc often the
basis for arpeggio figures across the st rings. The bow may play legato
back and fo rt h ( Ex. 60 ) , or it may bounce lightly by its 0\1/0 elasticity
(Ex. 6,) .
EX. 60.

\Vagner-Die lValk iire: Siegnnmds L iebeslied

P'

'5. ed. Eulcnbu rg

The upper limit for natura l harmonics on the violin is generally

placed at the fifth harmonic; that is, t\VO octaves and a major thi rd
above the open st ring. In practice. the higher ha rmonics would pr obably be taken as art ificial harmonics. up to t he fourt h O[ fift h position
on the E-string. although still higher harmonics have been wri tt en
(Ex. 6).
EX.

EX.

61. Rimsky-K orsakoff-c-Cspn coc Espegnol

P: 9. ed. Kalmus

59

6 ). Cop land-Sympbony no. 3

p. ' 5' . ed. Boosey & H awkes

Examples arc nu merous of high pedal nores in harmonics, frequently

with bowed trem olo. Their effect is enhanced by mutes; and in soft
nuances cho rds in harmonics for divided violins, muted, make an attractive background of atmospheric color.
Artificial harmonics in quick succession, with either legato or detache bow , involve-continual shifting. much like playing a melody with
one finger.
EX.

64. ,\ filhaud-SympbollY no. 2

P: z t , ed. Heuge!

Copyrllhl by M. P. Belli.!!"; aole Icenu Boosey & Ib..... l<u . t: aed by permission .

Rep rod uced by pet mi Mion of Ile ugel el Cle., Paris, o.... ners of lhe copyright.

HARMONICS

Although harmonics are primarily a coloristic resour ce, the octave

harmoni c is frequentl y employed as a normal (One in the melodic line,
whether or not the composer has so indicated.
EX.

P' 44. ed. ulenburg

6,. Schuberr-Sy mphony no. 5

1

2,..--,0
3_
p~

F :(1

Sr i

1t

If
C. F. Peten Corporl-

The glissando in natura l harmoni cs is effective with a body of strings.

The upper half of the srring is brushed lightly wirh the third or fourrh
finger , the harmonics sound ing at the nodes. There is no sound of
portament o between the notes.

rx

60
EX.

THE Vl OLl :"

S T R U ,\ 1EN T S

65- Stravinsky-L'Oiseau de Feu

P'

12 ,

ed. Broude Bros.

Moho moderato
0
co.n n/nl . kg.uo o...o ~
glm. nU D
.. o~
0 _

Rcp rod un d by

~rmission

of }. &: W. Chestn Ltd ., London .

An unusual, delicate effect is obtained with an arpeggio across the:

strings, in harm onics .
EX.

p. 12 I , ed. D urand

66. Ranl-L'Hwre Espagnole

",1'1 . I

~"

"

Pc rm ia.sion p-I nt! b)' Du rand ( 1 Cir . PiUi~. copy r i~1 o.. ners; E!kan \'ogt'l. Ph l1" delphia . P I , .~ nu..

T he artificial harmonic created by touching a perfect fifth above

the sto pping first finger sounds a twelfth above th at fundamental. It
is rare ly used in orchestral scores, bur some instances arc foun d in
m8dcrn music.

EX.

67. Bartok-Dance Suite

P' J I, ed. Philh arm onia

Cop yr ilht 1924 by u e tve..... l Ed ition. Cop yr igh t ai gned 1939 to 800s<'y .. Jb ...kn Ltd. UOl'd by

roc rmiu ion.

F I RST AXD SECOXD HOUSS

In score reading it is essential to bear in mind that a string part is

played by a number of playe rs. a wh ole section of sixteen first violins,

61

for instance, as opposed to one player to a part in the case of wo odwind

or brass. Th e two sections of violins far outnumber any other gro up,
while presentin g on the printed page a look of equali ty .
T he parr for second violins, in a symphony orc hestra, differs little in
technical difficulty fro m that of the first violins. Indeed. one of the
commonest functions of th e second violins is to do uble th e firsts at the
unison or octa ve. T his was necessary in the classical perio d because of
the comp aratively small number of violins available to balance horn s
and trumpets. But also in mode rn times we find that over tw ice as m:lny
violins are still not adeq uate to cope with the sonority of an enormously
expand ed brass section.
The first violin part is usually th e to p voice of the strings and carries
the largest share of promi nent the matic material. Scared on th e left of
the conductor, at the edge of the stage, the first violins play with thei r
instruments in th e most advan tageous position relative to th e audience.
If the second violins arc seated on the right, in tr aditional fashion, their
instruments are turned away fro m the audience and some sound is
lost. If they are massed with the first violins. as some conductors prefer.
they are still domin ated by the first violins who are between them an d
the listeners, and the effect of independence and antiphony often
imagined by the composer is much redu ced. This is one of th e many
acoustical probl ems standing in the way of an exact science of orchestration.
The second violins may have a secondary melodic part, or they may,
for variety, be substituted for th e first violins. They may engage in accom paniment figures of e\'cry sort, either by themselves or associated
with first violins or other strings. In Ex. 68, in the first and third mcasures, the two sections alternately play figures from a single line, giving
it more secu rity and energy thro ugh the simplification of each part and
the overlapp ing unisons at the joints.

I N S T R U ,\ 1E N T S

62
E X,

68. Brahms-Symph olly 110. 4

Alkg~o

,.*,

T HE VI O LI N

63

P: 1J5, ed. Kalmus

energico

n< .

Vll', II

Re pr i n l ~d

".-it h the pe rmiss ion of th e sole agen ts for E ulcn l> urg l>l: nlature Sco res: C, F , Pe ters Corpo ra-

li on, :-;.w \ 'o r l<.

D ivided vio lins playing in parts may be employed unaccompanied by

other instruments. In the following excerpt, the strings are reduce d to
four first violins, soli.
EX.

69. Liszt-A Faust Symphony

p. 148, ed. E ulen burg

Andanre soave

sempr~

tegltto e dola

dolce espras.

'"u
. .. 1

----.
p

--

SOLO VIOLI N

Many sco res of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries contain parts
for solo violin. to be played by the concertmaster. These solo parts
vary in importance from the oc casional phrases in " ~agncr and .\tahler
to a de velop ed obbligato of concertolike proportion s and virtu osity, as
in Ein H cldcnleben, by R ichard Strauss. T he reason for choosing t he
sound of a solo violin is not merely that a reduction in volume is sought.
A single instrument possesses an intimate intensity in its tone quality
and expression; by comparison the complete section sounds formal and
impersonal. This is one of the motivating factors in t he trend toward
the small orchestra in t he twentieth cent ury .
A n acoustic ph eno menon to be noted when the solo violin plays in
t he mid st of a large orchestra is its surprising abi lity to make itself
heard . It is well known that two instruments playing the same parr do
not create twice the sonority of one. T heir overtones are dulled by
minute pitch differences and, moreover, their individual expressiveness
is canceled in favo r of a composite level. The solo vio lin, playing an
ind ependent part, ca n in no way be looked upon as merely the sixteenth
part of th e first vio lin section.
Performers are cognizant of th ree attitudes. or approaches. adopted
in the playing of music. These are the orchestral style, the chambe r
D

64

I :-.: 5 T R U ~ I EN T 5

music style. and the solo style. Playing in an orchestra , the ind ividual
allows himself to be absorbed in the mass. In c hambe r music style. the
performer retains his individuality wh ile sh:u ing it on an equal basis
with his associates. The soloist is properly assertive and aggressive.
striving to project rhe music vvirh all the vigor and authori ty at his
command . T his atti tude contributes to the distinction of the solo violin
pact.

C HAPTER

THREE

TH E V IO LA
Fr., a/to,' It., . . ';0/'1; C er., Brssscbe

pr op ortions of the viola cannot be as nearly defin ed as th ose

of the violin. which can be said to h J \ ' C a sta nda rd size within
quite sma ll limits of variation. Fin e violas exist, and are being
played. whose measurem ents show variati ons of I ;~ to 2 inches in body
lengt h, and comparable differences in sounding string lengrh s. It seems
that every imaginable combination of measurements has been tried in
th e as ye r unfinished evolutionary process. the goal of wh ich is to
achieve an instrumental design that will answe r to a common ideal of
the viola's sound and capabilities. T his common ideal is being delayed
in its crystallizing by an unusual diverge nce of opi nion among performers, composers. and listeners, borh as to what kind of tone rhe viola
should produ ce and what kind of music it should be expected to play.
The viola presents an especially marked example of the con tinuity of
the evoluti onary process, w hich we canno t assume to be com plered in
the case of any of our instruments.
A hypothetical norm or average may be given for the principal
measurements: length of body 16% inch es; length of neck 6 Yt 6 inc hes;
over-all length 27 ~ inch es; sounding length of strings 15'Y4 inc hes.
Even the largest violas are not big enough in comparison wit h the violin
to correspond to the pitch a perfect fifth lower, and this discrepancy 15
doubtless responsible in large part for the unique tone qua lity of th e
viola. The larger the instru ment the more difficult it is to handle, especially when playing in upper positions.
The bow is somewhat rhicker than the violin bow, and hence heavier.

HE

1:-; S T R U .\ 1 E:-; T S

T HE VIO L A

The viola's heavier strings speak with more relu ct ance. and tone produ ction requires a certain amo unt of "digging in." Light and airy types
of bowi ng arc t herefore less natural to the viola than [0 t he violin.
Thev are nor to be shunne d. but one sho uld realize that on ly skillful
players with good instruments can make them sou nd effect ively.
The two lower strings arc wound with wire, the others being plain
gut. Some players usc wound strings for all four, and metal A-strings
are also used.

The harmonic obtainable by extension of the fourth finger in the

seventh position is sho w n in the diagr am. as it represents a pr act ical
upper Jimit for orchestral writing . Except as harmonics, notes higher
tha n this are rarely written, and nearly always they are doubled by

66

FI:"GF:RISG

The fingering system of the viola is identical with th at of the violin .

Since there is a difference of some 2 % inches in the two str ing lengths,
th e ma jor and minor seco nd int ervals bet ween the finge rs arc proportionately large r. Playi ng the viola requires a Luge lund and strong fingers. particularly the fourth finger. whi ch is held in a more extended
position than on th e violin . The extension of the left for earm in the first
position prons tiring after long pl<l.ying. Positions above the third are
inconven ienced by the awkwardness of getting around the shoulder of
the viola with the left hand.
PO SITIOSS

lim posirioI\

C- ~tring

Cstring

violins.
EX. 7 0 .

Prokofi eff- ChoU!

p. 53, ed. Gutheil

V4~~'
/

/ - 1'

l'

Copyri l!:hl 1924 b)" Br(itkopf t: H irtd ( A Cuth.il). Co p) ri &bl

assi&ll~

19047 10

~)"

..

U. ~Ir. ...

Cltd

b)" pum iaioft.

CLEFS

The normal clef for the viola is the alto clef (middle C on the third
line) . The treble def (G def) is employed when the part lies substanti ally above the range of the alto clef for a length of time. Too
many clef changes shou ld be avoided. A violist is quite accustomed
to reading two or three leger lines above the staff, and he would pr efer
to do so rather tha n change clef for just a few notes.

HALF POSITlOS

Because of the wider spa ces between fingers. the half position is more
co nvenient on the viola than on the violin and is more frequent ly used.

D-string

67

-,.

EX. 7 1.

p. 97, cd. Kalmus

Brahms-Symphony no. 2
Allegro con spirirc

V4~rJ~
J1P Z .fo 8 2 1 Z

.fo 2 1 2

CHAR..\CTERISTICS OF THE

8 2 I ==--

STRI~GS

Ad jectives used to describe the tone of the viola, or of any other

instrument, cannot do more than direct the-stu dent' s attention to certain admitt edly general and " agu e attributes. There is no way other

I N S T R U ~I EN T S

T HE V IO LA

tha n actua l hear ing to stor e up the memory imp ressions that make possible t he mental hearing abi lity indispensable for the practice of the art
of orchestration. O ne must develop the capacity to call to mind the
sound of each instrument, comparing it to other instruments, but it
is also important to distinguish differences in tone qual ity present in
each sing le instr ument.
The top string of the viola presents a striking contrast to the other
three strings. Its timbre has been described as nasal, piercing, penetrating. and sandy. It has a tendency to sound unduly prominent, but it
goes without say ing that a goo d performer kee ps a smooth balance in
passing from the D~srring to the A. The Acsmng's individuality is well
exhibited in the following example.

While th e G-stri ng is subd ued in comparison with the A- and

C-strings. it gives a riche r and warmer tone than the violin's G.

68

EX. 72.

Shostakovich-Sympl.lOuy no. 5

P:

12 ,

ed.

n..I usicu s

EX .

74. Debussy- N oct1lrJIes: N uages

69

P'

10,

cd. j obcrr

Perml q lon for .., pri nt Ilran ted b~' Edition< J ea n Jobert, Pa ris. F ranc e, cop yriliht o wners " Elkan-Vogel
Co.. Inc" Philade:p hia. Pa . ag ent. .

The C-st ring of the viola is the only one bevo nd the ranvc of the
violin. It is powe rf ul and distinctive i~ timbre: Although c~inciding
with part of the range of the 'cello, its tones arc in sharp contrast to
the sound of th e D -string of the 'cello. Those who look for subjective
qualities find it foreb oding and menacing . III the following examp le,
with vigorous de tac hc bowing, in the lower half of the how , it gives
mu ch solidity and encrgy to rho string unison.
EX.

75. Bart(',k- COl1certo for Orcbestm

Pr esto

P' 89, cd. Booscy & H awk es

IV -

\'N . I

Copyright 1945 by Lre ds Music Corporation. :\ew York . Card by perm i, sion.

T he D -string is unobtrusive and gentle, although it has more roneweight than the D of the violin. It is, w ith the G -string, the best part
of the viola for the many kinds of accompaniment figure commonly
allotted to it, and it is excellent fo r melodies like the follow ing. H ere
the violas play in octaves w ith the oboe for two measures, and w ith the
flut e for the rest of the phrase.
EX.

11/n:u

,. 'H~ l t

f ) o u . --=--.

-.

==-'

\ A_

a ~!!i~I!!J~f'~~r~

I' grazioso

I
~ -- F r~Pl' ~

\ N. II

p. 9, cd. Kal mu s

73. Brahm s-SY1Jlphon y no. 3

Allegro

"

The Osrring is also capab le of soft. delicat e tones, as m this accompanim en t figure for divided violas.

70
EX.

[:-;STR U~t EN T S

76. St rauss- Tod und Vcrlcldrung

TH E VIOLA

p. .p , ed. Kalmus

71

tremolo on t he low er strings. H eld chords fo r w inds are om itted from

the example.
EX .

78. Beethoven-Violin Concerto

P' 8, cd. Eulcnburg

Allegro rna non troppo

Repr int ed with th e pcrmi..ion of the (opy,igh t owllNS C, F . l'ttOfS CorpuratiQ o , !'ew York.

MELOD IC lJSES

The situation of the viola in the middle of the pitch range of the
strings seems [0 I\ave made it the busiest member of the group. It is not
only appropriate for melodies of its own, but it is constantly called upon
to double violins at the octave or unison, or it may double the 'cellos or
even the basses. T he character and the sound of the viola arc more
suited co singing melody than to the performance of agile figuration .
IXH.:llLE SOTES

It has always fallen to the viola to perform a great deal of harmonic

filling up. V iola pans in scores of the classical period and later abound
with passages in double notes, often without indication as to whether
or not these are to be play ed divisi . The fac t that the y are nea rly always
practicable as double-stops, by good players, suggests that this may
have bee n optional, but it is certain that the result is neater and the intonation more secure w hen th e part is divided. Example 77 shows that
M ozart considered violas entirely adequate and suitable for thc important accompanim ent at t he beginning of the G M inor Symphony.

Rep ri nted ..d th the per mi ssi on of th e sole agents for Eul enburg Min ia.ture Scores: C. F. Peters Co rporalIon . Ne w York.

When two not es lie both on the C-string, as in measure

example, thcy must of course be play ed divisi.
EX.

13 n~m

'LIl,!,'1 1

"l
,~

f1<I&O/ "
EX.

77. Mozart- Sy mphony in G Minor, K. 550 P:

I,

ed. Ph ilharmonia

T he absence of double notes in the viola part contributes to the

transparency and fleetness of the orchestration of the Overture to T he
Magic FJUle, whereas on the other hand the massive vibrancy of the
Beethoven tutti shown in Ex. 78 is largely due to the violas' three-part

I~

>'i

of th e next

p. 'j, cd. Eulenburg

79. Wagner-Prelude to Parrifal

Sehr

1 1; g 1===8
~

R.ep rl nted ..ith th e Ilm usion of th e sole a.gents for Eulenburlt Miniature Scores ' C. F. Pet ers Corpora..
tion , Ne.. Yor k.

In a modern orchestra there are usually twelve violas, In th e per iod

of H aydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, the number w as at most five, with
six to ten first violins and six to ten second violins. V iolas have a heavier
tone than violins, and in classical sco res the re is go od evidence th at the
divided violas were th ough t a sufficient balance for the combined first
and second violin s.
Also, there are numerous instances in which the se divided violas are
combined with wind instruments , like the foll owing.
D"

THE VIOLA

INSTRUMENTS

72
EX. 80.

\j lozart-Symphony in C Afajor, K.

200

Allegro spiritOSO

P' 3. ed . Philharmonia

73

The practice of dividing violas remains widespread to the present

day, alrhough one cannot say it is consistent eno ugh to become the
rule. There arc many scores (e .g., Ravel's Dapbnis et Chloe) in wh ich
the violas are given regularly two lines in th e score. There are likewise
scores in which divided violas are a rarity (e.g., Stravinsky's Symp hony
in C ). It is now mandato ry to mark clearly eith er div. or non diu. wh en
there are double notes.

p
VIOLA S AS BASS

. =. .. -

A light bass situa ted in the octave below middl e C is sometimes better given to violas than to 'ce llos, in eith er areo or pizzicato.
EX.

".

p. 236, ed . Bore & Bock

8, . Mahler-Symphony no. 7

"c.

Do'.

,'L

, ,

"'f

3 OB.

/,

"'f
VN . ,

PI'
pizz.
VA.

d~tl;(:b

piz.z.

PI'
With authoriution of the oxlainal publishers Ed . Bote &: G. Bod.., Berli n,

W ies~ den.

DOUBLE-STOPS AND CHORDS

It is wise to adhere to the principle that the maximum stretch from

first to fourth finger is the equivalent of a perfect fourth on one string,

T HE V IOLA

INSTRUMENTS

for chords and double-stops in th e lower positions. The playability of

any combination can be judged by making diagrams similar to tho se
advised for the violin. Three-part chords will be found more generall y
usefu l than four-part chords unless a fairly heavy effect is want ed, and
open-spaced chords sound better than those in close position .
In the following example of a viola passage in a full tutti, the doublestops and chords arc skillfully chosen (0 give the maximum sonority.
Notice the large number of open string notes employed.

EX.

84. Strav insky-Le Sacre du Printemps

Copyrlaht 1921 by Ed ition Ru ese de Mus iQue.

EX. 82 .

r""d

71
P'

10,

ed . Ru sse

by pennission.

D'Indy-Symphony on a French Mountain Air

p. 5) . ed. D ur and
J: H

~~~ ~ ~ ~

... B ! I. JY~
~~

~A'"

l!u! , l !,~
,
~

Perm imon grankd by Dur and el Cie., Par is. copy righ t own ers ; Elkan-Vogd, Philadelphia. Pa., a gents.

H ARM O'S ICS

PI ZZICATO

It is not iceable between the variou s stringed instruments that the

greater the str ing length the more resonant are the tones played pizzicato . The viola pizzicato is slightly rounder, less dry and short, than
th at of the vio lin in comparable register. H igh notes on the A-string
tend to sound hard and wooden above E or F. This quality may be
turned to advantage in appropriate musical circumstances. In the next
examp le th e viola doubles the first oboe at the unison, the first flut e
playin g an octave above.
EX.

85. Roussel-Suite en Fa

p. )0. ed. D urand

All harmon ics are good. as on the violin. Artificial harmonics are
seldom w ritten above the th ird position D on the A-st ring.
p. 40, ed. H ansen

pip

P '0 '0 ~ J , I I

Perm ls5ion gr anted by D ur and et Cie. Paris. copyrigh t own ers ; Elkan-\'ogel, P hiladelph ia. Pa. agents.
U loI:d by pe rml.sion.

Several notes above this D are perfectly playable as artificial harmonics, but there is little occas ion for th eir assignment to violas rather
than to violins. The lower-pitched harmonics of the viola are in a more
generally usefu l range.
For the glissando in harm onics, the longer string makes possible the
extension of the natural series as far as the nimh partial. Notice the
inclusion of the seventh harmon ic in the follow ing example.

A n example of extreme high pizzicato is fou nd in Alban Berg's Violin Co ncerto, w here it is emp loyed in unison with harp, two flut es,
and tw o clarinets. It is interesting to note that w hereas these instruments
are playing If, the violas arc marked {.

EX,

THE VIOLA

INSTRUMENTS

76

p. 70, ed. Universal

86. Berg-Violin Concerto

EX. 89.

77

P' 33. cd. Durand

Debussy-Gi!{lleS
Mooed

V~

Copyr ight 19JO b)" L'niver. al Edition A. G .

t:~ d

by

.'"

~r m ission .

At another place in this work, Berg indicates pizzicato to be played

over the fingerboard (Griffbrett) and then at the bridge (St eg). These
differences in the manner of plucking the string have been little studied
by composers, although used by players to obtain variations of tone
quality. The score also contains the following example of left-hand
pizzicato on the open C- and D-srrings, while the bow plays on the

G-string.
EX.

P' 66, cd. Universal

87. Berg-Violin Concerto

tnDnuillo
ttri(j"-.- rsprns.

-==

-/ --=

..-s-

~~

v~m,t:f\ n~qt\Aj~
(+

~ with

the kit hand)

Copyright 1936 by l 'ni vcnal E d it ion A. G. l'"!led by permission.

The tone quality of the viola lends itself especially well to the effect
of bowing close to the bridge. Examples are numerous, most often in
bowed tremolo (Ex. 88) or fingered tremolo (Ex. 89)

MOI<om_

88. Stravinsky-L'Oiseau de Feu

v~ln I

PI' M powtiullD
Re p ro duced by pe rm iss ion o f] . & W. Chestn Ltd ., Lon d on .

The bow is frequently moved near to the bridge in the course of

normal playing, in order to obtain more bite in the tone and a crisper
rhythmic attack. This is doubtless the purpose of some uses of the indication sul ponticelio. The mute is a practical obstacle to the proper
position of the bow for a real ponticello effect.
EX. 90.

Strauss-Der Rosenlavatier

P' 109, ed. Boosey & Hawkes

.1.280
~nJ P~ri:d_I
~ ' : . ,-

___

~ "e~

___ .:

~~.'*

v~BU#;i -=~~
con S07d. PP

-----===

.' . .

Cop)rig ht 1910 by Adolf F " rst n er , aSlli gm d 1~~3 to Boosey & Haw ke s. Ltd . C!led b y p erm isaion
Port"ga.l, Italy, Ge rm an y, D a n, ig, USS R as of 1935: f" rstller, L td. , London.)

( Fo r

SOLO VIOLA

PO~TI CELLO

EX .

Permbslon &ranted b y D ur a nd et Cle. , Pa ris. copyright ownelll~ El k..n\'ogel. I'hiladelphia , P a., agen ts.

P' 14, ed. Broude Bros.

The solo viola is not as frequently used in the orchestra as the solo
violin, perhaps because its pitch and tone quality are such that it is
easily covered by accompanying sounds. Nevertheless, there are many
fine examples of successful writing for solo viola in symphonic scores.
Example 91 is interesting for the rather lively type of melody given to
the viola, in contrast to the more usual flowing, expressive kind of
phrase, like that in Ex. 74. The ver y light accompaniment consists
of a held D in the strings, the rhythm marked by staccato clarinets,
harp, and two solo violins.

IN STR U ,\IEN T S

78
EX,

THE VI O L.'

p. ,6, ed. Enoch

91. Enesco-Roumi1llian Rhapsody no. 2

souo

79

Division of the violas reaches its ult imate stage in the following examp le. Parts JfC written fo r six desks, all diiisi, making twelve parts, or
one for each player.

VIO L A

EX.

93. Str auss-Don Q uixote

P: 53. cd. Phil harm onic

~
.~

Property of En oc h d Cleo All ri gh t.< reser ,"cd .

DESK J

This str iking passage for six solo violas occurs in Le Sacre du Printemps, accompanied by har mon ics and pizzicato in 'cellos and basses.
EX , 92 .

p. 80, ed . Russe

Stravinsky- Le Sacre du Printemps

flo

Andante con mow

.~

1'1'1"

"._----+-----+--- -

VA. CUJI sor d.

rv,

"

PI'

~ ----+-----+----

~
'~4

molto cmr.

PI'

l1lil 1l0n f

DUll 5

DESir.:

, ----------------

PP

VIOlE

w e<

Cop yr ight 1'121

Re p r in ted ,,;j l h th e pe rmi~.ion o f the copyright owners C. F . I' d o," C{)rporation, .'\ ew York

1..

Edition Ru>St d e "l us iq u e. l:scd b)' perm i..ion.

THE 'CELLO

CHAPTER

FOUR

T HE V IOLONCELLO

81

thi rd . In (a) the minor third is made up of a major second followed by

a minor second; hence the third finger for E. In (b), t he minor second
comes first, so Eb is taken by the second finger. A ll four fingers fall into
a sequence of half steps in (c). T he pattern in (d) includes an extension
based on the principle that a major second stretch is possible between
first and second fingers.
T ransposition of these patterns upwards by fifths will give the notes
obtainable on the other three strings.

Fr., violoncelle; It., violoncello; Ger., Violoncell

POSITlOSS

violoncello is commonly known as the 'cello. It is pitched an

octave below the viola, and although its general measurements
are not proportionately large enough for its pitch, compensation for this is found in the greatly increased thickness from top to
back. The main dimensions of the 'ce llo are approximately as follows:
over-all length, 48 inches; lengt h of body, 29 to 30 inches; length of
neck, I I inches; sounding string length, 27 inc hes; thickness at sides,
47'2 inches; height of bridge, 3% inches. In playing position, between
the player's knees, the neck pointing over his left shoulder, the instrument is supported on the floor by means of an adjustable peg that slides
out just below the end of the tailpiece.
Usually the A- and D-srrings are of plain gut, the G and C being
wire-wound. In recent times, however, there is a noticeable increase in
the use of metal for all four strings.

HE

Fl~GE RI ~G

Fig. 29

The patterns shown are the basic forms in the first position, on the
C-string. The normal compass from first to fourth finger is a minor
80

The traditional diatonic basis for the numbering of the left-hand

positions on stringed instruments becomes somewhat illogical when
appl ied to the 'cello, since the spacing of the fingers \v-ould seem to suggest a progression by half steps. The following figure gives the pattern
(a) from Fig. 29, as the hand moves diatonically in the direction of the
bridge,
positions'

first

..

second

rhifd

fourth

fifm

sinh

seventh

:1' JJUkg;;~ .IMIJ;JI .# Jrl .iiri

I

SoII

34.1

8011

011

011

011

S4.

Fig, 30
As in violin fingering, these designations are retained even when the
pattern is raised or lowered by chromatic alteration, involving on the
'cello a displacement of the entire hand. Some 'cellists have sought a
mor e accurate terminology, using such terms as raised first position ,
low ered second position, intermediate position, and one-and-a-half
position, the last tw o being applied enharmonically. The half position
is used as on the violin.

THE ' C E L L O

1:-: S T R U ,\ 1 E:-.1 T 5

Bl

!I

~g

. ,. :

#J

EX.

Half position

posm on
~

First position; raised first posi~.

,.

nun; one-and-a-ha lf

,.

fi rsr position

JJ,-..--

III

;a

j ; J ,I ; JJ gggg;

f"'S-:j rd po$-

4 : 1

4 : 1

: and po$-

Fig.

-.

---

u:Pi
I""
=t:' ~~~~

340134

I ~ pos..

40

c@
2 :1

; )td

Z
pol-

)2

The glide of th e finger in shifti ng position is made in such a way that

th e slide is barely perceptible, althou gh some portamento is purposely
used w hen ap pro pr iate. T he longer distance s to be covered on the
suing lead easily [Q an exaggeration of port amente, the more pronounced when participate d in by the enti re grou p of ten 'ce llos (Ex.
94)

--,...

r~

.+

Chromatic scales are finge red by repetition of the pattern r

2.

3.

)1

Because the compass of a th ird docs not fill the int erval of a fifth
between strings . the 'cellist must shift position ofte ner than the violinist
or violist. A few scales can be play ed in th e first positio n with the advantage of open strings. while oth ers call for several shifts.

-Y- : I

position;

Seco nd position; lowe red secnn d position ; one-and-a-half

position ; int er mediate position

Fig.

,'*b

.-

. er : I

in termediate position

!I' &
;

01

P: 8: , ed. Kalmus

94. Tchaikovsky-SY1Jlpbony no. 6

First position ; lowered first

"

:a:

83

Fig. JJ
TH U~ lB

POSI Tt OS

T he 'ce llist's left hand has th e advan tage of grqt fr eedom of movement. The neck of th e instrument being at th e playe r's sho ulder, all
parts of th e fingerboard are v-ithin easy reach. and since th e we ight of
the 'cello rests on the peg the left hand is not called up on to assist in its
support.
\ Vhen the hand is advanced to the seventh position. an oc tave abo ve
th e open string, it reache s the body of the instrument, and the thumb
has to leave its position undernea th the neck . The outer edge of the
thumb may then be placed on th e string , serving to stop the string as a
kind of movable nut . \ Vith the hand in this position , th e third finger
w ill be found to reach a greater distance than the fou rth finger, with the
con sequence that the latter is little used in the thu mb positions. Occasionally the thumb position is employed at lowe r pitch es wh en the
longer stret ch of th e third finge r is needed. Thumb notes cannot be
suddenly int roduced in a continuous passage of norm al playing. A n

IN STRUMENTS

THE ' CEL L O

appreciable amount of time is necessary to place the thumb in its new

. .
'
posmon.
It is important to remember that the string length of a given interval
diminishes as the hand moves to higher positions. On the 'cello, the
span fro m thumb to third finger is easily equal to a quarter of an entire
string length. This would he a diminished fifth in the half position.
whereas in the sevent h position it makes possible the stretch of an oc-

exceeded by a fourth or a fifth in parts for solo 'c ello, hut instances like
the following, for the 'cello sect ion, are exceptional.

84

EX.

85

95. Britten-Four Sea Int erludes from Peter G rim es

P' 65, ed. Boosey & H awk es

rave.The possibilities for extended finger patterns in the upper positions

arc num erous.
In Fig. 34 are show n a few combinations using the thumb.
c

3 Q 3 0 3 Q 3

Q 2 I 3 2 I Q

93 Q 3 Q3Q 3~
,...-;;; .....
~

~ iliJ=f'~rrrrrj#re
'.

~ ? ~ ! :-- =-

' ~"I1r-==

Cop yr igh t \ 945 b y Boosc y 5< ll aw hs Lt d . l'sed b y

~rmissioll .

HAR :\iQ:\ICS

Fig. 14

CLEFS

The normal clef for rhe 'cello is the bass clef. The tenor clef (middle
C on the fourth line) is extensively employed to reduce the number
of leger lines in high passages, and the treble clef is used when the notes
are too high to be easily read in the tenor clef.
Formerly, parts for the 'cello in the treble clef were habitually
written an octave too high, except when the treble clef followed the
tenor clef. This practice has been abandoned, and today all notes are
written at their proper pitch. It is necessary to know that the custom
was once pre valent , since examples of it may still be found in nineteenth-century editions .

RANGE

Orchestral parts may go as high as two octaves above the open

A-string, without recourse to harmonics. This practical upper limit is

The follo wing glissando, up to th e twelfth harmonic on th e D -string,

can be taken as reaching th e upper limit in the production of natural
harmonics on any stri ng.
F:X.

96. Stravinsky-L'Oiseau de Feu

con fOrd

j{liss.suI D

12 ,

ed. Broude Bros.

0 8 - -- - - . -, 0 0

"g~r
. oOb

jf

v c,

P'

~ ~ i~~I !~

t:;1

o o o o o o

~
.

0 0

<>0

,~" ~

5 -

Reprod uced by pennission of ] &: \\" Ch ester LId . Londo n.

This is intended as a coloristic effect, the success of whi ch does not

require that everyone of the note s shall be sounded by each indi vidual
player. The series is possible because of the progre ssive approach to
the high notes. Ordinarily the eighth harmonic is rarel y exceeded, and
the 'cellist may prefer to play even that as an art ificial harmonic from

THE ' C E L L O

l :-l S T R U .\ 1 E:-: T S

86

the fun damen tal t wo octaves below. The sevent h harmoni c is usually
avoi de d as being too flat .
E X.

97. \ tahlcr-Sympbony no.

99. Casclla-Pupazzetti

P: 19, ed. Philharmonia

Andamino
um ford.

"

P: ). ed. Universal

La n~ o..F~g . g

EX.

87

~~~
gli
0,"

Jt'mf"~

ppp

Fl.J~. ~

e -

"'~

,, ~

. e.

diY, in J

---

stnJp,( I'PJI

Fl.t!t; .

.z.

,,",or~o

O n the 'cello, the urcarcr string length of the upper partials allow s
t hem to sound with ~morc security than can be had on the violin or
viola. The harmonic node a minor t hird above th e nu t can be used , although few instances of its notation arc to be found.
EX.

98. Ranl-I'i.l1lo Concerto

p. '9, ed. Durand

Copyr i&h! (Of all

J. W .

(CN n tr ~

U<l . l.<>ndon

The artifi cial harmonic from the node a perfect fifth above the
thumb can be sounded on t he 'cello bur is infrequently used, tha t of
t he fou rt h being easier [0 produce and of better q uality.
T his chord is for 'cellos and basses in harmonics, eac h sectio n divided
in four pans.
EX. 100.

Ravel-Rapsodie Espagno/e
T res

moocrc

drll .

. e.
di'V.

It

. ,

erco ,ff

R avel's in dication of t he actual pitch of the tone produced is an

oc tave to o low. The E sounded is the sixth ha rmoni c, two octaves and
a fifth abo ve th e fu nd amental A.
Artificial harmonics ar c played with the th umb and t hird fing er
th rourrhou
t the ra nzc
of the 'ce llo, upward s fr om t hc low D b on t he
e
0
Ostring . The third finge r tou ches th e node a perfect fourt h above
the fun damental sto ppe d by th e thumb. The harm oni c sounded is two
oc tav es high er th an t he t hu mb note.

Ch~t(I

pp
div .
if1"CO

pp

1 _

_1

'='

P:

I I,

ed . Du rand

88

INSTR U hI ENTS

THE ' C E L L O

BOWI:"JG

DOUBLE-STOPS AND CHORDS

The 'cello bow is a little shorrer (2 8 ~ inch es) than the violin and
viola bows, thi cker and somewhat less springy. However , all the types
of bowing previously men tioned arc available to the 'cellist and are
of excellent effect . The bow is held in th e same way as for the other
two instruments, except that it is turned so that the edge of the hair
nearest the player is the first to engage the string. Another difference
to be borne in mind is that th e lower-pitched strings are nearest to the
bow arm, on account of the playing position of the 'cello. The terms
up-bou: and do-am-bon contin ue to be used in the same sense as heretofor e. although less accurately descriptive.
Bowing over the fingerboard. near the bridge, and \vith. the wo?d,
are effects in common use, as are all kinds of trem olo. Special mennon
should be made of the bowed tr emolo sur fa touch e on the two lower
strings of the ' cello. It has a my sterious quality unlike any other
tr emolo.
EX . 101.

Debussy-La Mer

P'

10

5, ed. Durand

Amme
$1l7

vc,

Excepting seconds, all intervals within the octave are playable as

do uble-stops in the lower positions without using the thumb. The ma jor
second can be reached, first to fourth finger, from the third position
up, and the minor second from the fourth position up . T he thumb is
of course an additional resource, but one cannot usually introduce the
thumb without a break in the music . Moreover, tones stopped with the
thumb are comparatively less expr essive in quality.
Chords found in scor es should be studied by means of diagrams like
those made for violin chords. In this \vay the mech anical problems in
placing the fingers can be judged, and knowledge of writing chords
for the 'cello acquired.
Chords containing one or more open strings are the most sonorous.
The thumb, as well as the other fingers, can stop a perfect fifth across
two adjacent strings.
Three-pan chords are more frequently used than four-part chords.
The four-part chords are gene rally too heavy, but are sometimes appropriate. Arpeggio figur es across the strings are best arranged to be
fingered like four-part chords.

la toucb'

~t!'2~hg!j!~!~~!~ii~lq~

~ , dim. molto
PPP
P( rm ission grant(d by Durand et Ck. Pa ri COpytlght owne~; E lka n-Vogd . Philadelphia. Pl.., agtnls.

EX. 10 3 . Straus~ymphonia

Domestica
p. 106, ed. Associated Music Publishers

A fingered tremolo with an int erval larger than a major third ca~ be
played by using the thumb position . The. amount of stretch possible
varies according to th e position on th e string.
EX. 102 .

89

Schmitt-Antoine et Cteopstre

p. 78, ed. Durand

(:"1(: .

Pe rm is. ion grante d by D ur and et Cie,. Par i, . co pyr igh t own ers: Elko.n-Vog el, Philadelph ia, Pl." a genU.

With authorization ot the or iginal p ublishcrs Ed . BOle & G. 1k>ck, Berlin , Wiel;b..de n.

[N 5 T R U

90

THE ' C E L L O

xt EN T 5

Bowing of chords follows the convent ions of violin chords, the low er
not es being sounded first when no oth er indication is given. The direction may be reversed, shown by an arrow placed before the chord, in
or der to give emphasis to the bass.
EX. 104.

91

Harm~ni~ s ,

when plucked , sound not un like tho se of the harp. They

are best limited to th e natural harmonics of the octave and the octave
and fifth .
Moussorgsky-A Night on Bald M ountain
P' 81, ed. International Music Co.

EX. 10 7 .

Bart6k-Secolld R bapsod y fo r Vi olin and Or chestra

P' 6, ed. Boosey & Hawkes

. ..

"

Mcderaro

=--

."
fI01I

I.

dN.J'

Copyriltht 1931 by \ln l~ er~ l Edi tion. Copyright "'5Sigmd 1939 to Hawkn & Son (London) Ltd. t:.ed
by permission.

ci..

' I~

in B

pp

The 'cello pizzicato is especially sonorous and vibrant, and it finds

frequent and varied employme nt in th e orchestra. It is an every day
medi um for the harm onic bass. The plucked bass tones give both body
and tra nspar ency to the accompaniment. An other common use of
'cello pizzicato is in acco mpaniment figure s like the following.

Brahms-Symphony no.

PI Z ZI CATO

EX. 105.

3-

P: 80, ed. Kalmus

#~
~

pp

,"0

i,

I"

p --------

~zz .

g ndD

5l

--------

p
By pe rm iu ion of the copyright o wners W. Bessel et Cie. Puis.

For the high notes, the tone quality in pizzicato remains good well
over an octa ve above the open A . Then it begins to take on a rather
wo oden sound, suitable for special effects. High 'cello pizzicato is used
effectively in thi s example.
EX. 106.

Shostakovich-Sy111phony no. 5

p. 72, ed. Musicus

Cop yrtlhl I9'lS by L<b Mu sic Cor pont lon . N e... York . UW<! by permluioll..

~ot all '~ellis ts. have acquired the trick, borrowed from harp and
gmtar technique, 10 which the right hand touches the node and plucks
the string simultaneously, allowing the left to stop tones other than
open ones.
Chords in pizzicato may be arpeggiated upwards by using the thumb,
or downwards with one or more fingers. The first way will be followed
unless downward pizzicato is indicated by an arrow. Con siderable variety of effect is to be had, from softly rolled four-part chords to short ,
abrupt chords on the three upper strings. The following example is
taken from a passage in whi ch the entire string section joins in an evocation of guit ar playing.

EX. 108.

oj

THE 'C E L L O

INSTR U ,\IENTS

92

P: 104, ed . Durand

Dcbussy- lberja

EX. 110.

W agner-Siegf ried Idyll

P' 46, ed. Eulenburg

Moo VI. de marche

pizz. ,

' c.

/ -=

div.

~~E~
(~C E ijr tc~

e:

pjzz.

piu. p

Reprln~ed

with th e permission of the ..,Ie agents for Elllenburl Miniatllle Scores: C. F. Peter. Corpora'
tlon. r-;ew York .
Perm ission gr anted by Durand et Cie., Pari" copyr ight cwee rs ; Elkan-Vogd, Philadelphia, Fa. , agent '.

M ELODIC USE S

The A-string of th e 'cello is characterized by much expressive

warmth and intensity, as well as dynamic power. Countless examples
show how often the 'cellos arc given melodie s in this register . The following excerpt gives only parr of a remarkable passage for unaccompanied 'cellos; the entire melody extends over sixty-six measures.
EX. 109.

,.~ l
vc. ~i

EX . I I I .

Fr anck- Variations Svmpboniques

vire

- - - - - - ~-.
-- J~_

.tI'f

P' 38, ed. Eno ch

Lento

p. 3. ed. Hengel

Charpentier-Impressions of Italy
Assa

There is litt le differenc e in timbre between the two lower str ings.
Their tone is full and rich in overtones, th e C being slightly mor e ponderous th an the G, in for te . In soft nuances. melodi es lying in th is range
must be very lightl y accompanied if th ey are not to be covered up.

r.ll~

dim.

:Pali ll

WII,j

HhH j

poco crac.

Prope rty of Enoch et Cie. All rlgh ... reserved,

ruhwro

nt.

km

~.II~-

'==~~~d--~
~.

Reproduced by prrmlSo'ion of Heug.! et Cie. , Par i&, owners of th e copyright.

The D-string is smooth and unobtrusive, less nasal than the A.

In the score the only accompaniment is a delicate figuration in the

solo piano part , marked pianissimo.
It is a regu lar duty of the 'cellos to play bass parts. either alone or
with the doubl e-basses. A common procedure is to write the same notes
for 'cellos and basses. Since th e latter soun d an octave lower than written . the result is a bass part in octaves, in w hich the 'cellos act as reinforcement of th e octave overtone of the double-basses. The 'c ellos
may occasionally be placed an oc tave lower so as to sound in unison
with the basses. giving a more con centrated sonority.
ACCO MPANIM E NT F IGU RE S

'Cello parts contain mu ch passage work either of an accornpanimenral

nature or designed to contribute animation to the general orchestral

IN S T R U .\ 1E N T S

THE ' C ELLO

texture. A wid e range may be covered, and elaborate figur ation often
calls for techni cal virtuosity. The student should look th rough num er ous scores to observe th e great variety in th is kind of writing for the
'cello. Some examples are given here.

It takes good players to perform figures like the followin g without

scratchi ness.

94

EX. 1 I 2 .

Becthovcn-Sym pbony

110.

EX. I I S .

95

Stravinsky- Le Ss cre du I'rintentps

P: 67, ed. Russe

p. 64, ed. Kalmus

T empo di Mencen c
(Jt4~Clttf) )

f
EX. 113.

R avel-Rapsodie Espagnole

P: 57, ed. Durand

Cop yright 1921 by Ed ition

,c~
Umm
Purn lsslon

EX. I 1+

vant~d

RI,l~

de Mus iql,le .

Us~d

b y pen n is.ion.

DIVID ED 'CELLOS

The powerful sonority of th e 'c ello section and the int ensity of the
'cello A-st ring combine to justif y the fr equent procedure of dividing
the group so thar half play the melody. The other half play the bass
or a subordinate part, or t hey may even be divided furt her.

by Dl,lran d el Cle., Paris, cop yr ight o...neB; El kan Vogel, Ph iladelphia, Pa. , u ent.o

Dukas-La Peri

P' 46, ed. Durand

EX. 116.

Mahler-SY1l1phony no. 4

P: Irs , ed. U niversal

Ruhevoll
iit!.

,c

:P~lli,i~
Pe rmission en .nl ed by D urand et Cie. Pari s. copyright o...ners ; E lkan \' ogel. Ph iladelphia . Pa ., agent.o.

Rapid passages in the low register, with staccato or detache bowing,

are difficult to make clear because of the inertia of the lower strings.

--=:==-- I' --=

erpress. olto c tilbile
dill. "due PD" egtUli
d ....-.-

spres
(Jizz.

=-

:-.1. .0.

efpr

H.

96

THE 'CELLO

INSTRUMENTS

Th is Strauss example shows the division of the 'cellos carried to the

point whe re each player at the four desks has a different part, eight in
all.
EX, I 17.

Strauss-Also Sprach Zsrstbustm

p. 7. ed. Aib l

SOLo 'CEL LO

One might descr ibe the preced ing excerpt as an instance of the use
of eight solo 'ce llos. although it is th e result of progressive division of
the str ings to he noted in the scores of Strauss. In Rossini's Overture
to William T ell, the open ing is scored for five solo 'cellos in additio n
[0 a regubr part for the remainder of the section. T chaikovsky. in the
Ou vertm e Sotennelle, / 8 J2 , calls for four soli in conjunction with t wo
solo violas. T he most frequent and characteristic use of the solo 'cello
is that in which a single playe r is given an ouesranding melodic role.
EX. I 18.

BrJhms-PjJ'llo Concerto 110. 2

\irr-

Uad by penni_ Io n of \b e ori ..in al l>\I blisher. :-0. Sim rod' . H anlburg.

Repr in ted _,-jlh the pcn ni..iOD 01 the cop)'ri gh t O"naa C. F. Pete.. Corporatio n, New YOrL

97

P' IZ 5. ed. Simrock

TilE nOUBLE-BASS

CHAPT ER

FIVE

+ -Eo

TH E DO UBLE-BASS
Fr., contrebasse; It., c071tT.:zbbdSSO; Ger. Kontrabass

English names for the double-bass are bass viol, cont rabass, string bass. and bass. T he last is the most common.
The double -bass presents a differen t appearance from the
other members of the string group because of its sloping shoulders
tapering into the neck. a characte ristic of its ancestor the viol. Also
noticeable are the cogwheel tuning devices on the pcgbox. replacing
th e friction- held pegs of th e othe r stringed instr uments.
The bass stands on an adjustable peg. and is suppo rted in playing
position by th e body and left knee of the player. Bass players sometimes
sit on a high stoo l while playin g.
Basses arc of different sizes. For general orchestral usc the size known
as thr ee-quart ers is preferred to the rath er unwieldy full-sized bass.
Ave rage dimensions of the three-quarter size doubl e-bass are as follows :
over -all length, 73 to 74 inches; length of body, 44 inches; length of
neck, 17% inches; thickness at sides, 7 ~ inches; height of bridge, 6%
inches; sounding length of strings, 42. % inches; lengt h of bow, 2.6 to
2. 7 inches.
The G- and D-strings are normally of gut, the A and E of gut wound
with wire, but complete sets of metal strings are being ado pted increasingly by bass players . Although they bring some modification in the
tun c quality of the instrument, the metal strings seem certainl y to be
superior to others in durability and dependability, and th ey respond
to the bow much more readily.
A-:. previously mentioned , the doubl e-bass sounds an octave below

H l ER

9ll

99

the written notes. Aw areness of this fact shou ld become a habit in reading or writing bass parts or playing them on the piano. In the examples
of this book, all notes for doub le-basses sound an ocrave lower than
printed. unless otherwise indicated.
N otes as low as C. below the E of the fourth string, are to be found
in the scores of practically all compose rs. T his is even more remarkable
in the scores of Beethoven's time, when the rhree-string bass. now obsolete, was in common usc. The lowest string of that instrum ent was
tuned to A or Gabon the E of the modern four-string bass.
In performance the player simply plays an octave higher wh at lies
below his range. tru sting, no doubt, that the change of oct ave matters
little at such low pitches. Granting that the octave difference will be
noticed only by atte ntive and discerning ears, especially when the
change is covered by doubli ng in the 'cellos, it must be realized that ~his
procedure sometimes results in seriou~ disfigu rem~nt . of the musical
idea. Compare. for instance, the following phrase with Its shape as performed on the four-stri ng bass.
EX. 11 9.

(.....y~)
4-IUinB

p. J'. ed. Aibl

Strauss-Also Spracb Zarubustra

tti]
"

/'J'.

12#J r pH :41
./1" ,J
J

~_

.-- J
"I

~
_

Reprinted _llh the pctmi Mion 01 the eop}"righl ownen C. F. Pele", Corptlf;ol'un. New York.

There are three ways to extend the range of th e bass below E. These
are the temporary tuning (scordatura) of the E-string ro a lower pitch,
the use of the five-string bass, and the adoption of a mechanical apparatus for extending the E-string to C. All thr ee are employed..
The first of these is rhe least satisfactory because of the disturbance
to the instru ment by the change in tuning, and even more because a
proper tone cannot b e produ ced with a string w hose tension has been
reduced to the point of fl abbiness. It is entirel y pract~cal, howe\'~r, to
tune to E b or even D. Such alterations are more easily accomphshed
with the tunin g mechanism of the double-bass than with the pegs of
other stringed instru ments.

TH E D OU B LE-BASS

1 :-;'S T R U .\1 F.:-;'T S

100

The fin -string bass is not a commo n instrument, and some orchestras do nor possess even one. Its fifth stri ng is tuned ro the low C. the
body heing co rrespo ndingly larger to favor the low pitch es.
A ma rked increase in rhe use of the E -strin g ex tension attnchrncnr
is appJfCIH today. In some orchest ras th e w hole b3SSsection is equipped
w ith t he dcvice. Jr consists of an a rm acting as an extension of th e fincc rboard upward past the pegbox on the E=stcing side. and an inrrcnio us
arr angement wh ereb y the nores C :::. D . D:::. and E ar e stopped by remore com col. as it w ere, by mean s of key s at th e side of the fing erboard.
ncar the nut. In normal position th e E remains sto pped. Operation of
th e mec hanism presents some fing ering probl ems for the player, but
the results on th e w ho le are satisfacto ry.
Since there seems little doubt of th e cscablishrncnr of t he four-stri ng
double-bass as th e normal instrument, it fo llow s tha t bass parts shou ld
be design cd accordingly. If not es below E arc fe lt to be indispensable,
t hey should be regarded as exceptional, and it shou ld be fully realized
that they may he played by only one or t wo basses, or even not ar
all. The best procedure is to write the part in octaves where th ese low
nores occur, showing clearly what is to be done by t he player whose
lowest nore is E.
~

EX. 120.

1\ loussorgsk y -Ravel- T ableaux dnne Exposition

p. IlJ, ed. Boosey & H awkes
All~ro

0-0.

aUa brese

~f7;;g; J

Ge m;:::{%

Perrn i$$ion anntt'd by Durud er Cie. Pu is. co pyright own.n; Elk an. Vogol, Philadelphil., P" .. " Rent..

T o preVent transposition of the low tones up an octave, a remark

must be added, suc h <IS "five-string basses on ly," or "not an octave

higher."
EX . 111.

Mahler-c-Dsr Lied 'Von der Erde

p.

116,

ed. U niversal

101

FISGERISG

The compass of the hand. from first ro fourth finger, is a major

second in t he lowe r positions. The third finger is not used independen tly bur is placed on t he strin g toget her wit h the fourt h finger, until
the sixth position is rea ched. Then the position of the hand and rhe
lesser st ring length of the half step make it co nvenient to use th e third
and fourth fingers separately.
Some players devel op a wider use of the t hird finger and of the exten ded position. stretc hing a wh ole rone fr om first to second finger;
but the above are t he basic principles of double-bass fingering.

Fig. 35 gives the notes playable in the positions of the first octave
on th e G-string. It will be seen that there are really twelve positions
to th e octave, one for each half step . but that the numbering rsr, and.
j rd, erc., follows the diatonic steps on which the first finger is located.
the positions in between being half positions. J ust as in the case of the
'cello, t here are ot her systems of designating the positions.
The t humb is brought into play abo ve the sevent h position.
T o find th e notes playable on th e othe r three strings. the student
should write out th e transpositions of Fig. 35 down by fourt hs.
Scales co ntaining open string notes can be played with fewer position
shifts, as demonst rated by the foll owing comparison of the scales of
G major and B ma jor.

THE DOUBLE-BASS

INSTRUMENTS

102

:>

range. They arc easily produced, because of the long strings, and are
of excellent qua lity. Those availab le on the G-string arc shown in Fig.
37. Transposition down by fourths will gi\'c the series on the orhcr
strings. Note that harmonics in the treble clef are notated at actual
pitch . to save leger lines.

014141t"

01'

" ~Etf

wtG

:r

~ ~ 0 j 'I"
.
~j;;.ti '#~ i~ t.'
4,1424
sul D

1 ,

__

sul G

Chromatic scales are fingered by repeating the pattern

412

~nu .l

pitch

'

i=.0000

EEE~oJr~

Fig, 36

12

103

4 or

from middle of ming toward bridge

~
::J r ~
...

f' (p i

L L

from middle of string lOwUJ nUl

iI

f~

rJ

::J

FA

CLEFS

Fig. 37

The clefs employed arc the same as for the 'cello; namely, bass, tenor
(middle C on the fourth line) , and treble (G clef).

The harmonic from the node located a minor third from the nut
sounds more clearly on the bass than on any other stringed instrument.
EX. 1 2 3 .

Ravel- Le Tombeau de Couperin

P' 38. ed. Dur and

RANGE

High notes for double-basses arc very effective, and not of great
difficulty except for intonation. They are safer when approached by
step or by small intervals. The D an octave and fifth above the open G
may be taken as a practical upper limit, exclusive of harmonics. This
limit is exceeded in the following unusual example, in which the basses
play in unison with violas, 'cellos, and bassoons.
EX. 122 .

p. 23 . cd. l\1usicus

Shostakovich-Symphony no. 5
Allegro non tr0PPO
~

:>

::> ;:- ::>

::>~

.:~'~i~~;~rt~ff'~Y~'~~~

Permi&~ion

gralll ed bj D u rand et Ck . P~ri~, co py r ight o wners; E lka n -Vogel . P hiladelp hia, Pa.. agent.

In th e following chord of harmonics, one 'cello contributes the Cq,

unobtainable on the bass at that pitch. The fourt h bass part calls for a
double-sto p in harmonics.

D-B.~rll~
.tr

Copyright 19<1S by Led. M\Uic Corporat ioft, N ew Yorl<. Used by permission.

HARMO:-O ICS

Artificial harmonics are possible on the bass only in high positions

and are impractical for orchestral purposes. Natural harmonics, on
the other hand, are especia lly useful because of their medium pitch
E'

104

T ilE DO UBL E - B A S S

EX. 1l4. Stravin sky-Concerto

ell

R tf

105

P: 17. cd. Buusey & H awkes

Bm\' I~G

-'-p
o

-. ~

Cop yr la hl I'M' by Booeey I:

1I~ ...tea,

Inc. l:sed by

~rmp.IOll.

D01:BLE- STOPS ASD CHO RDS

The intervals playable on th e bass as double-stops are thirds, fourt hs,

and fifth s, and any interval in w hich one of the notes can be tak en on
an open st ring . Double-stops, and cho rds of three and four notes, are
rarely found in orchestral music, ho wever. In ge neral. sma ll harmonic
intervals do not sound well in low pit ches because of th e conflict of
overtones, and even when used for special effect, bett er results are ob tained by dividing the notes among two or more playe rs. T he following sequence of fifths is unu sual.
EX. 11 5 .

Kodaly- Galt:inta Dances

p. 53. cd. Boosey

Allegro vivace

:)' I J
>

~ ==:~--==--

.d

Copy rlpl 19J;t by L:ni'-erul Edition A. G. Coed by

ptrmi~.ion.

& H awkes

There arc tWO distinct types of doubl e-bass how, usually referr ed to
as th e German bow and the French bow. T he German bow is held with
the thumb on top of the stick, th e frog being shape d so that the finge rs
can grasp it as they might gras p a saw . Th e French bow is like a large
'ce llo bow and is held in the same way . exce pt that some playe rs plac e
the th umb undern eath the frog for ce rta in stro kes. It can be seen that
the action of the wri st is qu ite differe nt in the tw o hand positions, and
that wi th the German bow the thumb exerts downward pressure on
the stick. as opposed to the finger prDsure with the French bow. T here
are advantages in both methods. and the choice depends upon the
schooling and personal prefe rence of the bass plavcr.
All bow strokes employed on the other stringed instruments may be
used on the bass, with [he qualification that these must be thought of
in terms of a sho rte r. heavier bow, thicke r, heavie r strings, and a much
more cum bersome instrument-all facto rs in greater inert ia to be ove rcome in th e production of tones. llence. (00 long slurs in legato bowing
should be guarded against. The stude nt wi ll have to rely on obse rva tion and experience in th is respect. It wi ll help to rememb er th at the
aggregate sono rity of the w ho le bass section to lerates a slower moving
bow than docs the to ne of a single solo bass. and that longer to nes are
possible in soft nu ances th an in loud one s.
EX. 12 6 .

\ V agncr- T ristan und Isolde

p. 19. ed. Breitknpf

For the long held pedal notes, somet imes lasting for man y measures
and often seen in nin et eent h-c entury sco res, the basses arc expecte d to
change direction of the bow as oft en as necessary . Cont inu ity of t~ne
is preserved by seeing to it that all do not cha nge bo w at th e same tim e.
Double-bass staccato is preferab ly of the on- the-s tring type, but the
co nt rolled boun cing bow is entirely feasible and of ten used . T he mod ern bass sec tion is capable of consi dera ble delicacy in pas..'iages like th e
follow ing .

IN S T R U ~ l E 1'1 T S

106
EX. 1 2 7 _ Strauss-Don

T HE DO UB L E- B A S S

Juan

p. 58, ed . Kalmus

... . Ii.
~L ?! & 3 @Fg 4', jj , !#r~

107

P IZZICATO

GiOOJ6O

..,...,...m a ~~

Il,

P grrzWso

=~'<.::=

Rep, illted with th e p er mi ", ion of th e cop yr igh t owne,," C. F . P eters Co rpo ration , roo,... York.

A n example of fast detached bowing in a long. gradual crescendo:

EX. 12 8 .

R imsky -K orsak o ff-Scheberazade

p. 2 2I, ed. Kalmus

I' .. g
.tr

i _

:.t:-I
":::"

The bass player plays pizzicato much oftener than the other string
play ers. T his is not only becau se of the superior resonance of th e bass
pizzicato but also becaus e it brings welcome relief and variety to the
bass line, imparting lightness and transparency to the whole orchestral
texture. Sometimes the basses dou ble in pizzicato the part played areo
by rhe 'ce llos.
The str ing is usually plucked with the first finger, the other fingers
holding the bow . T he German bow hanbrs downward, held by the little
finger hooked in the frog. V ariations in tone quality and dynamic range
can be obtained by plucking at different places on the string. T he low
tones in pizzicato demand care in th eir execution, to avoid a booming or
dull , th udlike sound.
As for th e high notes, one rarely exceeds the B shown in the following examp le.
EX. 1 30 .

Strauss-Also Spracb Zarstbustm

J d'

Sui tasto and sui pontice/lo are regularly emp loyed on th e doublebass. T he bass col legno staccato may be said to be mor e musical than
on the other instruments beca use of the grea ter resonance of the bass.
Bowed tremolo is very common in bass par ts and is fr equ entl y called
fo r sul tasto or sui ponticelJo.
Th e fingered tremo lo is not pr actical in the lower positions. For
most hands the mino r third stretch becomes feasible above th e second
position. All major and minor tr ills are excellent, however.
EX. 129.

M ahler-Sy111pbony no . 9
(Lindler)
r'l-..I']

~.. ~

.'~I '
Cop yrilht 1912;

"'"

E
. .

"

3-

..

~ !;

l!'!O
~'"
s

~;-' I-. : '

i,r- t "
p

r~n ~w ed

p. 63, ed. Boosey

'.

J.14

t~

dim.'

:n~r","1 1 ar.~ I J
~

.--;

~ #/"' #~

r--====
j ~==
t=
ll
f
ern/;.

Rep r in ted with th e pe r m i..i,m of th e cop yr ight o wnen. C. F. P et. n. Co rporation, New York.

In the fo llowing example the bass pizzicato is not doubled by th e

'cellos, bur the bass clari net underlines the accented measures.
EX. 1 3 I.

Ravel-Rapsodie Espagnole

P' 12, ed. Durand

, Asset vif

& H awkes

;oj

4J

.~ : !i~.'~
, ..',I , R==:ti
~

l'.~d

b y pon mssion.

dim. - - _ . - pp

1940, by l:ni\"enal Edition A. G.

P: 57, ed. Aibl

PPli

MUTES

The double-bass mute has to be a heavy affair to be effective, since

the vibrations of the large bridge are not easily damped out. Mut es are

108

INSTRUMENTS

THE DOUBLE-BASS
overtonts from hns

used for homogeneity of tone color when the rest of the string group
is muted, and also for the peculiar veiled sonority they give to the
basses. The mysterious measures at the beginning of Ravel's La Va/se
arc scored for muted basses with no other instruments.
EX. 132.

Ravel-La Valse

P:

I.

vx.

ed. Durand

c.

e-a .

= (act ual =
"0

sound) U

F;g. ) 8

The above dilemma can be resolved only by reducing the dynamic

level of the basses and strengthening tha t of the second violins.
The double-bass pan is occasionally treated as an independent voice,
without octave doubling. but it issignificant that in the practice of composers this procedure is clearly exceptional.

pp

o-e.

'I

II

v....

Mou\t de Valse viennoise

tota-iiner

[It v. 1:<;

109

l QurditU'1

(Jizz..

p~

EX. 133.

Beethoven-Sy11lphony no. 9

-..

Allegro assai_ _

hrmi<slon gra nt ed by Dur and et Cie., Paris. copyri gh t owners; Elkan-Vogel, Philadelpbia, Pa., agents.

P' ,65. ed. Kalmus

..

-...:--..-.-

THE HARMO:S-IC BASS

Thc commonest duty the basses have to perform is naturally that of

supplying the harmonic foundation. This is accomplished in more than
ninety per cent of all orchestral music by the double-basses playing in
octaves with the 'cellos. When the latter arc otherwise occupied, the
function of octave doubling may be taken over by other instruments,
such as bassoons or horns, or the violas. The clarity of the bass part
seems to benefit greatly by this reinforcement, or confirmation, of the
ocravc overtone of rhe deep fundamental of the basses, and the ear may
also receive the impression of an even deeper octave by reason of the
acoustic phenomenon known as the difference tone. The upper partials
of this octave bass are an important source of enrichment of the entire
orchestral sonority, although it must be added that they arc very often
in conflict with upper notes and may cause damage,
A common example of such damage is heard in a softly played minor
triad, placed in such a way that the major third overtone from the bass
may compete in strength with the minor third (Fig. 38).

..

It is not out of place to caution the student that a common fault in

writing for basses is excessive use of the lowest tones, a habit that tends
to make the whole orchestra sound heavy and overponderous.
MELODIC USES

The harmonic bass may be a real melodic bass. Fine examples like
the following are numerous.

1 ~ S T R U ,\ 1 E:-: T S

Ito
EX. 134.

Franck--SY1nphony
Allegro non troppo
moho leg.no

{d !,

d;

pp

13G

p. I I7, ed. Eulenburg

"ffP? ~~f r

III

EX. 136. Prokofi eff- V iolin Concerto no. 2

P: 74, ed. Ilaron

Allegro, ben marcaro

; Ht
I

T HE DOUIlLEIlASS

rI

poco CTf!SC.

p ~

Repr in ted .... ith the perm ission of the sole agents for Eulenburg Min iat u re Scores: C F. Peln . Corpor ation. :\"cw York.

,Ill G

Modern composers have exploited the possibilities of melodies in the

high register for basses without doubling. In the following exposition
of a fugue subject, the double-basses deliver the ope ning phrase quite
unaccompanied, except for the group of eighth-notes at the start.
EX. 1 35 .

R iegger-SY1J1phony no. 3
P' 8 I , ed. Associated Music Publishers
Meno mosso (Allegro molro)

p -=/=Cop yrig ht 1949 b y Assoc ia ted Music Publish eR, In c. , :': cw Yo rk.

U~d

The dexter ity of bass players has reached a very high degree of
vir tu osity . T he scores of Mahler. Strauss, R avel, Stravinsky, and ot her
modern composers should be studied to observe the demands made
upo n the basses for agility of bowing and fingering, wide skips, and
complex rhythms.
EX. J 37. Strauss-Ein H e/den/eben

P'

b y pe rml ..ion.

....

tJ
.ff

ed. Eule nburg

Lebhaf bewegt

Prokofieff has suggested new possibilities for the double-basses, using

them as melodic doubling of the solo violin (Ex. 136). The entire scoring of the six measures is given here. T he clarinets arc notated at actual
pitch.

20,

I rIff ~F1:J E 07': ~

,

With th e ~rm i ... ion of the p ubla her F.

1921, by F. E. C. Leudtart.

III

INSTRUMENTS

THE D OU BLE -BASS

EX. 140.

DIVIDED BASSES

T he double-b asses are fr equ ently divided in two parts. This pra cti ce
is consistent with the tendency of mode rn French co mposers to divid e
each string section. The division in oct aves furnishes the bass octaves
with in the do uble-bass part . Interv als smaller th an fifths or founhs arc
less satisfactory in low pit ches.
EX. I )8.

Debussy-a-La Mer

III

Dvorak-Sympbol1Y no. 5

P: 72 , cd. Kalmus

!). Ppu~o~~~
"
DIV.

0.1 .

pp
Ulltd by perml.lon of

th~

Olillin:. l publisher. N . S imrock, H lm b......

A limitation in th e number of basses ( Ula m eta," " 4 bassi,"

only," etc .) is sometimes called for to secure a better balance.

" I

desk

p. 8) . ed. Durand
THE SOLO BASS

Pum lN lon C".... ted by DW"and el Cie ., Pari_, cop yrip\l ,"" nr... ; Elk .... -Vocrl. Ph ilade lph ia.. Pa. .

a ,,"n~

C lose intervals in the basses help to provide the dr amatic, for eboding
sugg estion in the passage from which the next example is taken.
EX. I 19.

Debussy- Pelle" et AWira1tde

p. )46. ed. Durand

Pum l..lon granted by Durand et Cie . P u i. , copyri gh t o wnera ; El l an .Vogd, Philadelph ia.. Fa. agenu.

Basses are divided so that half can participate in a melody whi le half
rema in on the bass; and so that half can play pizzicato and half play
arco on the same figure. Chords of three and four parts in low register
are likely to have a percuss ive sound, espec ially if plucked (see th e G
minor chords in the Marcbe au Supplie e of the Symphonie Fantastique,
by Berlioz). To sound clearly, chords should be in open positio n, or located in the upper part of the range of the bass.
The following chord for basses ends an adagio mov ement, and is entirely un acco mpanied. Although the notation indi cates double-stops, in
performance the chord is divided in four.

The usc of a sing le double-bass, solo, is not frequ ent . It is of novel

effect because not often heard . T he bass solo is sur prising ly deficie nt in
carrying power, consideri ng the size of the instrument, and its accompaniment must be delicately ad justed. The following solo is writt en as
for five-string bass but can be played using the E-string extension. lr
is un accompanied.
EX. 14 1.

R avcl-L'En fant et les SortiIeges

p. "4. ed. Dur and

W O ODWI ND IN STR UM E N T S

lIS

clarinets
2. bassoons
( b) W oodwind by threes:
1 fl utes and piccolo
2. oboes and English horn
2. clarinets and bass clarinet
2 bassoo ns and contrabassoon
( c) Woodwind by fours :
3 flutes and piccolo
3 oboes and English hom
3 cl ari nets and bass clarinet
3 bassoons and contrabassoon
I

C HAPTER

SIX

WOODWIl"D Il" S T R UM E:-ITS

and co nvincing definition of th e category we all know

as -isood-uind is difficult to propose. It is easier to say which
instruments are brass instruments. W oodwind instruments have
been construct ed of materials other than wood, and flut es are regularly
made of metal at the prese nt time. Rather than att empt to justify a
nomen clat ure accepted by cu stom, let us distin guish the bra ss instruments as being those w hose tones are produced by vib ration of t he
lips held against a cup-shaped mouthpiece. Other orchestral wind instruments are wood winds.
The w ood win d sectio n of the symphony orchestra is divisible into
four family g roups, as follows :

LOGIC.-\L

Flutes, piccolo, (alto flute)

Oboes, English horn, (oboe d' amore , heckelphone)
C larine ts, bass clarinet, (Eb and D cla rinets, basset horn)
Bassoons, contrabassoon
The instruments named in parentheses are only occasion ally employed, while the others are standard equipment. This cla ssification
coin cide s with differences of tone color r eadily distinguishable by ear,
brought abo ut by differences of construction and method of ton e produ cti on .
In t he make-up of the w oodwind sec tio n, three basic formulas. or
ty pes, exist:
(a ) W oodwind by tw os:
2 flutes
2 oboes

"'

It will be found useful to regard departures from these three types

as vari ati ons from th e norm. The second type, w oodwind by threes.
is used so co nsistently in the twentieth cenrury that it has become established as the normal woodwind section of the present day.
T OS E

saooccnox

The vibr ation of air enclosed in a pipe may be compa re d to the vibration of a string st retche d be tween rwo points. One important diffe re nce
is that w hereas th e pitch of a string is affected by length, de nsity of
materials, and amount of tension , t he pitch of a vib rating air column
depends upon its length alone. This rule is not perfectly accurate in a
scientific sense, but it is t he basis for the cu stom of spea king of pi tc hes
in terms of length. For exa mp le, the note prod uced by t he C-st ring of
the 'cello is identi fied as 8-foot C, being the note sounded by an open
organ pipe 8 feet lon g. It is understood th at th is is a length adopted for
convenience, and that a fractional correction would have to be made
to bring it into agr eement with whatever standard of pitch is being
used.
Doubling th e length of the air column lowers the pitch an octave,
and halving th e length raises th e pitch an octave.
16k.

..

: j"

..

S f!.

,,,-

~I
Fig. 39

d <

' IL

INS T R U ~l E N T 5

WOODWI N D [NSTR U ~l E NTS

These lengths will give the same pitches in all wind instruments,
brass as we ll as woodwind, with one notable exception-the clarinet.
The clarinet is a cylindrical tub e, closed at one end by the mouthpiece. Oboes and bassoons are conical, larger at one end than at the
other. Flutes arc in part cylindrical. but th e open embouchure makes
them open pipes. N ow the stopped cylindrical pipe has properties unlike those of the ope n cylind rical pipe or th e c onical pipe, and one of
th ese is that for a given pitch it requires but half as much lengt h. In
other words, if a flute and a clarinet employ the same amount of cylindrica l cube length , the clarinet sounds an octave below th e flute, on ly
fundamental tones being blown.

The entire scale is obtained by success ively raising the fingers, opening the holes from right to left, as shown here.

116

2"

... - . . _-- -._ ---_ .. - - - ._- -- -- -_ . _. - -

2 "

._. ~

""'

10- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

. . .._

g'1

0
- ->j
o

__ .. __ . - - - - ---

117

--- ~

t3

~I

~- - - - - - --- - - --- - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - -~

THE SHORTEXISG-HOLE SYSTEM

Let us consider a primitive flutelike wooden pipe with six finger

holes for the first, second, and third fingcrs of both hands. The fou rt h
fingers are not used, since they do not naturally fall into a stra ight line
with the ot hers . T he thumbs support th e instru ment in a horizontal
position to the righ t of th e player, and the left hand will be nea rest to
the embouchure, in this case a hole to be blown across. The left end
of the pipe is tightly closed with a stopper. This six-hole rube is the
basis for the fingering systems of all woodwind instruments.
All six holes must be closed by the fingertips to enable the pipe to
vib rate through its entire length and sound its fundam enta l tone. For
the sake of further similarity to the flute, let us say the lengt h is a little
over 21 inches, which is the length of the flute's low D.

.,

,-----------------------_. __
o

Io- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -~
0

10- -._ - -- - - - - -- -

- - - - - ;Jj

Fig. 4 1
FORK

FI SG ERI~G

If the next hole to the right of the soundi ng hole is closed, the sounding notc will be flattened by a half step. This is the procedu re called
fork fingering, or forked fingering, and by its means th e following inbetween notes become available.

... h .

Lh

$,

If now the rig ht third finger is raised, uncovering its hole, the sounding length of th e pipe is shortened by t he distance from th e hole to th e

open end of the tube, much as though the tube were cut off at that
point ; and if the holes have been spaced for the intervals of a majo r
scale, the note soun ded will be E. All th e rema ining five holes must be
kept closed.

jB&R

~I

,
o

. ----- -- --- -- --

21" - - - - - - - - - - - - -

.1

Fig. 40

Fig. 42

II B J

pe
Ie

ja il

liB

I~STRU~lENTS

There arc now two ways to finger Ft:, but Eb cannot be obt ained by
fork fingerin g since the re is no furth er hole to close.

K EYS

Th e acqu isition of add itiona l fundamental tones req uires th e boring

of new holes and the invention of key mechanis m. T he left thumb is
able [0 control a tone hole, leaving the supporting functio n to th e right
th umb. Both fourrh fingers. however, need the help o f keys in order
to control properly located holes conve niently . T he history of the development of key mecha nism is one of increasing ingenuity in finding
ways by which the fingers may cove r and uncover holes beyond their
reach through the use of keys, levers. axles, and springs. T hese also
perm it an extension in the length of the tube, with the added lower
holes ope rated by keys.
T he key systems of the various woodwind instruments will be described in succeeding chap ters.

WOODWJ~D

I~STR U ,\IE~TS

119

Th e following figure shows how the octave D is obta ined. by fingering for D and opening as a vent the hole from whi ch C: normally
sound s. X orc that th is hole is situated at a point m:uk ing one- half th e
rube length of th e fund ament al D, just wh ere we know th e node for
the octave harm onic will be found.
WMI

,- ----- 10." - --- ---+- -

loi- - - - -- ~

Fig. 43

Again th e clarinet is except ional. in the matte r of overblowing. The

physical properties of the stopped cylindrical pipe arc such that the
harm onics tha t divide the air column int o even-numbered sections , requiring a node at the open end. cannot be sounded. T he first overblown
note on the clarinet is therefore the third harmonic, an octave and
a fifth above the fundamental, vented by means of a register key.

E:'\I BOl:CHt:RE
on:RBLOWISG

In Chapter One, th e harmonic attributes of a vibratin g str ing were

discussed. A vibrati ng colu mn of air possesses these same characteristics, the over-all cu rve of the fund amental , and the subsidiary vibrations
of the partials or harmonics that are pr csent in the formant of the tone
of the individual instr ument. JUSt as a str ing harm onic is made to sound
by lightly touching a node, so in a woodwind instrument .a ha~onic
is produced by opening a hole located at or ncar a node. ThIS hole IS referred to as a vent. It may be one of the holes regularly used to sound
fundamental tones, or a hole especially designee for the purpose and
equipped with a key called a speaker key, register key, or octa~e key.
On the flute, and with certain tones on the oboe , some hanTIOOlCS can
be produced without opening vent holes, by direction and shape of the
air stream from the lips.
The production of harmonics in all wind instruments is called , rather
loosely, overblowing. The tones so obt ained arc not usually called
harm onics, as in string technique. They are regarded as norm al tones,
being the only tones possible above the rang e of the fundamental series.

The term embouchure refers to the appa ratus for ind ucing sy mpath etic vibrat ions by reson ance in the air column, and to th e met hod
of blowi ng. In play ing th e flute, the lips dir ect a concentrated stream of
air to the opposite edge of an ani-shaped hole in the rube . For th e oboe,
two thin ly scraped reeds are bound tog eth er and fixed to a small rub e
which in rum fits into a hole in the end of the instrument. Th is double
reed is held gently betwee n the lips, so as to avoid closing th e tin y aperture betwe en th e reeds. The bassoon empl oys a similar do uble reed,
larger than that of the oboe. It fits onto a curved metal pipe that leads
to the smaller end of the wing joint. The clarin et has a single reed, held
by a meta l ligature to the open side of a mouthpiece fitting the end of
the instrument. The reed is held against the lower lip, whi ch covers the
lower teeth , and th e upp er teeth rest on th e ben led top of th e mouthpIece.
Doubtless the prin cipal factor in creating th e ch aracteristic ton e
color of a wind instr ument is the embouchure, but it should not be
forg onen th at there arc ot her importa nt influences, such as the proportions between lenurh and diameter of the bore. size and position of the

IN ST R U.\ 1EN T S

W O O D W IND I N S TR UM ENT S

tone holes. materials of construction, and of course the sound ideal and
art istry of the player.
T one quality varies with the player, and can be varied by him for
expressive purposes. I Iuruan clements such as sensitivity, warmt h, and
natural vibrato are mysterious factors in musical performance that cannot be produced by mechanica l means. T he condition of th e reed, its
degree of pliability, has an effect on the tone of th e reed instruments.

Wh en no slur, or other mark of art iculation, appears over t he notes,

each note is art iculated by the tongue w ith tu.

120

EX. 14 2 .

Brahms-Variations on a T heme by H ayd n

p. 5, ed. Eulenburg

--,

Andanre

,,

fl.. I

TONGCISG

The tongue is held forward in a position to prevent the air, under

pressure from the lungs, from striking the reed or passing through th e
lips until it is wanted. A tone is starre d by a sudden drawing back of the
tongue, exactly as in speaking the syllab le tu, This sudd en actio n is
necessary to overcome the inert ia of the reed or air column. A wind
to ne cannot have an imperceptible beginning, like the gradual engaging of a string by the bow hairs, bur cert ain variations in the attack can
be made, such as du for tu, or even btu. The tone is ended by the return
of the tongue to its original position.

011.

,r,

'"'f' ~ ,. f'

t!

,.....

-:

"

I L..! r

"
t!

~~

_ . f!!:_

f'

I~

,
I

,
COBS

omitted

hll~.,

Reprint ed with th e penni.,.iOll 01 the wle

tion . Xew York

c.r

,...,

-:

BN. I

"

..J

PITCH

\Vind players arc fully as much concerned wit h playing in tu nc as

are string players. The pitch of the instruments can be altered slightly
by modif ying their rorallcngr h through various man ipulations of joints
and fitti ngs, but since the tone holes have been located with reference
to fixed pipe lengths, any change in the latter will cause trouble. T he
contro l of intonation is managed by the lips. T he wind playe r has not
only to correct the pitch in terms of his own instru ment (F~ and G b
have the same finger ing, to mention one example), but he must continually ad just his pitc h to the sounds of th e other instruments of the
orchestra. With good players, this is for the most part an instinctive
and unconscious process.
All wind instruments arc sensitive to changes in temperature. A cold
instrum ent will be flat until warmed by playing, and a tem perature
above norma l will cause a sharpness in pitch.

121

.''"-

Itpl., v( ., d-b.

a.8ent~

lor EulCllburg

~ljlli,,"lUre

Scores, C. F. Pete rs Co rpora-

INSTRU~IENTS

WOODWIND INSTRU .\IENTS

Wirh practice these strokes can be repeated with considerable rapidity, although not for long periods of time without a chance to rest
the tongue. If staccato is wanted. dots arc placed over the notes, and
the strokes are made as sharply as possible.

\Vhen the arti culations demanded arc too fast for the tongue to repeat the tu stroke, the formula tu ku tu ku is used. This is called doubletonguing. It is easily done on the flute, but while oboe, clarinet, and
bassoon players employ it through necessity. it is not for them a wholly
satisfactory tonguing because the k is formed back in the mouth, out of
contact with the reed. An unevenness between the notes is sometimes
to be defected.

122

BX. 143. Berlioz-Symphonie Fantastique

P'

2Z2,

cd. Eulcnburg

Allegro

123

EX. 144. Mozart-The iUarriage of Figaro: Overture

P:
Presto

~~ ~

r,

....

Sa_

'a .

,
n

as .

I"

,.
0'.

ed. Kalmus

FL. I

22,

,
~

"e. ~ ~

/ ~
"

".

...........

"
,,, '

i !l"

.I

omitted. hns., trps., timp., strings

P I"gg.
R ~r;nltd

wi th th. pe rm ission of fhe sole ag ents for Eulenburg Min ia.tu re Score9: C. F. Pete", Corpora_
t Ion, x ew Yorl<.

In fast triple rhythm, still another formula may be used: ttl tu ku, tu
tu ku, or sometimes ttl ku tu, tl/ leu ttl, called triple-tonguing. Mcsr
play ers prefer the first way, The re is also muc h to be said for the practice of applying double-tonguing to triple rhythms, so that the t and the
k alternately begin the group of three notes-e-rn ku tu, ku tu ku.

EX.

WOO D W I x D 1:-1S T R U ,\ \ E N T S

I x S T R U ~ l EN T S

12-1

.... . .. .. ., .

p. 20, cd. Kalmus

'45. \Vagncr-Lo!Jengrin: Prelude to Act HI

Sehr Lebhafr

,;,

'

. ' ;' -

II :

II ;'"

.:

. . . .- .

.....:
....:
-t-

~.

: 4:

EX. 147. Berg-Violill Concerto

'.'

,"" u
on

. . .'
,

JI

aos

. =

CL.

Cop yr ight 1936 by

Uni~~ru.l

EdI tIOn A. G . Coed b)

pe"Ill~SlOn

' ~' e:

PHRASIN G

p. 8, ed. D uran d

dft

~;'i

l.

. .

~ T~~,~ va,, ~
FL.DI

~ -..- :>~ .. ~ ~~ ~ i

Fl. t'TZW'Ige

As a specia l effect, the tremolo made by rolling the tongu e, as in the

Ita lian or Spa nish r, has been asked for by some co mposers. It is usually
given the German name Flatte rzunge, translated flutter-tonguing. and
it is more pra c ticabl e on the flute than on reed instruments. The whirring effect of a rapidly fingered chromatic scale, with flutter-to ng uing,
has a certain picturesque quality.

EX. 146. Ravel-La Valse

ed. Universal

F JoltteTZIlllg e

,
0.., ,

~:

, ,
.d

12,

Orazi osc

~:
__

P'

125

p
Pennission granted by Durand et Cie " Paris, cOPYlight own ers; Llkan-\"ogel. Ph ila delph ia, Pa. , a gen15.

F lutter-tongu ing is of rat her poor effect on the oboe and bassoon,
but somew hat better on the clarinet. In (he score from which the fo llow ing excerpt is taken , the clar inets arc doubled by the harp, and also
by bassoons and saxophone using ordinary tonguing. The cla rinet pa rts
are notated at actua l pitch.

Two or more notes covered by a slur arc played with an uninterrupted flow of air. It is important to realize that during the flow of
thi s co ntinuous air st ream the length of t he vibrating air column is
contin ually changing with the fing ering. Some notes are harmonics
and some funda mentals, some are more brilliant than ot hers, so that
t he em bouchure has to be adapted to each new sit uation in order to preserv e continuity of tone and intensity.
T o slur a wide interval upwards, which involves increasing th e tension of th e embouchure, is easier than to slur the same interval downwar ds. A certain amo unt of reluctance has to be overcome when the
air co lumn is suddenly length en ed or asked to return to its fundamental
after vibrating in partials. T he inertia is more secur ely ove rcome by
tongu ing . A t remolo between tw o notes a sixth or more apart runs the
risk of failur e of the low er note to sound on repetition .
Phrases normally co ntain several slurs, or a mixture of slurs and single
notes. T he player maintains a full and steady flow of air until a new
breath needs to be taken, and meanwhile the to ngue articulates the
rhy thmic pattern of t he music. In the following phrase, t he oboist will

probably not take a new breath unt il after the Bb in the fifth fu ll
me asure.

126

WOODW IND INSTRUMENTS

INS T R U ,\ 1E N T S

EX. 148. Bcctho\'cn-Sympbony

110.

piccolo
flutes
oboes
En glish hom
clarinets
bass clarinet
bassoons
contrabassoon

P' ' 55, ed. Kalmus

r . ....----,.":: : E
7

~~

The function of the breath is to set up vibrations at the embouchure.

not to blow into or through the instrument. Breathing indications are
not written into the part, bur good writing for wind instruments requi res a sensitivity to this essential physical :1spccr of wind pLJ.ying.
Even though one doesn't ph}' a wind instrument, one can learn much
U\" alert observation and listening to good players. T he art of breath
c~ntrol is :1 fine art of distribution of wind power according to the
respective needs, both musical and mechanical . of rhe tones of the
phrase. The dynamic design of the phrase has to be taken into account.
Sometimes a new breath is taken to give sharper definition to a motive.
T he compose r is advised to culti vate a feeling for the natural breathing
quality in instrume ntal music, like that of singing. In fast passages it
is better to sacrifice nores than to force th e performer to snatch franrically at minute opportunities to replenish his wind supply,

REGI STER S

First and second parts for identical instrum ents, as rwo flutes, are
written on one staff, except in cases w here differences in rhyt hm and
other complicat ions might cause confusion in reading the rwo parts.
T hen a second staff is used tempo rarily for the second player,
" 'hen two parts arc on t he same staff, stems for the first part point
up, those for the second pan, dow n. Dots and accents are placed at the
ends of the stems ( Fig. 44' )
If both first and second players are to play the same part, double
stems may be used (Fig. 44 b ), or the part may be written as for one
player and marked a 2 (Fig. 44e).
If the first player is to play alone, the second pan may be repr esent ed
by rests (Fig. 44d ), or th e single pm may be marked "I, r " , or l " (Fig.
44 e).
If the second player is to play alone, the first part may be represented
by rests (Fig, 44f), or the single part may be marked 2 , II, 2 0 , or II"
(Fig. 44g) .
~

T he woodwi nd instruments present a rema rkable contrast to the

strings, in that they possess far more pronounced individual sound
characteristics; also each one has its peculiar variations within itself
in tone color, inten sity, carr ying power, and tone-weight, depending
on the part of its range being employed. Knowled ge of these registers
and their effect is an indispensable part of the technique of orchestration.
SCORE

~ t AR K I SGS

The woodwinds are placed at the top of the score in this order:

127

'L :'~~
. ' .-........
tl. _ .- . , - "

" 'I

g' l1

4 ~bW g- ~
Fig. 44

The indications diuisi and unis. are peculiar to string parts and are not
used for wind s,
F

T HE FLUTE

l lY

ton es C: and C. A longer foot joint may be attached, giving the low B,
for those rare occasions when that note is called for.
CHAPTER

S EVEN
F I~GERISG

SYSTE:\{

>
THE FLUTE
Fr., flut e, grande {lute; It., flauto, flauto grande;
Ger. Flore, grosse Flote

pre sent century has seen the adoption of meta l flut es and
the virtual obsolescence of the w ooden flute as an orchestral
instrument , an event which cannot be reported w ithout some
regret over the loss of th e w ooden flute's mellowness and beauty of
tone. It was to be anti cipated th at the evolution of musica l taste toward
a pre dilection for orches tral br illiance and virtuosity woul d bring abo ut
this radical change. j\ lodern flutes are made of silver, go ld, and even
platinum, and they surpass those of wood in ease of speaking, agility,
brilliance of tone, and secur ity in the up per register . Their tone is pure,
clear, and serene, possessing beauty of a different qu ality from that of
th eir predecessors. Some wooden flutes with silver-lined head joint.
now in usc, arc evidence of a lingering wish to pr eserve qualities of
both types.
The over-all length of the flute is about 26% inche s. A cork stopper
with a screw tuning device is inserted in the end ncar th e embouchur e.
so th at the sou nding length of the tube is in the neighborhood of 24
inches, The lowest tone is a-foot C. Some flutes arc made with a low
B, necessitatin g lengthening of th e instrument by abo ut 2 inches. T he
bo re is cylindrical, with a diameter of % inch, narrowed slightly at
the embouchure end in a parabolic curve.
The flut e is made in three sec tio ns, th e head joint, th e body joint, and
the foot joint, T he foot joint represent s an extension to the six-hole
pipe en visaged in the preceding chapter. and it furnishes the additional

HE

118

T he modern flute embodies the revolutionary con structive prin ciples

introduced by Theobald Boehm in the middle of th e nineteenth century. with a few subsequent improvements. \\ 'hat is kn own as the
"Boehm system" is based on th ree main principles. First. holes were to
be bored for all c hroma tic tones, and these holes were to be located in
their acoustically correct positions. Second, th e ho les were to be as
large as possible, for better tone and int onation, and they we re to stand
open. Formerly, the size of the holes depended on the ability of the
fingers to cover them. and also on corrections in pitch necessitated by a
compromise in the loca tion of the holes. T hird. the mecha nism w as to
be arranged so th at th e fingers could contro l all of the holes, by means
of keys. hole cove rs, axles, and springs. The follo win g main features of
this arrangement should be con sidered in relation to the basic six-hole

pIpe.
The righ t hand first finger now play s F:: w hen depressed, instead of
F:. the second and third playing E and 0 , as before. By mean s of a
rotat ing axle, the f: hole is clo sed wh en either the first or the third
finger key is depressed. The righ t-hand first finger key also closes the
B~ hole above . providing an alternative fingering for Bb.
F or the left hand , a finger p late enables the first finger to close the
C# hole from a position an inc h below the hole . A combinati on key
and plate for the thumb allows closing either the Cq hole or both C~
and Bq holes.
It was found inconvenient to kee p t wo of th e holes open, th e G ~
and the low D~. The G ~ hole is ope ned by the lef t lit tle finge r lever.
A duplicate hole is bored, however, and this stands open unless th e
third .finger is depressed for G~ . T he right little finger opens the D~
hole III th e foot joint. and keeps it open for pra ctically all notes above.
The same finger controls a split key to play eit her C or C:;:, the lowest
not es,
The rem aining keys arc the high 0 and D :: trill keys, op erated by
the right third and second fingers, respectively, and an added B ~ trill

I N S T R U ~I E N T S

130

TH E FL U T E

"~.~~Q a

key for the right first finger, duplicating the action of the thumb plate.
Keys are named for the nore sounding when th e key is depr essed.
It is co be recognized, however, that wherea s G ~ comes from the hole
opened when th e G: key is depre ssed, the effect of depre ssing the G~
key is to close the hole from which A comes, th e G hole being two
holes farther down . The low C hole is the end of the flute.
Fingering a note involv es not only pressing the key, but also closing
all higher-pitched holes. The entire tub e down to the note being fingered has to be tightly closed, except when vents are opened to produce upp er partial ton es.
In playing position. the flute is sup ported by the right thu mb, the
first joint of the left forefinger, and the player 's chin. The lower lip
partially cove rs the embouc hure hole.
It is understood that enh armonic equivalents are fingered alike; e.g.,
the fingering for G ~ and fur A b is exactly the same.

<c:c:x==c:r:::::;;;;
...

&,

letters and numbers indic ate keys to be depressed

(,~~",

lrit

'''''. ,,
,

[=

'"

e z z

z e

, , , ,, ,

t, , , , , L
L
L
L

- - - - - - - - ,

I.

",I,t ;;:
[

r , , -
z z z z - y

,
""

- - - z - -

- -

- -- -- - -- --r r ,

-, ,
- - -- - -- ,
-
- - - - - - - x x
- - - , ,
- - - z ,
, r r - r
-

,
,

z s

- - x -

, - -

, ,

on:R8LOWISG

_ O*Q .e-

~~G~ QiD

.0

0
-

--

-- -

to
-

5!'

S~~ ~~ ~ ~~
_
-

~ i' ~1

Il1'I

[
,'".
['"
1st

,~

r iSht

.. -, -

,....., , , z ,
,.. , , - - -- , - -,~

3r'd

IJI

, , , , ,, - - , , , - - ,
,,,
, -, ,- -- - , -, -- ,
- , - - - , , -

- - - - - - - - H H - H HH
- - - - - --- -- -- -- -- y xy x y- - -- - - - - z - - - z

- - - - -, -, -, , 1

,,,,,

- -- --

,-

,
x

..

- - -
- -- -, ,I

The fingering chart shows how the upper notes of the flute are obtained by fingering a fundament al and. except for the chromatic tones
from E to C:. inclusive. in the second octave, opening one or more
holes as vents for the production of harmonics . This process is summed
up in Fig. 46.

\iOi~m
#
. # .. J.
.J'' 6
-

, '= ,'.. " ,

.~, .~,

h. rmoruc ItO., , no. J ' no.. ,no.

( fundt.lll"nul )

Fig. 45. Fingering Chart for the Flute (Boehm System)

no. I no.

no. 6 I no. 6 ' no. 7

(shup )(sharp)

Fig. 46
TO~ E

QUALITIES OF THE REGIST ERS

The tones of the first half-octave, especially the foot joint notes, have
a wann velvety quality of their own. T he sound is deceptively heavy
wh en heard alone, but it is easily covered by othe r instruments and by
strong overtones from low bass notes, This is due, no doubt. to the
weakness of the upper partials in the formant of the low register of
the flute.

I N S T R U ~l E N T 5

THE FLUTE

In the following example, the low C sounds clearly because it is the

lowest of the three voices.

The third octave is brilliant , with much carrying power, wit hout
shrillness at least as far as A, or even li b.

132

EX, 149-

EX. 15 1.

Stravin sky-5'ympbony of Psalms

Schumann--Symphony no.

133

p. 140, ed. Philbarm onia

p. 16, ed. Booscy & H awk es

F L. I

fl.. III

$-

,~,

..."r--

oa . I

C('pyr i~h t by Edition Rus"", "de M u s i'l u e

Re,-i", d version cOPF ;gh t IOJl\ by Boo sey & Ha.w k.es. Used

The highest C # and D should be con sidered as extremely exceptional

extensions of the flut e's range . They can be included on ly in loud
passages and it is advisable to double them with the picco lo. Insta nces
of their use are quite rare.

by P<'rmissin n.

A gradual brightening of the tone takes place as the sounding length

decreases through the first octave, although these fundamenta l tones
do not achieve the clarit y and serenity characteristic of the overbl own
notes of th e second octave. T his comparison can be note d in the next
example, fo r two flutes.
EX. 150.

P'

Ravel-Ma .Here C O y e

I,

Strauss--Sy mphonia Domestics

P: 18, ed. Associated Music Pub lishers

ed. Durand

) ::12 .J

pp

EX. 152.

Pnmi5'ion gra n ted by D u ra.n d er Cit. Paris, cop)',ight owners; Elkan\'ogd, Philade lphi a. P a., agents

In the prod uction of notes above the staff, various harmonics are
employed (Fig. 46) . The fi rst C~ is harmonic no . 2 (ocrave) , the D
no. 3 (octave and fift h), th e D;; no. 4 (do uble octave) . Th ese harmonics tend to differ in tone and brillianc e. T he top Bb is a cleare r,
more manageable tone th an th e B ~ , mostly because it is a harm on ic no.
4 as opposed to a no. 5. T he finger combination fo r high A sometimes
proves awkward in passages. T he reconciliation of the se diversiti es is
an essential part of th e art of flute playing , and melodies may cove r
the entire range of the instrument, alt hough it shou ld be add ed th at the
dynamic range of the flute is not wide.
The following is a famou s exampl e of a modern solo for the flute.

134
EX.

I I' S T R U M E N T S

TH E F L U T E

p. 228. ed. Durand

'5 3. Ravel-Daphnir et Chloe

135

p. , 86. ed. Booscy & H awk es

EX. 154. Srrauss--EJek tra

Copyright 1916 by Adolf Fur5tnu, ilSsigned 19<1J \0 BooS(y & ll. ,.-kt., L td . Used by p.,rm iu ion . ( F or
P ortllp l, l td )', Germany. Danzig, USSR u of 1935: t "ursln e r, Lt d ., Lon d on ,)

- j-I

'Vide skips between registers are idiomatic for the instrument.

. --~

EX.

,~r=gJ

-- -

".

,
n

j-- -n E--,-,.,-

' ~~

~ .

",..
.....

; ' "::.
c-

-A
=:3

Pennlnion IlUlU<.! by Duran d ct Cic ., Pu;'. copyriaht ow nUI ; Elk u '\'Q&el , Philadel phia, Pa. , __ nlS .

AGILITY

No wind instrument surpasses the flute in agility, fleetness, and general virtuosity . Flu te part s contain all manne r of rapid scales, arpeggios,
and brilliant passage work.

I..
'
[. ,.....

n..

_ ;:: _'.

'
II ~
::: I.
.. ~

KeI('1l u U g} , n nm t

.-z. : ;

lUl l. . '

..

5C'hr Icb/u ft

'~

=---

P' " 3. ed. Eulenburg

'55. Srrauss-Ein H e/den /eben

With the ~nniMlon o f t he publish er F . E . C. Leuclr.:ln. Mue n ch en , Le ipziK. Co p yri ghl 1899, renu.,W
1927, by F. E. C. Leuckart.

Loud passages in th e high register req uire more wind. Opportunities

should be provided for taking at least a quick breath, either in the
phrasing or with a rest.
T wo flutes may divide a passage in alternate motives, overlapping
on th e accent ed notes. T his proced ure makes breathing easier for both ,
and th e result is a more rhy thmic performance tha n if bot h flutes playe d
the whole phrase in unison.
EX. 156. Stravinsky-L'Oiseau de Feu
Vivo~

~!~t*.A

n..
n
~Ud by pumluloll of } . &: W.

F'

p. ao, ed. Bra ude Bros.

INSTRUMENTS

THE FLUTE

Double-tonguing (Ex. 157) and triple-tonguing (Ex. ISS) are both

effective and efficient for fast staccato playing.

fr om low C up to open C~, inclusive. They are marked 'w ith a small
circle, like string harmonics. \ Vhilc they possess a certain veiled quality,
it is generall y admitted th at the y are inferior to nonnal flute (Ones
both in clearness and intonation. In Ex. 159 is an extraordinary example
of flute harmonics.

136

EX.

157. T chaik c)\'sk y-NutcrackerSuite no.

p. J 5, ed. Kalmus

EX.

159. Ravel-Daphnis et Chloe

T resleN.o''--;;::
0
0-0....

EX.

137

P' 60, ed. Durand

0

0 ~

..

b.... lIl

158. Debussy-La Aler

p
P erm ission

HARMO:"ICS

W e have seen that on the flute all normal tones above th e first open
C ~ are harmonics. But th e term harmonic , in woodwind parlance, is
used to denote a tone produced by using a harmonic different fro m
that normally used.

b.
0

r"

IT

F'LL

Fig. 47

In Fig. 47 ( a) arc shown thr ee ways to play the high D. First, the
normal D as harmonic no. 3 from the fundamental G, with left first
finger raised, opening th e C~ hole as a vent (see fingering chart};
second, the same played wit h the vent closed; and third, the D as harmonic no. 4 from th e low D, without vents.
Some fiurisrs are able to produce the entire harmonic series (Fig.
~ib ) up to the sevent h or eighth harmonic from low C, without openIng ven ts.
N otes usually designated to be played as harmonics are those obtain ed unvented as harmonic no. 3 of the fourteen chromatic tones

granl~d

by Du rand

~ t Ci~. ,

Pa ris, ropyri gh t

o wn~rs:

Fl l<an -Vog ~J.

Phi ladelphia, Pa .,

a g~ n 15 .

Harmonics are usefu l as an added resource in the fingering of difficul t passages. Sometimes the inclusion of on e or two notes in " harmonic
fingering " will simplify the execution without appreciably affecting
the over-all sono rity.

T RILL S Ai"J D TREMOLOS

The rapid alternation of two tones may present difficulties of fingering and also of embouchure. A trill may involve an exchange of finger
combinations requ iring the movement of several fingers, toge ther with
a qui ck adjustment of the embouchure to different harmonics. These
difficulties can be smoothed out by the use of harmonic fingering or by
th e addition of extra keys to the instrument. The D and D ~ trill keys
are examples of th e latter expedie nt . In any case, the effectiveness of a
given trill , or tr emolo, depends upon th e expertness of the performer.
Practi cabi lity is a matter of deg ree rather than a subject for classification int o possible and impossible.
The three keys in the foot joint being controlled by the right fourt h
finger alone, the trills C-C~ and C~-D~, and the tremolo C-D::, are no t
playable except rather slowly. The little finger has to glide from one
key to the other.
The wo od wind version of the bowed tr emolo is the reiteration of

IJ9

I N ST R U M E N T S

TH E FLUTE

a single note by means of flutter-tonguing, an effect not ofte n used.

The more usual tremolo is like the fingered tremolo of strings. a trill
with an inter val larger than a second. If the interval is toO wide the
low er note may fail to speak, owing to the inert ia of the air column;
and if harmonics are involved there is a risk that the fundamental may
sound where it is not wanted. W ithin the first octave, tremolos having
an interval greater than a perfect fifth arc uncertain, whereas in higher
registers a safer limit is the major third.

In the next example, an imaginative use is made of two flutes to

supply two inner voices of a four -part texture, in which soprano and
bass are played by strings in octaves.

138

EX. 162.

P: 77. ed. Eulenburg

Mendelssohn-Italian Symphony

......,

AndaOlcc~

p ~

- ~

n.
THE SECOSD FLUTE
n

For added tone-weight. the second flute often doubles the first in
unison. Less often it doubles at th e octave below, in w hich case its octave overtone reinforces th e first flute. T he lower instrument is at a
slight disadvantage, since the octave difference places it in a less brilliant register.
It is wise to assign some of the d uties of the first playe r to th e second
player when both are not neede d. T his allows the first to rest, and tends
to make the second part more int eresting to play.
T he two flute pans may be melodies of equal importance.
EX. 160.

P'

Stravinsky-c-Orpoear

I I.

ed. Boosey & H awkes

kggieTO fig'

p ~
VA.OB.

::;;:.../

..

\'N. II

P
VC BN.

--

e- .

'C.

o..B.(8vA)

- =---..

.~

cret e.

Copyr ight 1948 by Boos.:y & H awk es . U""d by perm is<;ion.

OB. I VA.

~ II IN". 8Woof.

Light accompaniment figures may be arranged for two flutes.

EX. 161 .

'f

Debussy-Premiere Rb apsodie
I

fL. I
II

P'

/'~
' ~ -.
~ ~

"7ig~

f
~

. -'

ed. Durand

!-
~~
~

n
f''; ~l~'i~
-

28,

'; '. ; ' ;

-' -

Perm is~ion granted bv Durand et Cie . Par is, copyrigh t owners; Elkan Vogel, Philadelphia. Pa. , agents

Reprinted wi th th e permiss ion of th e sole

t loa. New Yo rk..

~genta f,.>r

Eulenbu rg Min iatur e S<;Qrea : C. F. Peter s Corpora-

T HE FLU TE

IN STR UM ENTS

140

Another instance of inspired orche stration is the followin g cho rd

fr om ,\ lahler's Fourth Symphony. To be noted arc t he sudden change
of moue in the harmonic progression. th e unusual spacing of th e c hord
in measure 5. and the placing of the perfect fou rth in th e two flut es.
Th e effect is qui te unexpected and magical.

is preferred for purp oses like th e following.

EX. 163. J\ lahlcr-S)'111pbony no. 4

EX. 16+

,"

Verdi-Aida

or'\" . ~--...a

p ~

___

IS S.

vc,

'"
,6

I' dolo ss.

ppp

, ,

-~

dim.
n

l.us

____

- -

n o_

--...-- /

n
__

n..

- - ea- . -

_n<i,

~~L

1'1' _ ~

P., I

I~

T he grouping of woodwi nds by th rees qui te ofren incl udes three

flut es instead of two flutes and piccolo. Th e more homogeneous colo r

p ~

H~.

I~

148. ed . Philharmonia

MORE THAN TWO F LUTES

Sclu zart un d innig

I"
4

p.

141

A larger orchestra may call for four flutes. T he foll owing illustration
is taken from th e final measure s of Berg's If ' o: : eck , In the score, the
flut es are doubled at the un ison by the celesta.
EX. 165. Berg- lV ozzeck (E nd of A ct Ill )

ed . Un iversal

CL.

n..

----

I.

I I I I I I I I I
~

. . . . . " --,

--- -

Cnp yrl,ht 19lO by l'nl ~taa l Edi t ion A. G. l'std b)' p."mi.. ion

TilE PICCOLO
Fr., petite {bite; Ir., flauto piccolo, on-nino; Ge r., kleine Flote

vc.~~ e _

O-I. 8"" blSs,

_:e: _

Combinations of lures w ith other Instr ume nts shou ld be studied

through perusal of scores.

In each of the four fam ilies of woodwind, there is one instrument

that is regarded as the standard or normal instrument of the type.
T hese four arc flute, oboe, fib clarinet, and bassoon . T hey represcnt
in each case the size and proportions found ro gi\c the most nearly
characteristic tone color, as well as other features, answering to a more

142

I NSTR U ,\1ENTS

or less universal, albeit transitory, conception of how th ese instru ment s

should sound. The other instruments in each group arc auxiliary instrument s, ad juncts to th e normal types.
The auxiliary instruments have as their first faison d' etTe the extension of the pitch range of the families to wh ich they belong. The piccolo exte nds th e range of the flute family up to another octave C, the
last nore on the pianoforte keyboard. H owever, the top Bq and Care
quite difficult of production.
An auxiliary instrument, made for the purpose of playing higher
notes than the normal instrument, is of smaller size, favoring the up per
parr of its range. The lowe r notes tend to be of less good quality. T his
is illustrated by the piccolo, w hose low tones arc decidedly inferior to
those of the flute. Furthermore, the foot joint is lacking altogether, so
that the lowest note of the piccolo is D.
Another pri nciple of auxiliary instruments is exemplified in the piccolo, the principle of transposing instru ments. The mechanism of the
flute being reproduced in miniature (except for the missing foot joint),
a flutist plays the piccolo with the same fingering to which he is accustomed. Since the instrument is but half the size of the flute ( 12 %
inc hes), the notes sound an octave higher. The piccolo parr in th e
score must be read as sounding an octave higher th an written.
T he int erest of composers in the auxiliary instru ments has given them
posit ions of importance nearly equal to that of the standard types in
each fam ily. This development has been strengthened by advances, to
th e point of specialization, in the tech nique of play ing these instruments, and still more by the realization that what we re once cons idered
defects are really qualities, to be studied for their advantages, and to
be recognized as additions to the coloristic resources of the various
families of woodwind. T he peculiar hollow sound of low tones of the
piccolo can be very effective in the right surroundings.

T HE FLUTE
EX. 166. Shostakovich-Symphony

'U . "::"..;'.':.

143

p. 1 J, ed. Leeds

no. 7

u - __

Copyrl&ht 1945 by Leeds Music Corparal,on, l' ew Yorl<,

L~d

by permi.osion.

The upper tones of th e piccolo arc bright and piercing, easily heard
above the maximum sonority of the full orchestra. The instrument is
here unsurpassed in penetrating power. Its highest octave should therefor e be used sparingly. In high-pitched chords, the three upper notes
may be given to two flutes with the piccolo on .top. T he piccolo adds
highlights to the orchestral tutti, strengthen ing the upper partials of
the harmo ny.
The piccolo will be foun d most usefu l in its med ium range. H ere it
combines mo re flexibly with other instruments, and contributes less
edginess to th e sonority. It is often bett er, w hen doubling the flute with
piccolo, to w rite the latt er an octave below, so th at the two will sound
in un ison, especia lly when the flute is in its upper octave. Solo parrs for
th e piccolo in th is register are nume rous.

144
EX. 16 7 .

INSTR UMENTS

Milhaud-Sy1llphony no. 2
.h63~

.'.

~i

.,," :
p

THE FLUTE

p.

I,

ed. Heuge!

~
- ~
ri
i F ' 4<'
[I
-

~~~,

~t: L FG~
.~P;f;"
Rep rod uu d by po.rm i....ion of Heuld et Cie, PM i~ _ne ~ 01 t be cop) ,i&!> t.

Com mo n errors in writing for the piccolo arc the roo consisten t placing of the part in the highest octave, and the miscon ception that it is
an inst rument for loud music only. T he piccolo is effective in inverse
proportion to the amount of its use. It is capable of delicac y. an d it can
cont ribute much with a few notes skill fully placed.
Sometimes tw o piccolos are employed for th e duration of a movemenr, or for a special passage. On the se occasions, one of the picco los
is played by t he seco nd or third flut ist.

THE ALTO FLUTE

Fr .. fiiite ell sol; Ir., fi;llito contralt o; Ger. A lt fiot e
Th e alto flute is an auxiliary instrument that has not yet become
established as a regular orchest ral instrument , Many orc hest ras do not
evert possess one . It is found in \'cry few scores, bur the sign ificance of
such works as DJplm is et Chlo e and the Ss cre du Printemps give the
alto flute a certain standing and importance.
\Vith a lengt h of H ~<t in ches, the alto flute is pitched a pe rfect fourrh
below the; sta ndard flut e. It is t heref ore a tra nspus ing instrument, all
notes soun ding a perfect fourth low er th an w ritten. If the fingering for
C on th e flut e is tak en, the resultant sound will be G. It is also call ed the
Fl ute in G , and som etimes called , erroneo usly, the Bass Flute.
T he mec hanis m of th e alto flut e is the same as t hat of the regular
flute. exce pt for modifi cations du e to its size. T he left hand is placed
so t hat it has to reach no farther to th e right than on the regular flute,
th e holes being controlled by finger p lates and axles. First and th ird
fingers of th e right hand ar e enabled to reach the ir key covers by means
of discs place d at th e ncar edges of the covers .
T he r;lOge of the flute . up to t he high C, is available on the alto flute .

145

but the upper half-o ctave is lacking in brilli ance, and su ffers by compar ison with the flute at the same pitch . The lower to nes, on the oth er
han d. are extremely rich and warm. and stronge r th an the 10\1,' notes of
th e flute. The instrument is responsive even co ac tive doubl e- and
triple-tonguing. It req uires a little mo re breath t han the regula r flute.
In a grou ping of four flut es, the alto flut e is usef ul in extending the
range down ward .
EX. 16 8 .

Holst-The Planets

P' 13 I, ed. Boosey & Hawkes

Andan~

The most individual parr of t he alto flute 's range is. of course. its
_
0
lower octave . T o be heard to the best advantage,
it should be lightly
accom panied, or. better still, nor at all, as in the following example.

P' ' 43, ed. Durand

Ph ib d f lph ia , PL . Ilfnll .

In the medium register, the alto flute differ s from the flure more
subtly. in timbre. The comparison must be experienced by ear to be
appreci ated .
EX. 17 0 .

Stravinsky-Le Sacre du Prim em ps

FL . II

r
Copyrl p t 1921 by Edition Ruu.: d.

M\l~Qu,

l" $fd by ...= i",lon "

P: 18, ed . Ru sse

TH E O B OE

C H A P TER

E IG H T

TH E O BO E
Fr., bautbois; It., oboe; Ge r., Ob oe, Hoboe

let ters and numbers indicate key s to be depressed

body of the oboe is a gently tapering conica l rube. made in

t hree sec tions, called upper, low er, and bell joints. T he diameter of the bore measures %8 inch at the top. and % inch at t he
beginning of the bell joint. The bell is flared a little and finished with a
metal ring . In the sma ll end is inserted the reed cube, or "staple," fitt ed
with cork and the doub le reed, ~ inc h wide, bound to it by winding
wit h thread. The length of th e instrument, including th e reed, is about
25 X! inches, the reed and staple protruding 2 y:! inches, more or less. The
pitch of the oboe can be varied but very slightly. only by pushing in
or pull ing out the reed t ube.
O boes arc usually made of wood. Favarice woods are grenadilla,
rosew ood , and cocu s w ood. Som e are of eb onite, which has at least the
advant age of freedom from warping.
HE

FINGERING SYSTEM

The fingerin g system of the oboe is based on the fundamental sixhole D major scale, described in Chapter Six. U nlike the flute, the oboe
sounds F::: wh en the right first finger is depressed. but the two instruments are similar in th at the right fourth finger co nt rols keys for low
C, C: . and D:. The left fourth finger operates keys for G :::. a dupli cate
low Ca. Iow B~ , an d Bb. the lowest note on the oboe. Th e right thumb
supportS t he instrument, w hile the lef t thu mb works an octave key
and a Bb plate.
146

rr
,

'i"fe~'
w,

147

~ ro

"I ..

P'ijlrt

I ~
,, ! .!o'.. 1 ! 'I" ~
~
- -- - -- - - - .- ,- ,- ,- ,- - ,- -, -- ,- ~ I~ ~ ,- - - ,- ,,, , , , , , , " , , , - - -, ;-11:
,-, " - , ,-
", - - "- - - - -- "- - MM
"- - - ""
- - - -"" "oo
- -- - - -- -- - --- , , , , , -1,
u- ,-, x ,
, , , , , ,x " - -- -- -rr -- -x-x -- ,.,,
- -- , - -

t'U'

,
,

.Q-

I~

~ K M

.--

7-

'r

z :
K

z z z z z - az - - - - K
- - -- - K-

-I--

"

-- - ---s- - - --

,- ..... ......

Y - 12

..

z- - z- - z Z

-- - -

IS- -

3 JoI'~

J.o.

II

1D ~~.e

- - -- --l! m

,
I
I I
1
, 1 I I:- ;I;I I:- I:- - -I .- -I - ..
..
, , -I
, ,, I , , - - , - -, - , , , ,, , - - , "- - -- -- -- M- M- M "" - - - " - - -- - - - q; ,I: - - - ,
,,, ,
- - x - x - - - -- "
- - - - - -" 't
rv , - - - " I - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - Z "I I zz - - .
- - - - - - - - - - "- ,,- - Ib - ,- " - - "

- -. --

I I

I
, , , ,

- - - ",
,
, , -x -

."
I

II

Fig. 48. Fingering Chart for the Ob oe (Conservato ry System)

I ;\' S T R U ~1 EN T S

THE OBOE

Th e ton e holes are quite small compa red (0 those of the flute . A
feature of earlier typ es is still seen in some oboes. the tone hole under
t he lef t thi rd fing er co nsisting of t wo small holes bored close to gether.
W hen one hole is closed the note sounded is A b. " 'irh both closed, the
note is G.
This half-hole principle is made pcnl1ancm in the perforated keycover on the C: hole, for th e left first finger. :\ tab is provided onto
which th e finger may slide, leaving the kCY-CO\"C f down and the small
perforation ope n for venting ce rtai n notes. Levers for up per Bo and C::,
pressed with th e side of the right first finger, a c ross F:: key. and the
upper D and 0 ::: trill keys, arc sta ndard equipme nt. Furth er key w ork
varies with different models. The French Conscrvat cire sys tem, gen erally regarded as the best, has from thirteen to sixteen key s, in addition to plates or ring keys on the fund amental six holes. Spec ial keys
are added ro individual instruments to facilitate the execution of t his
or th at trill or figure. In consequence, a great many alt ernative fingerings exist. Only common fing erings arc given in the ch an , which cannot record all the variants in use, and hen ce m ust remain incomplete.
It is intend ed to present a general view of oboe finge ring.

Figu re 4-9 sho ws th e scheme of har moni cs employed for the higher
notes. T he last six harmonics are all sharp, relative to th eir fundamentals, by at least a half tone, high F being a whole to ne sha rp . Th e
harm onics, num bers 3, 4, an d 5. requi re furt her \'enting besides the
half-hole and octave key s, and th is ven tin g is b rgely responsible fo r
th e sharpness of t he har monics, wh ich necessitates the adoption of
lower-p itch ed fu ndamentals to sound the no tes wanted.
The oc ta ve and fifth harmonic (no. 3) can be produced from the
notes of th e first octave, up to and includ ing B F:: and G arc norma lly
so overblown. Composers have not t hus far made a practice of indicating these harmoni cs. bu t oboists sometimes use th em as a means of
achieving an especially fine pianissimo.

148

OVERBLOWISG

K evs I and 2 on the chart are called first and second octave keys.
L ike ~he half -hole dev ice, their function is to induce the sounding of
upper harmonics by venting. Some instruments have an automatic
second octave key t hat goes into action when the first octave key is
depressed and the fingering is taken for t he A above t he staff and upw ard.
lnd

ha.!f-h I

1St oC[a v~

key

f;l nr~
" ., ,
h, lf-ho',

harmonic no. I
. , fundamenta.!

octave

"r---::-:-' ~:
,no.) me. S' no. 4

Fig _49

no. J

149

o.

THE DOCBLE REED

An accepted parr of oboe playing is the preparat ion of the reeds. A

selected piece of cane is folded double when wet, the ends bound
around a tube, t he double reed cut to the desired lengt h, and the n the
new ends arc scraped w it h special tools to the req uired t hinn ess.
T he reed must be \'ef Y thin to vibrate freel y , but if too t hin t he tone
is of poor quality. If t he reed is too thi ck it is di fficul t to play staccato
and the low tones do not speak easily. A stiff reed causes the tone to be
harsh and strident .
T he reed p lays such a viral pa rt in th e tone quality of a reed instrument t hat the fact of the performer's preparing the reed ma kes of t he
oboe a pecu liarly per son al instru ment. The sound refl ects to a high
degree th e individ ual taste of th e player.
EMROl..:CHURE

Before playin g, the reed s must be moistened. In playing po sitio n, the

end s are held betwee n the lips, which gently control the vib rations and
preve nt th e teeth fr om touching the reeds. Because of the flexibility of
the reeds, considerable variation in pitch can be obtain ed by t he lips
alone .

INSTR UM EN T S

T HE OBO E

Th e tiny elliptical orifice bet ween the reeds opens and closes wit h
their vibrations, and these in turn set up vibrations in th e air column of
the instrument. The oboe requires by far the least amount of wind of
any wind instrument. T his means that long phrases may be play ed
without caking a new breath , bur it means also that the player is in a
constant state of holding back the wind pressure. For this reason. as
well as for the purpose of allowing relaxation of the lips and tongue,
frequent rests should be provided in the oboe pan.

The oboe staccato is superior to that of all the othe r winds for its
sharp, dr y, light quality, a point to realize when using woodwinds in
combination .
Another important characteristic of the ob oe embouchure is that
tones have to be started with a definite attack, noticeable to the car.
H th e reed is simply blown upon, without the t st roke of the to ngue ,
the moment at whi ch the tone begins to sound is unpredictabl e and
impossible of co nt rol.
Flutter-tonguing has been employed on the ob oe with no more than
moderate effectiveness.

150

151

TO'SGL'TSG

The tongue controls the air stream at the orifice between the reeds.
All the tongue articulations previously described are feasible on the
oboe, with a few reservations. Double- and triple-tonguing are in the
nature of emergency resour ces. used only when the tempo demanded
is too fast for single-tonguing. T hey are not idiomatic features of the
instrument. as they are in the case of the flute. On the other hand, the
light oboe staccato in single-tonguing can achieve a surprisingly fast
delivery.

EX. 17 1 . Stravinsky-Le Sacre

du Primemps

Vi.,.o

p. 88. ed. R usse

f Int",,-

~ ' .,, ~

crete,

Cop yriahl IQ11 by Ed ilion R".., de M" .iqlle . Vied by permiMion.

EX. 171.

c.. 1

R ossini-c-La Scala di Seta: Sinfonia

~_

~I:

r pl~

, rr~

P: 3, ed . Eulenburg
.

Oi
..

.. ...

Rep rin tro ... itb the pe rmiPi(lll of the .ole .1eJ\\$ for EIIlen b llrl M in i.,,,,re Sco ret ; C. F. Peter. Corporation. New YOlk.

TIMBRE A'SD REG ISTERS

T he sound of the oboe has been called pungent. tangy. nasal. pene tra ting, biting. piercing. and raspy. T hese adjectives represent the
more obvious qualities of double-reed ton e. qualities that distinguish
th e oboe sharply from the flute, for examp le. T here is a noticeable differen ce in the kind of to ne pr od uced by different schools of oboe playing. such as th e French and th e German . and by individua l players. It
is gen erally believed th at the oboe to ne of the present day is much
thinner and much lighter th an w hen the following melody was written.

INSTRUMEN TS

152

EX. 173. Bach-Brandenburg Concerto no.

T HE O B OE
P' 15, ed . Kalmus

~.,

U pwards from A above the staff the oboe tone gradually becomes
th inner, and above D begins to sound less like an oboe. These high
tones do not possess the warmth of the range below A, but they are
very useful for adding brilliance to the woodwind and the upper
strings. The oboe pans in Ex. 176 double the strings.
EX. 176 .

' 74. Prokofieff-Chout

La"<I--_

o.,J, f"
,

PI'

p. 93. ed. International Music Co.

Tres~me

P: "9, ed. Guth eil

?ioz;

--

l'

Of the highest notes shown on the fingering chart, G~ and A are impractical for orchestral writing. They are insecure of production and
lacking in oboe quality. F# and Gq are not often used, but they are
more playable and they are considered a normal part of the range of the
oboe. T hey had better not be approached by skip, and should not take
parr in active legato figuration. The following solo in the upper register
is very difficult but very effective when well played.

Ravel-Daphnis et Chloe

~., '

P: 3, ed. Durand

j #'", ~
Il"

~1'1'J'

Permission gruud by Durand d Cie .. Puis, (opyri~t owners ; Elku-Vog el, Philadelphia, Pa., agentl.

#J..o.l ....l\.

'~
'
.~.~.
-- ~ #..t Jihli
Oil_II

."

-#~

, ,' ; iG-~

T he distinctive tone color and expressive capabilities of the oboe

make it a favorite solo instrument. Below are two well-known oboe
melodies.
EX. 177 .

Copyright 1924 by Breitkopf & Hute! (A. Gutheil). Copyright assigned 1947 to Boosey &< Ha....kes. Used
by permission.

EX. 175.

Chausson-Symphony in Bb

l'

In direct contrast to the flute, the oboe increases in intensity as it

descends through the lower fifth of its range, and the characteristics
referred to become more pronounced. Here it is the problem of the
oboist to subdue the natura l tendency to loudness and even coarseness.
T he low Bb is seldom found in scores. It cannot be attacked softly, and
it is more appropriate for music of a robust character than for the
nuance called for in Ex. 174. The B~ is more manageable.
EX.

153

Schumann-SY111phony no.

P:

I I I,

ed. Philharmonia

; , A"'~

o.

I ~p lrJ_
I'

EX.

~1f7I"biJt

~ ~fP

178. Brahms-SY1flphony

110. 2

P' 80, ed. Kalmus

T HE OBO E

I N S T R U ~I E N T S

154

,\ lclodies of folk-song character are especially well suited to the

EX.

155
P' r I ed. D urand

simple plaintiveness of the oboe. The following melody is contained

within the range of an octave. T he oboe repeats it several measures

later an octave lower.

Bartok-Concerto for Orchestra P: 68. ed . Boose)' & l lawkes

EX. J 79.

0.

The oboe intensifies the suggestion of a strange exotic pipe, imparted

by the next example.
EX. 18 0 .

4;:55 !:EF.;;~a

Falla-EJ A mor Bruio

P' 64. ed . Chester

Penn iulon IIrilnt...:! by Duran d et Cie., Paris, co p)right o_~r.; EIJ<.an -Vogd . Ph ill delpb la.,

r ... . ..,en"

TRILLS A:SD TRE:\lOLOS

Even more than in the case of the flute, a tabulation of oboe trills

and tremolos cannot be definitively made. There are the same variable

,.bfQ
Jj ~i~i
~
~ ==-- '-' _ .
m ort"ldD

Copyr llJhl lor all countr ies J. &: W. Chnlet L ld_. Lo ndon.

facto rs of skill of the pcrfonner, and degree of rapidit y in the alternation of the two notes, further complicated by differences in mechanism
be tween individu al instruments. Also, there is often more t han one way
to finge r one or both the not es involved. It can be said that all major
and mino r trills are possible, and that most tremolos wider than a fourt h
are undependable. Tremolos on not es above t he staff are apt to be of
poor effect.

AGI LIT Y

Generally speaking , fast slurred arpeggios and figuratio n are not

recommended fo r the oboe, unless a special effec t is intended. It is not
that t he instrument is incapable of this kin d of virtuosity, but rather
t hat agility does not seem suitable to the double-reed to ne, at least in
comparison with flutes and clarinets. On the other hand, th e oboe ~an
articulate rhythmic patterns with superior neatness. The followmg
quite difficult phrase proves eminently successful as oboe writing.

ORC HESTRA L U SES

The oboe group commonly consists of tw o ob oes. or t w o oboes and

English horn , t hree oboes an d English horn, or, less common ly, three
oboes. Other combinations, like the four oboes and English horn in
Stravinsky 's Symp hony of Psalms, are special and unusual cases.
A part from th e melodic uses desc ribed above, the oboes may reinforce violins or violas by doubling at t he unison . In combination with
other woodwinds they give incisiveness to wind chords and sharp defi-

I N S T R U M E NTS

156

TH E OBO E

nirion to rhy thmic figures. T he un ison doubling of oboe and clarin et

is forceful.
A harmonic effect of extreme pungency is obtained by placing together three oboes and English horn, all in their low registers.
EX. 182.

EX. 18 4'

Sibelius-Sy1J1phony no. 4

157

P' 68, ed. Breitkopf

p. 8, ed. Philharmoni a

Strauss-Till Eutenspieget
Sehr lebhafr

, "

' I~

oe

"

'./.

,
~

'./.

I-

' NO

H'

/,

lurrig

c
ON 0

m/
Reprfnted ",lIh the

~rm;""ion

'I~

v.

Two oboes in thirds, or oth er close intervals, have a tangy quality

of (one not possessed by the othe r woo dwinds.

zx. , 83. Debussy-La Mer

P' 8" cd. Durand

Anim' ~

II

of the copyright owners C. f. Peters, Corporation, New York.

.,,#b;

-P

....-'"

fl.

=-p

=--

'~
"

'I~

_/G.
~

..

p
~3~

p-

r-,

p-

Pe nn ission granted by Dur<lnd et Cie. , Paris, copyright owners: Elkan_\'ogel, Philadelphia, Fa., agents.

In the closing measures of Sibelius' Fourth Symphon y, the oboe repeats a simple major seventh motive in diminishing nuances, with
changing harmonies in flute and strings. \ Vith economy of means, a
maximum effect is obtained.

~~

/p

..s-_6- uu
UsW. by ~rmi""ion 0' th~ origin"l publish~a, Breitkcp r & Hartd, Ldpzig

To.obtain a more stride nt sonor ity, Gustav Mahler often directe d

th e oboes and clarinets to raise th e bell of the instrument so as to point
stra ight at the audience. T he instruction in German is Schalltrichter
aUf ! a marking more usually seen in brass parts.
The opposite process is that of asking for muted oboes. Muting is
accomplished by stuffing a handkerchief in the bell.

THE OBOE

INSTRU ,\IENTS

15R

EX. 185. Stravinsky-Petrouchka

D .

p. '55, ed . Russe

--= poe ill.

" '" Jurd .

m
Cop)rilthl by Ld it;.on R. lISOC de ~Iu.i<.lue. R.e.. i~ >er.ion col')rlchl 19048 by
b y ~nn;",ion.

n.oo..r), .. 1I:a.. l<d

l:otd

THE El"GLISH HOR:-l

Fr.,

COT

mglais; Ir., como ingleu; Ge r., englisch Horn

The mechanism of the En glish horn is similar in aU deta ils to that of

the oboe, except that the low Bb is lacking. It differs fr om the oboe in
size (length JI % inches, including reed) . in rhe bulb-shaped bell, and
in the bent meta l crook ext endin g fr om the top end of th e instrument
to hold the reed tube. The double reed is larger than that of th e oboe.
Th e weigh t of the English hom is supporred by a cord around the
player's nec k.
The English hom is a transposing instrument, an instrument "in F."
This designation means that when the play er reads C, taking the fingerin g for C as on the oboe, the sound produced will be F. because of
th e difference in size of the two instruments. Since the English horn is
larger than the oboe the sounds will be low er in pitch (it will be recalled that th e piccolo sounds higher th an th e flute because of its smaller
size). All notes written for the English horn, therefore, sound a perfect
fifth below.

159

who resumed playing the ob oe after performing th e solo. Th is cou ld

be easily don e, since the two instruments were ident ical in playing
techniqu e. As the imp ort ance of the En glish horn grew; and its individual capabilities were more app reciated. this process of interchange of
instruments gave way to the establishme nt of the spec ialist on the English horn, who now occas ionally plays third or fourth oboe.
As an auxiliary inst rume nt . a pri mary function of the English horn
is to extend th e ran ge of th e oboe family downwa rd. Since the instrument has no low Bb. th e extension in sound is to E: belo w middle C.
Irs lower fifth does not han the tendenc v to coarseness not iced in the
lowest notes of th e oboe . The large r size seems to favo r the low notes.
EX. 186. Bart ok-Second R bs psody for V iolin ,111d Orchestra
P' 3, ed . Boose}" & H awkes

.-.:J: _
....

Another service performed by the En glish horn is to play the notes

of the ob oe's lower fifth wh en a softer and less pene trat ing tone is desired. A three-pan chord for three oboes sounds smoother and mor e
homogeneous if the third oboe is replaced by the En glish horn.
For singing melodie s the En glish horn brings a new ton e color. It
is closely related to the oboe sound, yet it possesses a quality that is
high ly distinctive and indi vidual, owing, at least in part, to the peculiar
bul b it has for a bell. Orchestral litera ture abounds in solo phrases for
the English horn. Two of the se are given below.

ORCHESTRAL USES

Although often used in eighteenth-century chamber music and the

divertimento, the English horn has been a normal member of the orch estra , an auxiliary instrument of the oboe family , since th e middle of
th e ninet eenth century. It w as at first introduced only occasionally for
a featured solo melody, and was usually played by the second oboist,
G

INS T R U ,\ 1E x T 5

1110

T HE O B O E

161

EX. 187. Ber lioz-c-Overrsre: The R oman Carnival

P: 3. ed. Philharmonia

. ..
iG::

.- ~
t

-- ~
~

'$..~-' .1

In comm on with all auxiliary inst ruments that arc designed to extend the ran ge downw ard, the uppe r to nes of the Englis h horn arc the
least effective part of its r:mge. It is unwise to write above E in th e
orchestra, unless doubling by other instru ments is provided. The F
in the following examp le is produ ced by good players.
EX. 190. Rousscl-BJ'ccbm et A riane. Second Suite

(I(.

ENG.

H!"'.

p.

EX. 188. Srrauss-Ein H eldenieben

'7'. cd. EuJcnburg

J :::'lJ l _ .
~

P' 16, ed. Du rand

.
"j,

t i:

~ l'

Pum UkJn &ra tlkG b y Du rand rl Ck , Paris, cop)righl cnrnr", ; E ll< an \'o &d . '-hila ddphia, Pa., acenlS

The English horn is equ al co the oboe in agility and can participate
in all acti ve woodwind figur ation.

t:O<G.
H :-I.

~. ;. rtf 7@ I ~

d~.

;: ."

With th ~ ~rmi ....;o n o f th e pu b li. her f . E. C. Lellchet. }hanchen. Le lp~ i l. Copyrigh t leW, nne"l't d
1927, b y f . E . C. UIlC .... rt.

The English horn provide s new coloristic resources in combin ation

with other instruments, winds as w ell as st rings. A perfect example of
mixed timbre is seen in the following melody whic h is played in unison
with a solo 'cello. The two instruments blend as one, and neither predominates at any time. The accompaniment con sists of widely spaced
harmonics in the strings, held pianissimo.
EX.

, 89. Debu ssy-La Mer

~'"

p. 28, ed. D urand

Tres moderc

Zt C--;; ~ I'r$ Fh'frf

,

tr h tJ:fJTt m f

~I IO-Wt'n "

fnf~1

T HE OBOE D'A.\ \ORE

Fr., hautbois d'omottr; It., oboe d'mnore; Ger. Oboe d'smore,

Liebesoboe

Larger than the obo e but smaller than the Engli sh horn. t he oboe
d'a more is pitc hed in A, a mino r third below the oboe . Its notes therefor e sound a minor third lower than written. Its mech anism is like that
of the English horn in that it docs not possess the 10\,.-' Bb, and it also has
th e bul b bell, T he tone is gentler than that of th e orhcr tw o instruments, and subtly different in tone color.
The oboe d'amorc was a common instrument in th e baroque period,
and was much used by J. S. Bach . In modern or chestration it is known
ch iefly for its important part in Strauss' S vm pbonia D omestics , where
its wr itten range ascends to high F. Among other instances of its use

162

I~STRUMENTS

are the Bolero of Ravel, and the following example by Debussy. The
solo first appears unaccompanied.
EX . 191.

Debussy-Gigues

CHAPTER

NINE

p. 4. ed. D urand

T H E CLARINET
Fr., clarinette; Ir., ciarinetto; Cer., Klari nette

clarinet is a cylindrical tube, with a bell expanding sligh tly

more than that of the oboe. It is most often made of grcnadilla
wood, less expensive kinds of ebonite, or metal. The key work
is nickel silver. T he body is in five sections, called mouthpiece, barrel
joint, top joint, lower joint, and bell.
The clarinet mouthpiece is usually made of ebonite or crystal. It
is sometimes referred to as a "beak" mouthpiece on account of its shape.

'*(5 ,1?~ ~ ~IF gj J@

p
Perm i~$ion

&ranted by Duro.nd et Cit., Paris, copyright gwnC<3 ; Ell<an-Volld, Philadelph ia , Pa. , a l w t.

,I

HE

.THE HECKELPHONE

Ger. H eek elphon

Invented by Wilhelm H eckel, in 1904 , the heckelphone was included in the scores of Elektra and Salome by R ichard Strauss. It is a
sort of baritone oboe, built to sound an octave below the ordinary oboe
and furn ished with an additional semitone taking it down to A. The
keys are arranged high on the instr ument, with the fingering of a German oboe. There is a bulb bell per forate d on the side.
T he heckelph one has a rich and fu ll reedy to ne in the lower octave,
making an excellent bass for the oboe family. It can be played at least
as high as E above the staff, although it wou ld hardly be used for its
upper tones. Instances of its use are so rare tha t few orchestras are pre pared to supply the instrument.
The heckelphone is a transposing instru ment sounding an octave
below the written notes.

I-

Clarinet mouthpiece

Reed

Ligature

Assembly

Fig. 50
The single cane reed is bound to the open side of the mo uthpiece by
means of a metal ligature with thumbscrews. Thus the flat side of the
reed becomes part of the inner surface of the clarinet tube , and is in
direct contact with the air column. The upper end of the reed IS
scrape d very th in, and the orifice between it and the tip of the mouth16l

I:-;STR

16~

THE

U~IE:>ITS

piece is carefully adjusted. A metal C:lp is placed ove r the reed when
nor in lI SC.
In pl:1ying position. the reed is b id on th e low er lip. whi ch covers
the lower teet h. T he upper teeth rest on the bent of the mou th piece.
T Oile quality and volume are affected by the amount of reed within the
mouth and the pressure of th e lowe r lip on the reed. The to ngu e
[Ouches the tip of the reed with each art iculation.
THE.

ClA RI~E T

F _UIII.Y

Th e clarine t family is a large one. T he list of its memb ers, with

appr oximate lengths and thei r tr anspositions. is as follows:

Length
in l ncbes

l nstrmnent
(Sopranino ) clarinet in :\~
{Sopranino) clarinet in
(Sopranino) clarinet in D
(Soprano) clarinet in C
(Soprano) clarinet in S, r\(Sop rano) clarinet in A
Aho cla rinet in E b
n asset horn ( in F)

42 ~

Bass clarinet in B ~
Bass clarinet in A

55
55

E,

Conrrabassclarinet in Bb

q
19

1O .!
2Z ~_I

26 %

27.!
)8

106

A ctual Sound

minor sixth above written notes

minor third above written notes
major second above written notes
as written
major second below written notes
minor third below written not es
major sixth below writt en notes
perfect fifth below written notes
major nimh below written notes
octave and minor third below
written notes
two octaves and major second below written notes

Of these, only four may be said to be regular members of the orchestra: th e small Eb clarinet, the pair of clarin ets in Bb and A, and the
bass clarinet in Eb. The piccolo clarinet in Ab is rarely seen even in
bands. Part s written for D clarinet are most oft en played on the Eb.
Man y scores of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries call for C
clarinets, but today these parts are played on either the Eb or the A
clarinet, The alto clarinet is sometimes used to play basset horn parts,
and it finds some employment in military and dan ce bands . The bass
clarin et in A is virtually never seen except on pape r, and the contrabass clarinet has yet to be adopt ed by compose rs. The alto and bass
instr uments are distinguished fr om the others by upturned bells, and
bent metal pipes to which the mouthpieces are attached.

CLARI~ET

165

TR A ~S POS IT IOS

The clarin ets furnish a complete object lesson in the evolut ion of
transposing instru ment s. All of th e instr ument s listed han the same
fingering system, so th at one who learn s this system can play th em all.
In the act of playing any instrument the re is automa tic, instinctive
translation of the printed note int o the pro per position of the fingers,
and it would ob viously be impracti cal to learn diffe rent finge rings for
each o f the pitches listed under the Clar inet Famity. Th e playe r reads
his pan as th ough for C clar inet, and the instrument transposes acco rding to its size. Since the C clarinet is now obsolete, a clarinet's not es
are always different in pitch fr om those written.
In the discussion of finge ring. registers, etc. the notes mentioned
will be the notes as read, hence fingered, by the play er. T he norma l, or
standard, clarinet is th e
clarinet, co rresponding to the flute and
oboe, and exemplifying the ideal clarinet as preferr ed to day. The A
clarinet is somewhat less extensively used.

B,

FI S GERISG SYSTE.\ l

Referring to the elementary six-hole, six-finger scale describ ed in

Chapter Six, and used as a basis for studying the fingerin g of flute and
oboe, we find that in the clarinet this scale starts on G instead of 0, and
gives the written notes shown in Fig. 51 (a) .

'5 r

~F

Fig. 5'

The cylindrical rube of the clarinet produces only the odd-numbered

harmonics, when overblown. The series shown at Fig. 51 (b ) represents the first notes available by overblowing from (a), at the twelfth
above, leaving a large gap between the [\"'0 series. This gap was filled
by (I) boring a hole for the left thomb, giving G when open ; ( 2)
boring holes still higher on the tube, for G~ and A, with keys ope rated
by the left first finger; (3) utilizing th e register key (pro vided fo r ove rblowing ) to sound the Bb, this key being plac ed close to th e G hole
so that th e thumb can depress the key and close the hole at the same

THE CLA RINET

1N S T R L1 ,\ 1 EN T S

1M

,,

.. .5 b 7

"

time; and (4) extending the downward range co E. with keys, so that
the first overblown note is B~. The last step involves the use of both
fourt h fingers. The right thumb supports the instrument.
T he Boehm system and later improvements were applied with sue- '"
cess to the clarinet, although some other systems are also in usc. The
Boehm clarinet has up to seven ring keys, and from seventeen to
twenty-one other keys. \ bny alternate fingerings are provided, especially for duplicating the action of the fourth fingers.

on

~d.

'~w

leuers

iJ7Jd

,1

In,,,,,, "".
...b

h ol ~ .

I"

,, ,

,"

,. 11

numbers indicate keys to be depressed or holes to be cloud

Fig. 52. Fingering Chan for the Clarinet (Boehm System)

r
r r r
r r r r r r -, r
r
,r r r , , - ,- .n [~ l ,, ,, , , , l ,, , , , , - , - -- -- -- -- -- - - ", - - - - - - - - '"' ", - -" e ""- "- "- -" - ""
,
,
,
,n
- - -m , , , ,x ,x x , - ,- x- -- -- -- - -,
,
,
....
- - - - --
r,.,., ~ z z z r z z z z - - - - - - - - - - - - - [
- " ,,- I- , - " - - - "- - - - -- - - - - - t

'r

'r

t.

OM

-,

- - -

,
, ,- Ii q ,
-- , ,
- - - ," "- ""
, , x x
-- "-- ,z ,z "ZZ
- - " ll ,~ !~

t,

-.-

, , 11 II I l ,,~ II,, lH ; Il II, Il, Il lW

,
,
, "" , ,, - '"
,, ,
- --- - -" -" - "- - , ,, ,, , ,x - - - - x
,
- , - - - - - -
z z z , - - - - - - - --- - - - - - ---

Ii Ii
l

167

-.-

le -

t,

It is to be noted that the thumb hole is kept closed, except for the
so-called throat tones G, G ~, A, and Bb, and for one F: fingering ; and
that the register key. also called the speaker key. is depressed for all
notes upward from the first overblown note, B1
Side keys 9 and 10 (right hand first finger) are used to trill Bp-C,
and Bb-Cb. respectively.
Fingerings above F~ are not standardized, except for A~, and no
attempt is made in the chan to list the many alternatives used by cladnerisrs. The practice is to discover by experimentation those finger
combinat ions which produce the best results in terms of the individual
player and the individual instrument.

12 -

REGISTE RS

-I>

I'

~ s ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~

- - - - - -

/'

~.".

loft

[ ..

II

II IW IH j,
- -- -- l l

1 ~IH l

---
l l l
- - ,, ""
- - -- -- --- - llm , - -- -- ,- - -- - --,- -Z
- 15 J,i J,i
- - --

,.

-.

II

II

IW

II

- l

II II
l

II

II

- -

..

(fin)

-;:

..

no. 9

I extreme high

--J

Fig. 53

- -- -- "
-- - - " - -- - , - -, -- " ,,
- - - - - - - -- u - - - - - - 14 14
" "
" "

"- ",

: c -"

funda mental ,h. nn no.}. no. S

chllumuu.J "th roat " ----J d u ino ....J high

, ,- - - ,- , , -

I ~ l~

: :;/

THE CHALU:\lEAU

T he low register of the clarinet is called the chalumcau register, from

the name of one of its ancestors. The tone color in this part of the
G'

168

I N S T R UM E N T S

T ilE C L A R IN E T

range has been called dark , menacing . and dramatic. There can be no
doubt of its richn ess and individuality. It is unli ke any ot her sound in
the orchestra, and mar kedly different from ot her registe rs of the clarinet. It is often employe d in effects of an atmospheric nature.

EX. 194-. M ozJrt-S.vmpbol1Y in

.-

R cspighi-Folltol1le di R onu

~.

..

J~

.. ... -. -.-. . .. .. -. -. ---r

,--

~I
p

Stravinsky-Divertimento, Le Baiter de la Fee

p. 8, ed. Boosey
All

& H aw kes

to sostenuto

ra,
IN

.~

~~

Copyrigh t I Q3~ by Ed ition Ru Ul: de

Used by perrnw.ion.

~f u l ique.

::> ,
I.. . ~ I

1---;--"',

r' J

t I ,

vc.,

Revil(<:! veniQll copyright 19-1Q b y Booso:y It Ib...k.u Inc.

The contrast between the low and high registers of the clari net has
suggested many passages in w hic h first and second clarinets sound as
two different instruments.

I ti t ~ t I I I

I HS.

~ >

--

1 RS .

QWn e fi

Accompaniment figures of repeated notes and accented rhy thmic

patterns are of excellent effect in the chalumeau register.
EX, 19 3 .

,-;:\,'

By co urt esy of G. Ricord l & Co., copyright

P: 8, ed . Ricordi

P: 45, cd. P hilharmonic

Alltgn:n o

p
EX. 192.

E" K. 54-3 .

169

0-11 .

Til ROAT

TO~ ES

As th e upper pan of the chalumcau registcr is approached, the sou nding length of the rube is shortened and the characteristic tone qual.ity
is g radually lessened . The open tone G (thumb hole ) has a .sound,.n g
length of about 8% inche s on the B, clari net, and the ~ a minor third
high er sounds from a length just under 6 inches. T ogether w ith the G:
and A, these are called throat tones. They arc rath er pale and less \"1brant th an ocher clarinet tones. but it is a mistake to reg ard them simply
as inferior tones to be avoided. On the contrary. th e throat tones shou ld
be recogn ized as a resource of the clarinet. to be employed appropri.
ately. The slight awk wardness of fingering invol ving G ; and A has
been greatl y overemphasized.
EX. 195. Debussy-L'A prcs.midi d'un Faune

....

P: 8, ed. Durand

Pe nn '-iQn VUlt! b y Ed il ionl ]un ] obert , Pu is, copyr ii\bl o..-n eIl ; EIUn Vo&d, P b Ha drlph la , P a .,
~

THE CLARINET

INSTRU ,\IENTS

170

171

erol over the different registers so that no lack of homogeneity is felt

in w idely traversing melodic lines like the following.

THE BREAK

The interval made up of the th roat tones is oft en er roneously called

th e br eak. Th e break means mor e pr ecisely the p:lssagc fr om Hl, to B:<,
and vic e versa, or, in o th er words, th e point at which th e high est fun damental to ne,
ad joins the lowest overblo wn note, B~ . Reference to
th e fingering chart will show that w hereas Bb is pla yed wit h the entir e
tube open, B~ requires th e entire tube to he closed. with the exception
of the vent hole op ened by depressing th e register key. It is true that

B,.

EX. 198. Stravinsky-Sy mphol1Y ill T hree M ovem ent s

p. 30, ed . A ssociated Music Publishers

CL

this transition presents a difficulty of coordination for beginners. but

it is made with perfec t smoothness by good players.

EX. 196 . Sibclius-SY111phon y no. 3

"

p. 40, <d. Ka lm us

With pum iuio n of th e oril inal publi oher . Robccn Lien.au. 100mer ly ScMe$inrccr. Bo:rlinUdittrfdd ... .
CoPJrlP I 19016 by Asoc laled Mua ic Pv.trIi1.bUlo. Inc. , ~ e ... Yorll.. l: ocd by penn iMioA,.

THE CLARISO REGISTER

The overblown notes from B~ to the first C ab ove the st aff, inis bright, incisrve, warm, and expressive .
c~~sive, constitute the clarinc register. Here the clarinet

EX.

197. Beethov<n-SY111phony no . 7

p. 75, ed . Kalmus

"c~ :, ~(:71j _
dolu

EXTRE;\IE ?'OOTES

T he clarinet can be played up to high C above the G just mentioned,

bur th ese extreme not es have little sono rous value. G:: and A are occasionally found in scor es, especially those of modern Fren ch com posers, usually in tutti passages, or doubled by other instruments. Examples like the foll owing arc most exceptional.
EX. 199. Casella-Pup pazetti

p. 48, ed. Philhar monia

, ,
n. ,
IN A II

Above C, the high register tends to sound sh rill and piercing in

forte, and som ew hat flutelike when played so ftly . A good tone quality
is maintained up to high G, which may be taken as a safe t o p note for
orchestral clarinet parts. X eedless to say, the clarinetist exercises con-

Cop JTlcht ' or all counl1iu ]. & W. Chester Ltd " Wnd<>o.

T hro ughout its range, the clarinet has greater capabilities of dynamic
variation than the other woodwind instruments. This is most remark-

17J

I N S T R U ,\ 1E :-I T S

THE CLARINET

able in piani ssimo. By subd uing the reed's vib rations with th e to ngue,
t he tone can be reduce d to virt ual inaudibili ty . SOllie times t he indi cation subtone, or echo tone , is ginn.

however, unquestionably an aid to the performe r in secur ing a desired

tone quality .
And for (c) , clarinet makers now supply B ~ clarinets having a low
Eb key (right hand fourt h fi nger) to give the C:. This addition has
not been universally accepted. In orde r to sound this note the instru ment has to be lengthened. and the qu estion arises whether or not it
remains a tru e B, clarinet . \ \ .riting for the A clarinet is the only sure
way to obtain the low C::.
As a matte r of fact. the A clarinet has not fallen inti> disuse, despite
a preference for the B, instru ment and a tendency among clarinetists
to play evcrvrhing on the Bj , tr ansposing A clarinet pans down a half
tone. Sometimes that practice is reversed. the A clarinet being used
to play the part w ritt en for B, clarinet to get a preferred fingering or
a better tone on an important melody note . For example. the sound
A b, on the second space, would be wri tt en as throat ton e B, for the
Bb clarinet, whereas on the A clarinet it wou ld call for the fuJI B~,
overbl own from low E.

172

EX . 200.

Bcrlioz-Sy mpbollie Fantastique

P: 11 7.ed. Eul enburg

Adagio

~,l~
R~ pr ; n~

Bon , :-Ourr

w ith t tlt

Yo."

~a

~rm ;,~io"

EchO

J;. ::

Pn'P

_____

i - .+Ed
-

01 th e 10k 3gen ts fo r Eu knbw i 3.1I";&llIrc Sccree : C. F Pet(n CoqIO D.-

l:SE OF T HE . ,

C L A R I S ET

T he A clarinet is not an auxiliary instrument like the piccolo or the

English horn. It is paired w it h the B, clarin et fnr th e position of norma l
or standa rd cla rine t. although somew ha t un equally.\ clarinetist carries both as prepa ration for a play ing engagement. l ie expects the music
to be in part for Bo and in pan for A clarinet . Som etimes he is asked to

make the change in the course of a movement, which he docs by removing the mouthpiece from one inst rument and connecting it [0 the
other (to avoid playing with a dry recd) .
Unti l recently. the reasons for using the A clarinet were thr ee: (.2)
to simplify fingering in sharp keys by means of the added half tone
transposition ( B major would be written D major for A clarine t, C::
or D b major for B, clarinet) ; ( b ) [0 give the less bri lliant, slightly
warmer ton e of the longer instrument for certain expressive purposes;
and (c) to gain the low C::, sounding from th e low E of the A clarinet.
These purposes now need to be further examined. In regard to (a),
the assumpti on that some keys arc easier to play in than others is misleading. The fact is that difficult passages may occur in C major. and
easy ones may happen in F ~ major. In the chromatic harmony and
shifting tonaliti es of the twentieth century, key signatur es are unreliable indicators of fingering difficulties to be encount ered. Furthermore, the perfection of mechanism and the enormous advance in playing technique have combined to minimize problems of execution.
As for (b) . the difference in tone color between the A and Bb
clarinets is nor striking. Indeed. it is often impossible to tell by the tone
alone w hich of the two is being played. The size of the instrument is,

TRILLS A'SD TRE:\toLOS

All major and minor trills are good on the Boehm clarinet. Tremolos
are of excellent effect, especially in the chalumeau, bu t should not be
based on inter vals wider than the major sixth in that register. or the
perfect fourth above the break. Above the staff, the major third is a
safer limit.
EX. 1 01 .

Kodaly-Psalmus Hun garicus

P' 81, ed. Philharmonia

Cop )'rl&bt 1 9l~ by L'n ivcrwl E dit io n A. G. ; ren .....ed 1952 by Zolt .. n Kod..l)'. U-e <1 t.y pc fln iN jo" .

T OX GUIXG

The clarinet staccato is much less pointe d than that of the oboe, but
it can be drier and sharper than the flute staccato. Fast passages of
single-tonguing arc better relieved by slurring tWO or three notes at

INSTRUMENTS

174

EX. 204.

Mendelssohn-Italian Symphony

P'

1)6,

ed. Eulenburg

II Itgglrro

Reprin ted wi th the perm iss ion of th e sole agents for E ulenburx Miniat ur e Scor e.: C. F . Peten Corpora
tion , ~ew Yo rk .

In variety of tongue attacks the clarinet is superior to the oth er reed

instruments. The start of a tone can be controlled to give all gradations,
from an explosive sforzando to a soft attack something like that of
loure bowing in the strings.
EX. 203 .

Debussy-Pre1l1h:,re Rbapsodie

., .",""m
oo.,
,"' '~"~-,;F,OE~

p. 7, ed. Durand
<,

CL.,~b &1 1;~A= l it :

l'

r'

R asc he

tit.

,ce.

p. 13, ed. Universal

Schoenberg-Pierro! Lunaire

..

PrtSIO

~ '
"~
,,I~~ :' 51
ttf'"Wi!r~

175

and fluidity . Wide legato skips between registers are more easily accomplished when in an upward direction.

appropriate places. Double- and triple-tonguing can be used as emergency expedients, as in the following instance wh ere th e clarinets are
called upon to imitate the light triple-tonguing of the flutes.
EX . 202.

THE CLARINET

6_

. "l ::~

fl'P
Copyrilbt1 914 by Universal Edition , Vienna; renewed l!f-ll by Arn old SrhOtnber l U""d by ~rm i !lllion.

The following cadenza for two clarinets exhibits the flowing quality
and flexibility of the clarinet legato.
EX. 205.

Ravel-Raprodie Espagnole

P' 8, ed. Durand

ClldmZ4;'d;;lib;';;~}~=F'i=9;;i=~

'10fT

===-- p m serrent

Sc hena ndo
(twice as fast )

~'p J

4%1

f v:=..- ;

_E(~m(,GI

pm II
Permission l anted by Du rand et Cie., Pui s, copy r ight o,..nera; Elk,a n-Vogd , Pb lladelpb ia , h .., agent s

VIRTUOSITY

The clarinet is a close second to the flute in agility. Its tone qua lity,
as well as its technical capacities, make it admirably suited for all kinds
of rapid scales, arpeggios, and figuration calling for ease in mobility,

7Th l'Iknil

~ij et

__

00 'Di I
~

Perm ission I'ankd by D uran d et Cie., Paris, copyright owners; E lk,an.V ogel. Ph ila delp hia, Pa., a s.,lls

TilE CLARINET

I N S T R U ,\ I E N T S

li6

Rerg's\~olin

OR CHESTRAL L"SES

Besides the important melodic functions performed by clarinets,

either as solo instr uments or doubling other melodic voices, th e harmonic and coloristic possibilities of the clarin et sect ion are nry numerous, as can be seen in almost any orc hestra l score. The unob trusive nature of the clarinet's tone mak es it extr emely useful for doubling and
for combinati on with practically all instruments. Clarin et accompaniment figures arc common and often ingeniously arranged to contribute
life and vibration to the background texture. The followin g is a goo d
example of this use of clari net s, and should be examined in the full score.
EX . 206 .

Stravinsky-Petrouchka

P' J 7, cd . Russe

of Alban
Concerto. The clarinets are written at their
actual pitch in th e sco re, a practice adopted by a few modern composers, the pans being print ed with the necessary transpositions. A
foo m ote in th e sco re explains that the first clarinet part is notated fo r
Bb clarinet, th e second for A.
EX.

W i. Berg-Violill Concerto
, "

'~

;,1 \" ;~==> .- '"

.JI

~~

~~ .--~ --

w~
,"~

/
p ~

POet, crete,

"

p. 3. ed. Universal

d <10ft

l'p

of
~

"

c r,
1:"< 10 II

177

of
H'.

1~ <I 'j\

(I

"I \

....- -.....
A

soao

'N.

-./

,;;

pp

Copyrlpl 1936 by Universa ! Edition A. G . l;io<d by pe rmi ", ion.

THE BASS CLARI:\ET

Fr., clarinette basse; lr., clarinetto basso, ctarone; Ger., Bassk/arinette
Copyriabl by E d ilioa Ru_

br po:rm iss,OG.

d~ MU5i 'l \l ~

Rn iMd ~erslon ~OP) f ;,",h1 1904.'1 by ~ .t Hu , k"

Used

The evocati ve color of the chalumeau tones. combined with harp

and solo violin, cre ate a fascinatin g atmosphere in the opening measur es

Although the bass clarin et in A exists. and some compose rs have

called for it in their scores, few musicians han ever seen th e instr ument .
Parts for it are pra ct ically always played on the bass clarinet in Bo
th e playe r transposing the note s down a half tone. In most cases. the

178

INSTR U ~I ENTS

composer's ob ject in writing for th e A instrument is to obtain th e low

C ~ . the act ual pitc h of th e low E of the bass clarinet in A. This sound
is now available, however, through th e addition of th e low Eb key
(right-h and fourt h finger ) to th e fib bass clarinet. Because of thi s exten sion th e len uth of the instrument is the same as th at of th e bass
clarinet in A . Since the bass clari net is pitched an octave below the
ordinary clarinet, irs lowest (One sou nds a half tone above the open
C-srri ng of the 'cello.
Bass clarinets have been made with a down ward range to D. sounding C, and mode rn R ussian composers give evidence in their scores of
the existence of bass clarinets desce nding to C. sounding Bo. th e range
give n by R imsky-K orsakoff. A bass cla rinet constructed by Rosario
.\ 1a1.zeo, of th e Boston Symphony O rchestr a, provides two fu rt her
semirones , down to Bb, sounding Ab. At the present time, however. one
cannot with certainty count on having sounds lowe r tha n C:; on the
bass cla rinet.
T he mechanism duplicates that of th e standard Boehm clarinet, except tha t two register keys are pro vided. The throat tones may be
overblown at the twelfth, givin g fuller to nes from high D to F, but
few play ers take advantage of th is, preferring to keep to the fingering
habits of th e smaller clarinet. Extern al features of the bass clarinet are
th e upturned bell and the curved mour hpipe, both of nickel silver,
and the supporting neck-cord attached to two str ap-rings.

NOTATION

There are two systems of notation in comm on use, called French

and G erman, terms that may have possessed logic when they originated. Subsequently both systems have been employed by French
and German composers interchangeably, but the name s persist.
In th e French system, the part is written throughout in the tr eble
clef, exactl y as though for the ordinary Bb clarinet, the sounds being a
major ninth lower.
In the G erman system, the bass is used as the normal clef, the treble
clef being employed only when the patt lies so high tha t keeping to
the bass clef would require several leger lines. The sounds are a major
second lower th an written, in either clef.

THE CLARINET

179

Fig. 54
The French system seems the mor e logical fr om the standpoint of
fingering habits, whereas the G erman notation has the advantage of
appearin g more nearly \..here it sounds. Bass clarinetists, as a group, do
not sho w a preference fo r either way. If the part begins with notes in
the tre ble clef, ambiguity may exist as to wh ich notation is to be followed. A footn ote is sometimes given to make this clea r, e.g., "sounding a major ninth (or major secon d) lower,"

T OSE Qt:ALITIES

The low ton es are rich in th eir odd-numbered partials, and result ant
major triads are oft en plainly audible when the instrument to; playing
alone. The bass clarin et makes an excellent bass for the wood wind
group, wi th or withou t doubling by bassoons. Its pian issimo in the
low register can be very much softer than that of th e bassoons, and is
a valued resource.
In the following expressive solo passage the bass clarin et is accompanied very lightly by flutes, with the harp placed above th em. The
written C# cannot be reached by most instruments.
EX. 1 0 8.

Shostakovi ch-Sy111phony

110.

p. 99. ed. Leeds

TIlE CLARI:-:ET

1:-: S T R U ~I E:-: T S

180

The low register is ilia effective for a kind of shadowy fleetness

characteristic of the clarinet family.
EX. 209.

Milhaud-SymplJony

J -'00

,~'.iL;g-

P:

110. 2

~.". -

{G erman not.t;on )

\V. Schuman-Sympbol1Y no. 3

P' 55, ed. G. Schirmer

ed. Heugel

:=;;;
etiQ3;42fa
, ~

~ /"

40,

EX. 111 .

\8\

~ ,

11/--~

~.1-"$ _ .1 ~ J" I"":!ti )f?'~

~

OI

:7-

pp

--...

==- pp

Re p rod uced b y p erm iss ion of Il eugd et Cit ., Paris, ow ners of th e copy right

It is important to fo rm a mental picture of the sound of the clarino

register of the bass clarinet as compared to notes of the same pitch
played on the ordinary nD clarinet. There is obviously no way to do
this without actually listening co the two instruments, but some knowledge of what is involved in the way of fingering, overblowing, etc.,
helps the listener to know what to listen for, and to identify what he
hears. In this register the bass clarinet is paler and somewhat less incisive than its smaller prototype.
EX. 110.

Strauss-Ein He/den/eben
Lebhafr bC'Wii' _

.J

P: 7, ed. Eu lenburg

~ . ~ J ~'

,~~~.~
- ~-~=~~ __; : E-~
"=
~~ss8bL._~

f~

(Frr nch noution)

With th e penniss ion of the p u b lish er F . E , C, Leuckatt , Muen ch en , Leipzig. Copyrigh t 18'19, re newed
1927, by F. E. C. Le u cka tt.

The bass clarinet is hardly less capable than the other clarinets of
a high degree of agility, despite the comparative cumbersomeness of
its mechanism, due to its size. The following example is the statement
of a fugue sub ject played alone by the bass clarinet, except for rhe sole
accompaniment of a snare drum. The high F is as high as it is advisable
to write for the bass clarinet.

I----r

;~
-..
~_ 3 .;;;.:... . )
p

THE CLARI:'IJETS IN

Eb

AND D

The small clarinets in Eb and D stand in the same pitch relationship

to each other as the Bb and A clarinets. The D clarinet is little used. It
is possible that in some instances the composer's choice of the D clarinet
was motivated by considerations of fingering. but in any case parts for
the D arc nearly alwa ys played on the Eb clarinet, reading the no tes a
half rone lower.
Although the Eb clarinet has the same mechanism as the
it is more
difficult to play well, and in tune, especially if the performer is asked
to change quickly to the smaller instrument from the larger. The small
reed and the rather cramped finger position need time for adjustment.
Usually one member of the clarinet section makes a specialty of playing
t he Eb clarinet.
The need for more strength in the high-pitched woodwind is often
felt in the large symphony orchestra. and this the small clarinet can
supply. It has a penetrating tone, an incisi ve staccato . brilliance and
agility. It is used to reinforce violins and flutes, as well as the upper
tones of the other clarinets; hence the most used part of irs range is the
high register. The high G, sounding Bb, can be considered a safe upper

Bo.

IN STR U hI ENTS

182

T HE CLAR INET

limit, although G# and A are w ritten for th e E b clarinet more frequently than for th e Bb cla rin et.
The following is a characteristic Eb clarinet passage.
EX. 2 I 2.

Ravc1-Daphnis et Chloe

P' 263 . ed. Durand

------~
U

.. .

1fb

_-- -, . . _,

.;;; ~

~'
Pe r.n lu ion granted by

Du r~ nd

et Cie. , Puis, copyrigh t owners; Elkan-Vogel, P biladelph lil, Pa.., agents

The entire range is playable, down to the low E. The rone of the
two lower octaves lacks the warmth and expressive quality of the
Bb clarinet, and the instrument has often been used here for purposes
of parody and imitation. As in the case of the piccolo, however, it
should be said again that auxiliary instruments bring new colors in their
"weak" registers, additional resources needing only to be employed in
the right way.
Below is a well-known solo for D clarinet.
EX. 2 13 .

Strauss-Till Eu/ enspiegel

P' 98, ed. Phil harmonia

C L.

Reprin ted w ith th e ptrmission of th e oopyriltht

owne~

C. f.

rete ~

Corpora.tlo n. Ne.. York

I8J

T HE BASSET H ORN
T he basset horn may be described as a cla rinet with extensio n to low
C, pitched to sound a perfect fift h lower than wr itt en, i.e., in F. Its
lowest sound is the refore F, a fourth above the 'cello C-string. Its bore
is narrower th an that of the alto and bass clarinets, sometimes used as
subst itutes, and this gives the instrument a distinctive timbre.
In early forms of the basset horn, the rube made a sort of S-turn inside a box, as a means of gaining length of air column without lengthening th e instrument . T his dev ice is not found in modern basset horns.
!' At present , the significance of the basset horn derives from a few
notable instances of its use. Mozart wrote important basset horn parts
in the operas, especially Die Entfiihrung and Die Zauherfiote; also in
th e R equiem and in the Serenade, K . 36 1. Beethoven gave it a prominent
solo in Prom etheus. It has been revived by Strauss in the operas E/ek tra
and Die Frau obne Schatten,
Strauss writes the basset horn parts generally in the treb le clef, even
when it necessitates the leger lines fo r low C. Sometimes, however, the
bass clef is used, and on these occasions the part is written to sound a
perfect fourth higher. This is a practice that will later be secn in writing
for the horn. The procedure is shown in the followi ng exampl e.
EX. Z 14-

Strauss-Elektrl1

a.us f:T_
HORNS

~
----

p. 252 , ed. Booscy & Hawkes

THE CLA R INET

I N S T R U h1 E N T S

184

185

,
THE SAXOPHO:-.lE
BASSfT -

Fr ., saxophone; It., soxoiono, sassoiono; Ger., Saxophon

H O II. ~ S

Invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax, (he saxophone is classified as

a woodwind instrument despite the fact that it is made entirely of
brass. This is beca use its ton es arc produced with a mouthpiece and
reed, almost exactly like those of a clarinet. It is commonly played by
clarinetists withou t furth er tra ining. The upturn ed bell of the saxophone is remi niscent of the bass clarin et, bur its rub e is widely con ical,
and the ton e holes, inc reasing to Ye r ~.. large size toward the lower end
of the tub e. present a contrast to the appearance of the clarinet family.
Th e--ton~ holes have large brass padd ed key- covers. operated by rodaxles from keys which arc arranged in two groups convenient for the
hands. A cord around the neck sup ports the instrument when playing.
The fingering is very much like that of the oboe , so that it need not be
described in detail. Registers arc as shown in the following figure. The
scale is compl etely chromatic.

T HE CONTRABASS CLARI:-.IET
Large clarinets have been constructed to sound in the octave below
th e bass clarinet, in Eb and in B~ . The latter instrument is made of
meta l and fold ed upon itself after the manner of a contrabassoon. It
has great dynamic variety, rich tone quality, and an astonishing pitch
range, sounding from the D just above r o-foot C to the D just above
middle C. T he contrabass clarinet is as yet too great a rarity to be con sidered an available resource in symphonic composition.
LARGE CLARIXET SECTlOSS

The extent to which composers have expanded the group of clarinets in the large orchestras of the early twentieth century is shown by
the following listing of the clarinets employed in some wo rks.
Mahler-c-Symphony no. 8
l

Eb clarinets

3 clarinets in Bb and A
1 bass clarinet
Strauss-Elektra
1 Eb clarinet
+clarinets in Bb and A
2 basset horns
I bass clarinet

Schocnberg-Gurrelieder
z Eb clarinets
3 clarinets in Rb and A
2 bass clarinets
Srravinsky-c-Le Sacre du Printemps
1 D (Eb) clarinet

3 clarinets in Bb and A
2 bass clarinets

\
,

if i i E

, funda mental
=1,

,: +

-- #~I

. I

octave key

: extra keys
+ octave key

Fig. 55

Saxop hones arc made in a large variety of sizes and keys. All are
written for in the tr eble clef, as in Fig. 55. their different sizes resulting
in numerous transpositions for the sound s produced. T he most common are the Eb alto (sound ing a major sixth lower ), and the Bb tenor
(sou nding a major nimh lower) . Next to th ese in fr equ ency of usc
are th e Eb baritone (sounding an octa ve and major sixth lower), and
the Bb soprano (sounding a major second lower ) . T he soprano saxophon e is usually made in straight form, without the uptu rned bell. T he
transpositions are shown in notation below.

186

THE CLARINET

IN STRUMENTS
EX.

liS . Copl and-Concerto for Pianoforte and O rchestra

p. j 6, ed. Cos Cob Press

J"

A large bass saxop hone in B, is sometimes played; also soprano and

tenor in C, and others in F. Ravel writes, in Bolero, for Bb soprano
and Bb tenor , an d also for a small sopranin o in F (sonndi ng a fourth
up) . The part for the latter, how ever, can perfectly well be taken over
by the less rare Bb soprano, since it docs not go too high.
The saxophone possesses the agility of the clarinet, except in the
matter of fast tonguing, which is hindered by a slightl y slower response in the embouchure.
Modern developments in saxop hone playing have completely
changed rh"ture and sound of the instrument from what it was
when melodies were assigned to it by Bizet and other European co mposers before 191 0 . From a pure, steady tone , partaking of both horn
and reed instrument qualities, its tone has beco me, coincident with its
ascendancy in the field of popular dance musi c, tremulous, oversweer,
sentimental; and it is almost in vari ably play ed out of tune. The saxophone as played today cannot be used successfu lly in instrumental
co mbinations, and it is perhaps for this reason that it did not, as seeme d
like ly twenty-five years ago, become a member of the symphony orchestra.
The numer ous instances of the use of the saxophone in symphonic
music have been chiefly as a special instrument introduced to playa
featured solo (see h.loussorgsky-Ravel-Tableaux d'tme Exposition).
In the following example, the soprano saxophone is employed to impan a flavor of the jazz style of the 19 2 0 'S.

187

,C:l ,. , b., t>..

PO'" .u~/.

I~
~

I"

,.., , . =>

,.
>

.'~ ' .

>

~:--....
,.. . -,.>
e: tl~,. II" ~~.

$OI'IlA NO
IAlOI'H Ol'I"

. N.

..

"

CL

--:;;.

,
I

, ~

,~

(piuiuto accomp"llimcllt onurredj

Cop yril hl 192'9 by Cos Cob Pre$6, tee. Us.ed by pcrm i"5.lon of Arr ow
Cc. Cob Pres-.

P ~CSI,

Inc. lr.eorporati n. th e

The following legato, expressive solo passage for alto saxopho ne

represents a rather unusual use of this instrument in a work of religious
ch aracter.
EX. 11 6 .

Britten-Sillfonia da R equiem; Dies frae

p. j 8, ed . Boosey & H aw kes

TII E

C HAPTER

BA S SOO ~

189

Th e wing itself is a device for adding th ickness to the wall of t he

ru be, in order thar to ne holes, bored on a slam, may be spaced properly
fo r pitch on th e inside. y et close enough together on the outside fo r

rEX

the fingers to reach <Fig. 57 ).

TH E BASSOO?"

Fig. 57. Cross Section of Bassoon \ \"iog

Fr., basson; Ir., [agott o; Ger. F,;gott

Some holes in the butt arc also bored slantwise. This peculiarity and
the situation resulting from the folding of the t ube create an external

aspect of confusion and complexity in the fingering system.

HEllltassoon is picturesque in appe :uancc 35 well as in sound.
lrs air column is abo ut 9 feet c inch es lon g. sou nding the B
JUSt below the open 'c ello C-string. and th e instrument is
rendered m anageabl e by bein g folde d in tWO, so to speak. T he bassoon
is usually made of maple, in four sec tio ns- t he hell joint, t he bass (or
long ) joint, the bu tt, and th e wing (o r tenor ) joint. The bun and the
wing joint arc lined with rubber, against moisture. A do uble reed %
inch wide, qu ite like a larger English horn reed, is fined onto a gracefully curved metal mou rhpipe ca lled the crook, or bocal, and t his fits
into the top en d of t he wing joint. A neck -cord, attached to a ring at
th e [Op of the butt, provides support so that the hand s arc free . Some
bassoon ists use a hand rest , fixed [0 the butt an d bracing against the
palm of the right hand.
The righ t hand ho lds th e bu rr close to th e player's rig ht hip , t he
left han d g rasp ing t he bass and wing joints toget her. In this posit ion,
the th umb keys arc on the side tow ard the play er (called the back ) ,
and t he fingers find th eir positions on th e from side. o ut of sight of
th e pl ayer. Since th e tu be makes a sharp U ctu rn inside the butt, the
lef t ha nd co ntrols at on ce th e lo west not es, o n t he bass join t, and the
hig hest notes, on t he wing joint.
T he bo re is co nica l, fr om )-@; inch at the small en d of the crook, to
abo ut I y:! inches at t he bell. The pitch of the bassoon can be alte re d
on ly by cha nging the posi tion of the reed o n the en d of t he crook. It
is not a transposing instrument.

188

F1SGERISG SYSTE:,\ [

Bassoons in use at the present time are of t wo main types, t he F rench

( Buffet) , or the Germa n ( H eckel ) . \lost G ennan bassoons can be
ident ified in t he con cert hall by the w hite ivory ring at the top end of
th e bell joint. Some. howeve r, do not possess t his distinguishing featu re.
,\ l odero improvements, such as th e Boeh m principles t hat revolu tio nized the mechanisms of other woodwind instruments, have not bee n
suc cessfully incorporated into the bassoo n. It scerns tha t p ractica lly all
devi ces fo r im proving the instrumen t's purity of intonation and capabilities of execution inevi tably destroy just those c haracteristics of
tone qu alit y and delivery wh ich go to make up the cherished indi viduality of th e bassoon. Some key wo rk was indispensab le in o rde r to cover
the ext raordinarily w ide range, and mod ern bassoons ar c eq uippe d
with seventeen to twcnty-tw o kcy s.
The fun damental six-finge r- hole series gives a sca le just an octave
below t he w ritte n clarinet scale, start ing on G . In th e butt arc G , A,
B ~, co ve red by right third, seco nd, and first finger s-the G w it h the
aid of a key , as t he hole is beyo nd reach. On th e wing are C, D , an d E
(l eft t hir d, seco nd, and first fingers) , and th e op en note, F~.
The dow nwa rd extension of this series uses the rest of the butt (F
righ t fourth finger, E right t humb), and the bass and bell joints. T he
left thumb contro ls a nest of four keys ( D, C, B, and Bb), as we ll as
four ot he r keys on the w ing joi nt t hat lie w ithin its reach .

TilE BA SSOON

INSTR U ,\ 1 ENTS

190

191

letters and numbers indicate h:y s co be depressed or holes to be closed

!}
f,,,.....

Vu

!;o"

~ _~~h !
,~

,., t'o

I~

I:

I:

I~

,-"

I:

....... "- -" "- .." -" "u "- - "- "- "- - - - - -

."[?:

, z z z z z z
"

z
-

... 1

-&

"

-" "K
y

--

"

"u _
,

ec

K
L

..

-l3

. b
'<Ii , , ,- ,
"'"
" "
"" ....
- - ... "- -" -- -" -- -- -" -"

[..

....
s

,e
"

"

[..

:':"" -

.... ... --

-- - - - - -

Fig. 58. Fingering Chart for the Bassoon (Heck el System)

- II

, - x
--

" " -" "- -" "-

II Il,

---

,I ,I - " "
"L L L" - - - L L
L
l
M
"II II" II" II J3- - u" II" J3" e
"
Q

"
- " "" ""
- - - ,
, x -x 5 -, - - x
v
- -

z
z - - - z z
- - I- - - - "

front

There are three speaker keys and several chromatic keys. and in the
crook there is a tiny hole called th e pinhole, controlled by the crookkey. T his ~o le is a vent, which the crook-key automatically closes
wh en the fight thumb depresses the key for low E. O vcrblowing is
accomplished by using the half hole (for F~ and G ) , speaker keys, and
venn ng.
Some differences exist between the fingering systems of French and
G erm an bassoons. such as the slightly different ar rangement of th e

- -

- v
- - - z z , - - - - " - " - -

,- I ,- ,- -
L

back

Fig. 58 (Cominued v

"5

, ,5 -5 - -
- - "- v
- z Z -

17

"

17

"-

left-hand thumb keys. and th e position of other keys ( low Eb on the

French bassoon is for the left thumb instead of the right fourth finger) ,
but since th e German type is muc h more commo nly used at the present
rime, the chan of fingerin gs is ginn for the H eckel bassoon.
H

1:-\ S T R U ,\ 1 F :-\TS

T ilE llASSOO:-\

The four left-h and thumb keys for th e lowest note s arc arr anged
so th at pressing key I:: also closes I I, 10, and 9; p ressing key I I also
closes 10 and 9; and pressing 10 also closes 9.
Special tri ll keys are 8 ( G-A,l, 15 (A- Bal, 19 (C- Dbl, and 20
( F-G'l .
The half hole is used for venting. but the half closing has to be done
by th e finger alone, without the help of a half-hole key like that on
the oboe. For k finge ring is no rmally used for middle E ,.
For the high no tes, there arc various finge rings other th an those
given in the chart. Some instr ument s have high D and E keys . in addition to the ~h A (key 2) and C ( key I), on the wing joint. Va riarions in th e ~re. and in the size of th e {One holes, affect pitch. and individual players find combinations of vent s to correct this.
Many awkward situations confront th e performer on the bassoon,
and the se he overc omes with more or less decepti ve skill. An illustration is furn ished in the foll owing apparently simple phrase.

It is hard to say wh et her the complex fingerings in the upper reg ister
affect th e pitch of the fun darncnrals chosen, or th at of the harmon ics
produ ced . For th e basssoonist, as for the players of ot her woodwind
instru ments, the production of high notes is a matter of experirncrnation to find the most workable combination of open and closed holes.
The solut ion may "ary with the instrument as well as with the playe r.
There is no dividing line of cont rast to be dr.iwu between the registers of the bassoon, as far as sound is concerned. Low merges into
medi um and medium into high.
The lowest fifth or sixth of th e rang e is sonorous and vibrant, with
a little rou gh ness. It is rich in audible ove rtones. It is not easy to attack
softly, and it is incapable of anph ing Iikc th e pian issimo of the bass
clarinet. Som ctifiics the instru men t is mut ed bv a handk erchief in th e
bell in an effort to reduce the ton e. Th e Bo gives a softer piano than
rhe B~ .

192

EX. 218 .
EX . 21 7 .

Tchaikovsky-c-Oncerrn re Solennelle, / 8/2

P: 45, cd . Kalmus

A Uegro giusto
.N. I

tt:i>

'~ :o ~ )~

'-~

A,

R eference to the fingering cha rt will show that moving from

to E b requires the coo rdinate d movement of both thumbs and bot h
fou rth finge rs, the right fou rt h finger having to move o ff key 17 onto
key J 8. All must be accomplished witho ut the slightest break, because
the two tone s are slurred.
REGISTERS

humoniC$

no.

J (rJlup ) nO_ 4 (w rp no. J

(Ilu )

Fig. 59

P: 46, ed . Durand

Te es arum\!

Z :: 3:a::ent
... :.J:. J::m=:t
....... . _ _- ......

W
9' I:,;.

l' tilhaud-Secoud Symphonic Suite

193

. t:rr - ;*

"
Penn jo,sion vantw by D"r"nd

~
~t Ci~.,

..

:>-';1 . '
~

-~ ... -.. .
--
- . .._.;>

p ;:

:>

Par ,s, co pyril;h{ o.. n~ r~;

Ul<an 'o~d.

Ph ib ddph i. , Pa. ,

.~n{1

Low A for the bassoon may be seen in the scores of \ \ "agner and
Mahler. This note can be played by replacing the bell joint with a
longer one made for th e purpose. ,' lodern bassoons extending to low
A can be purchas ed. but the extra scmitonc cannot be considered
within the nor mal range of the instrument.
The midd le register , sometimes called the baritone register, includes
the notes of the fundam ental six-hole scale, on th e smaller half of the
butt and the wi ng joint. Here the tone is smoother and more subdu ed
in expressive ch aracter th an in the lowe r part of the range. It is easily
covered or absorbed if too th ick ly accompanie d .

I NSTR U ~I ENTS

194
EX. 119.

THE BASSOON

Moussorgsky-Ravel-Tableaux d'une Exposition

Solo passages in louder nuan ces passing through this register must
be lightly accompanied. The followin g phrase sounds over soft staccato chords for thre e trombones, in their low register.

P: 23, ed . Boosey & Hawkes

And ante

-:?-; .-,

(~p rtss~ ~:-

,,;, 7J'lllliIUjIJ IIp):;'JJlp

11-

-= ==--

7~

.~

Stra\'insky-SY1J1phol1Y in C

EX . 222 .

Allegren o ,

AAf#IFl~

BN. I

:::-

P: 55, ed. Schott

>~.

"

.:::".~

~.~~
a !i~t
.

" ml1rc.--=--

Pn m lsslon granted by Dura nd er Ci e., Paris, cop)'right ownU I ; Elkan- \"ogd , Philadelph ia, Pa... allenls.

Th e two bottom oc~cs are shown to advantage in the following

example, for solo ba~lItn, in three-part melodic writing with solo
violin and oboe. The passage should be studied in the full score.
EX, 2 20.

195

P: 8, ed. Schott

H indemith- Concerto for Orchestra

CoPyrillht 1948 by SchOll &: Co " L td . l:!>C u by pumi ssioll.

Ascending the high register from D up to about C, the tone of the

bassoon becomes more tense and penetrating, although it can be well
modulated up to A or Bb.

~~~J- JJJh
_~
- - _ ~ b ...lm
~ v_
_==="""'~ P -poco -poco
II

CTt IC.

EX. 22 3 .

P' '36, ed. Philhannonia

Beethonn-SY111p hony no . 9
An danrc: mode rato

l.

Copyr ight 1925 by B. Schott 's Soehne; renew ed \95Z by Paul H indemith . Uoed by permission.
BN . I

cresco

The gentlest and most delicate part of the bassoon's range is the
upper middle register, from F~ to D, the first overblown notes. T hese
harmonics have the least intensity and carrying pow er, and are softly
expresslve.
EX. 22 I.

p. 50, ed. Kalmus

Brahms-SY111phony no . 3

~.~
~.

lIN . I

P (IF.

The extreme high register extends to E.

EX. 22 4.

\ \'agner-Tannhdllser: Overture

P' 48, ed. Kalmus

. .

oJ~t

-=;;:

=--

Allegro

~ -------

"~t fte,.~ ~"'"

ON :, Ul,$:l~ "
X c: tJ=a=j - - ~t jj
/f

INSTRU~IENTS

196

T HE BASSOON

Approached by skip. this note is hazardous and uncommon. In this

instance it is somewhat safer because of unison doubling by violas and
'cellos, but the highest notes are always better approached by step.
Iligh F has been written, by Alban Berg in the opera Lulu, and still
higher sounds can be forced from the bassoon. The smaller bore of
the French bassoons favors the production of these upper notes. However, such extreme tones are strained and pinched, and unreliable.
The following mel ody employs the high register effectively up to
C::::. the bassoons being doubled at the unison by the bass clarinet. The
composer acknowledges the difficulty of its performance by cueing in
the parr for alto saxophone and (WO clarinets, explaining in a footnote
that these instruments are to pl. . only in case the " pur posely exposed"
passage cannot be played by ti.!tass clarinet and the two bassoons.
EX . 225.

Berg-Violin Concerto

19 7

E;\IBOl:CHURE

L ike the oboist, the bassoon player fashions his own reeds. The
do ub le reed and the technique of tone production are similar in both
instruments, qualified, of course, by the fact that the bassoon reed is
larger and heavier. The bassoonist docs not have the oboist's problem
of holding back the breath; in fact, the low notes require much breath,
especially for loud and long tones. As in all wind instruments, slurs
over wide intervals are good ascending and risky descending.
TOXGl.Jli'JG

T on g uing is like that of the oboe, but a little less light and active.
The bassoon staccato is especially effective and examples are numerous.

p. 61, cd. Universal

E X. 2 2 6 .

Beethoven-Sy mphony no. 4

p. 7, ed . Kalmus

Semp re piu pesame (Allegro)

..

,',~~gr~
.I'so lo violin ommined

Cop}'righi 1936 b) ' l"n;nr sal Ed iii on A. G. l"sed by p.,mis5ion .

It is to be noted that the tenor clef is used for high notes. The treble
clef is rarely used.
The ;lrtempt will not be made here to describe the difference in
sound of these melodies as played on French or German instruments.
It is an interesting fact that, although their tone qualities are indisputably very different, both arc accepted as sounding like bassoons. Mechanical considerations aside, the choice of one or the other type is
dependent on personal taste . A performer, through training and experience, develops an ideal of tone toward which he strives, and he
chooses the instrument with which he can best approach that ideal.
French and German bassoons are both widely used, and one sometimes sees them side by side in the same orchestra.

)
Passages like t hat in Ex. 226, if long continued, present breathing
probl ems. A short, quick breath can be taken at almost any point, but
th e process is likely to disturb the rhythm of the staccato. It is better
to provide a musical break, or else to arrange the two bassoons in
some such manner as the following.
E X.

" 7. Prokofieff-SY111plJony no. 5

P: 5'. ed. Leeds

N~~_~~
2~ G
~ FJ ~ ;1

ON~tJ:d &
.1' :::.-

v :
P

"

.,.

'1

,..'

~ i-..l

~P~f'~

Copyrilh t 194(i by 1.(~d~ Mu sic Corporation. N~w Yo rk. l'srd by pe rm ission.

Sin gle-to ngu ing can be executed with remarkable rapidity, although
if unrelieved by slurs or rests the tongue will become fatigued. Doubletonguing, and even triple-tonguing, can be employed as a last resort.

I~STRU~IE~TS

T HE BASSOON

It is doubt ful if the passage shown in Ex. 22. 8, occurring in an orchestral tu tti , is ever accomplished by single ton guing, with ou t slur ring or
omitting some not es.

The same observations app ly to tremolos. Also, they shou ld not

cover an interval wider tha n a fourth.

198

EX , 22 8 .

Mozart-Cost Fsn Tuite

P' 43 I , ed. Braude Bros.

ORCHESTRAL U SES

Allegro molto

ON :,

Besides serving as the nat ural bass of the woodwind section, with
or without bass clarinet, the bassoons perform an everyday function
of dou bling the bass part of the strin gs, eithe r at the octave or unison .
They not only reinforce the double-bass and 'ce llo tone, but give point
and clarit y to staccato and rhythmic figures, without noticeably affecting the string tone qual ity.
Inn er harmonic and con trapuntal voices are likewise often strengthened or taken over by bassoons. In the following example, the two
bassoons play the two inside parts in a four-part texture, blending perfectly wit h th e string octaves.

:t;, r n~""Cj'F '1?F?c:elr!'rF~j':;1

f

:): J r r @ r F l r ~
TRILLS AXD TRE;\-IOLOS

A tabulation of the relative merits of all bassoon trills would be impractical and of limited usefuln ess. Each trill has its own peculiarity
as to mech anical feasibility and effect in sound. Short of consultation
with a good player, the best approach to the sub ject is to attempt as
far as possible a diagnosis of each situa tion by study of the fingering
chart, rem embering that it cannot take into account special trill keys
that may exist on individual instruments.
The best trills are those made by th e up and down movement of a
single finger (Fig. cos} ; those requiring two fing ers are not as easy
(h). T he more fingers in motion , the more difficult the trill , especially
if some are raised while oth ers go down ( c) . It is impossible to tri ll if
the fourth finger is requi red to move back and forth between two keys
(d), or if both notes are played wit h the left thumb (e).

..

b.

c.

d.

EX .

zz9. Brahms-Piano Concerto in D , op. J 5 p. 76, ed. Eulenburg

~ .- ~ '

H!'t.1

ON.

Cl>1f lord.

.I' "/'Tt".

...
vc,

Do.

K,to

con f or d.

~~~t~~ y~tthe permiSllio.n of the. IOle &1lU11.1 for Eulenb\U 1l: Min i<ltuce Scor es : C. F. Peten Cot QOr<l'

~~~ ~~
~

Fig. 60

199

TilE BASSOON

INSTRU ,\IENTS

200

T he bassoon merges unobtrusively with ot her woodwind s and horn s

in all kinds of accompaniment figu res. ~tcl odic doubling is espcciallv
well suited to it. Composers of the classical period we re fond of placing the bassoon in th e octave below a first violin melody.
EX. 230. Haydn-Sym pbolly ill G (Paukemc blag)
Menuerro
as . 1

.. ~~
~
I= :FI*

--. .iF ~'-!.

!

Barrbk-C011ccrf O fOT O rchestra

EX. 1 3 1.

~.

P' 38, cd. Kalmus

as .

,.

A lleg ren o sc he rt.llndo.........

,
"

201

p. 37. cd. Boosey & H awk es

......

I'

....
~- ..

~.

=-

An extraordin ary effect of mixed tone colors is created by Berlioz

with the unison of four high bassoons, English horn, and horn ( Ex.
23 1) . In the concert hall one is impressed by th e fact that th e English
horn. far from being lost in this combination, is distinctly heard as an
ingre dient in th e composite tim bre.
EX. 231. Berlioz-R omeo et Juliette

p.

'55. ed. Eul enb ur g

Copyripl 1'0046 by lh... lr. e.

It Son ( Londoa, LId. Cst<! by perm iioo ion .

T HE CONT RABASSOON
Fr. cont rebasson; It. cont raiagott a; Ge r. Kont raiagott

R~prinlrd .... ith th~ permi ..ion of the

tion. :\"ew York .

sol~ ag~nu

for

1::l.lI~nburK

l>l in iatu c. Scores: C. f . Peters Corpora-

The followi ng solo passage for three bassoons sho ws to adva ntage
their capacity for music in neat. rhythmic sty le, co mbin ing staccato
and slurre d not es.

Th e on ly auxiliary instrument of the bassoon family is the contrabassoon, also called double-bassoon. an instrument with a vibrating air
column 18 feet 4 inches long. It duplicates th e technique and range of
th e bassoon an octave lower, reach ing the Bb a whole tone belo w t he
lowest pitch of the five-string double-bass. Strauss has written a half
to ne still lower. and extensions for the low A are made, although rar ely
seen.
This huge instrument, as designed by Heckel. is folded so th at th ere
are four parallel wo oden tubes, connect ed by th e burr and two U -joinrs,
and terminating in a brass bell pointi ng downwa rds. O ther styles exist,
with the bell pointing up in the air, and some French contr abassoons

202

I NSTR

u ,\ \ ENTS

were made entirely of brass. The weight is supported by a peg to the

floor.
Despite some not able exceptions, e.g., Debussy-Iberia, and Wagner-Parsifal, th e contrabassoon is pr operly w ritten as a transposing
instr ume nt , sound ing an octave lower, like th e doub le-b ass. In thi s way
a bassoonist can play the larg er instrument, using the accusto med fingering for th e written notes.
When playing works requ iring no notes below C. the extension pipe
and bell may be removed, considerably light ening the instrument.

LOW REGI ST ER

T HE B A S SO O N
AGILITY

Theoretically. anything playable on the bassoon is playable on the

contrabassoon. but the slow vibrations and inertia of th e large instrument pre" cnt anything approaching nimb leness or easy agility. A certain clumsy impression is inevitable. Ir may be covered by doubling.
EX. 2 33 .

The tone of the contrabassoon is a little rougher than th at of the

bassoon. and in the low register the buzzing sound of the slow vibrations is of ten audible. T he lower octave is its most usefu l range. There
was real need of a deep and heavy bass for the woodwind . more than
could be supplied by bassoons and bass clari net. to balance the modern
string and br ass sections, and in recent times the co ntr abassoon has
bec ome established as a standard member of the orchestr a. In octaves
with the bassoons. it makes a full , son orous. woodw ind foundation in
soft or loud nuances. It is often used to reinforce and give point to the
double-bass part, and it may also serve as a deep bass for brass groupings. T he low tones require much breath. and the part should contain
frequent rests.

203

Ravel-La Valse

~~&~j;U;W
! m%J'f . ~ !I
J~
", >

;..

Pcrm iMloa &ranted b,. Du.nn4 et Cio:. Paris, eop)'ript o.<nefa . Elbn \'oco:l, Ph ilado:lphia, Pa . al,nta

ST.....CCHO

T he staccato is dry and heavy. Fast repeated tonguing is difficult

because of the slow response of the air column, The following exampl e
is taken from a general tutti of a rather noisy character, not too fast
for the tongue, and in characteristic style for the contrabassoon,
EX.

'3+ Strauss- Till Eulenspiegel

P: 90, ed. Philharmonia

HIG H REG ISTER

The qua lity of th e uppe r tones var ies with the player, but in any
case they are th e weak pan of the contrabassoon. from the first overblow n note, F~ , upwards. The F above the staff is a wise limit fo r high
notes, although Mahler takes th e contraba ssoon to the A beyond, and
Ravel asks for B, in Ala Atere L' O y e. Th ese notes can be played, but arc
of poor qua lity compared to the same pitches on the ordinary bassoon.
In the doubling of double-basses the contrabassoon is often carried
higher than it would be taken alone .

Jt.prlnt,d with th ' perml..lon of lh' cop r ript OWn'B C. F. P,t'u Corporallor., No:.... York.

SOLO USE

The contrabassoon has proved to be a solo instrument of novel effect,

for purposes of characterization and descriptive suggestion, but also in

IN S T R U .\ lENTS

TH E BASSOO N

phrases of purely musical intent. The next example. from a typical

Mahler L indler, is especially int eresting for the coloristic touches. as
horn and bassoon uni son . different dyn amic markings. subtle interru ption in th e bassoon part, open strings for th e 'cel los, and the harmonics
created by the doubl e pedal point.

T he following long pianissimo legato melody sou nds an octave below the unison of tw o " 'agoer tubas and a contrabass cuba. T he brass
instruments are muted.

204

EX. 235. ,\ lahlcr-S..n llpbouy

110 .

p.

104.

cd. Boosev & H awkes

EX.

z 36. Srrauss-Elektra

P'

1 22 ,

ed. Boosey & H aw kes

C-I!\! .

---.

----F

~ "Q_

. ~

.. Q -,";l

. - -'-=:

( ror

ti s . II

I""

105

molto rspr.

T H E SAR RUSO PHONE

Some French compose rs, dissatisfied with the contrabassoon as they
kn ew it, preferred in its place an instru ment called the sarrusophonc.
The family of sarrusophoncs, used in European military band s. is a
large one, comprising nine members, from the sopranino in high
to the contrabass in Bo. T he contrabass in C is the on ly sarrusophn nc
ever used in the orchestra, and parts designated for it arc now played
on th e contrabassoon. T his is partly because of great improvements in
the cont rabassoon, and partir because the tone of the sarrusophone is
mor e suitable for play ing out -of-doors tha n in a concert room.
T he sarrusophone is ent irely of br ass, with large tone holes and hole
covers similar (0 those of t he saxophone, and it is played with a dou ble
reed like a basssoon reed. It has a wide coni cal bore . The contrabass is
folded aft er the manner of the contrabassoon, except th at its flarin g
bell points straight upwards. The keys are arra nged in two groups co nvenient for the fingers. The fingering system resembles tha t of the flute,
oboe, and saxophone.

E,

",.

BRASS INSTRUMENTS

CHAPTER

subdivisions-horns, trumpets, trombones, and tubas. Auxiliary instruments do not exist in the same family relationships to these four
groups as were obser~'ed in the woodwind section. The horns (French
horns) are always written today as horns in F, although in practice Bb
horns or double horns in F and Bb may be used to play the parts. T rumpets are either Bb or C trumpets, the D trumpet and the bass trumpet
appearing rarely. Cornets can hardly be considered members of the
trumpet family. Trombones are regularly tenor trombones, except that
one of them may be a bass, or a combination tenor-bass instrument. The
tuba is a bass tuba, generally speaking, the tenor tuba (euphonium)
being only occasionally employed. The Wagner tubas are special instruments, more like horns than tubas.
The average brass section in a score employing woodwind by threes
is as follows:

ELEVEN

BRASS INSTRUMENTS

student of orchestration is faced with a difficult situation in

attempting to fonn a mental image of the sound of music
written for brass instruments. The absence of standardization
in the types of brass instruments leaves him on far more insecure ground
than in the case of woodwinds. Not only do the types themselves show
important differences in different countries, but instruments other than
those designated in the score may be regularly used by custom. Furthermore, the student listening to a performance of one of the great
works of symphonic literature, let us say Beethoven's Ninth Sym phony, must continually remind himself that the sound of the brass,
especially, does not truly represent the sound as conceived by the composer.
Three principal objectives are necessary for the study of brass in
orchestration. First, the student should learn all he can about the basic
principles of construction and playing technique common to all brass
instruments. Then, he should proceed with the examination of the
types of instruments that have been, or might be, used to play the parts
he sees in scores. This includes natural horns and trumpets and other
obsolete instruments, understanding of which is indispensable to an
understanding of the orchestration by composers of the classical period,
as well as of later periods. Finally, it is of great importance that he
keep abreast of his own time by seeking all available information about
contemporary practices in orchestral brass playing.
In a modern symphony orchestra the brass section consists of four

HE

206

207

4 horns
3 (or 1) trumpets
3 trombones
I tuba

This will be found convenient to adopt as a standard, to which may

be related the numerous variations in the make-up of the brass section.
Personal taste and the character of the particular composition are the
chief deciding factors in the adoption of variants by the composer. The
variants range from the classical convention of two horns and two
trumpets to the expanded forces called for in scores of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
The following are illustrative examples of differently constituted

brass:
Berlioz-Sympbonie Fantastique
4 horns
1 cornets
z trumpets
3 trombones
z bass tubas

108

I.":STR

U~ lE:-.1TS

Holst-The Planets
6 horns
4- trumpet s
3 trombon es
I tenor tuba
I bass tuba

\ \ 'agner- Die (i otterdrnnnerung

8 ho rns

BRASS I .": S T R U .\I E :" T S

109

ease of produ cti on c f low er or higher not es in its ran ge. A shallo w er
cu p, or bowl. add s brilliance and force, bringing our the high er partials
of the ton e, wh ereas the cone -shaped op ening o f th e horn mout hpiece,
merging gemly int o th e bore, produces tones c haracte rized by soft ness
and mell ow ness.
Individ ua l taste and chang ing styles make it impossible to desc ribe
accurately a universal stan da rd shape of mo uthpiece for t he va rio us
brass instruments. The forms show n in Fig. 6 1 arc average ty pes.

-). t vagner tubas

3 trumpe ts
I bass trumpet
3 tr omb one s
I contrabass t rombone
I contrabass tuba

Schoenberg-G urrelieder
10 horns
4 \ \ . agn er tubas
6 trumpet s
I bass tru mpet
I alto trombone
4 tenor-bass trombones
I bass trombone in Eb
I contrabass tr ombone
I contrabass tuba

TO:SE PRODUCT ION

The function of sound generator, performed hy reeds in oboe,

cla rin et. and bassoon, is fulfilled in a brass instrument by the player's
lips, held against a more or less cup-shaped meta l mouthpiece fitted to
th e small end of the main tube of the instrument. As the air stream is
fo rced through the lips, they ar c sec in vibration , and these vibration s
are communicated to the column of air enclose d in th e bra ss tube.
The size and shape of the interior of the mo ut hpiece has a viral influen ce on t he tone quality of the instrument, and also on the relative

H orn

Trum pet

T rom bone

T uba

F ig. 6 1 \ 1out hpieces of Brass Instru ments ( Cross Section)

O\"ERBLO\\'I~G

By means of lip ten sion. the ha rmonics of the t ube's fu nd amental

tone are isol ated and mad e to sound ind ividu ally. T he pit ch of t he
fundamental tone being determ ined by the length of the rub e, a rube
8 feet long is t heor etically capab le of sou nding the following harmonic
series from s-foor C.
I

~
~ ~r: (~

8 9

10

II

II

~ ~ i'F ~~"r
= -

"

Fig. 62
These harmonics represent vib rations of the air column in fr acti on s,
aft er the manner of fra cti on al st ring vibrati ons (see Chapter On e. page
: 9. For the second har moni c the air column vib ra tes in halves. wi th
a node at th e halfway point. For the next tone, G. th e w hole 8-foo t

210

INSTRUMENTS

length vibrates in thirds, and so on. It will be noticed that the ratio
between successive pairs of tones shows intervals of steadily diminishing size. Hence the minor third between sixth and seventh harmonics
is bound to be smaller than the minor third between fifth and sixth
harmonics. It follows that the seventh harmonic, Bb, will always sound
too flat. For this reason, the use of the seventh harmonic is regularly
avoided in brass playing.
There are other tones in this "chord of nature" that are out of tunc
with our tempered scale. Those usually mentioned are numbers 7. I I,
'3, and '4, but if we examine numbers 8, 9. and 10, we find that these
two major seconds are intervals of unequal size. In short, the performer
on a brass instrument, practically all of whose tones are harmonics, as
opposed to fundamentals, can never relax his vigilance as to the intonation of notes as they come from his instrument.
Pitch can be modified by the lips, within small limits. Other means
exist, such as the mobile slide of the trombone, or the right hand inserted in the bell of the horn. Here it is well to repeat that in practice,
pitch is not absolute, and that playing in rune involves continual adjustment to the sounds of other instruments.

I -J

BRA S SIN S T R U hI E N T S

211

secure pitch. Fundamental tones are called pedal tones. They are not
always obtainable, or they may be of such poor quality that they are
not used. Instruments that do not sound their fundamental are called
half-tube instruments, in contrast to whole-tube instruments, which
give the pedal tone.

CROOKS

A~D

SLIDES

In the classical period, horns and trumpets played only notes in

the harmonic series of the fundamental to which they happened to be
tuned. This tuning was accomplished by fitting different-sized sections
of tube, called crooks, to the instrument, an operation requiring a certain amount of time. Further adjustment was made by means of a tuning
slide. This was a V-shaped bend somewhere in the tube, designed so
that the two pronbTS of the V fitted like sleeves over two ends of the
tube. By sliding this V in or out, the total tube length could be carefully
regulated.
The principle of changing the sounding length of a tube by means
of a slide is the principle of the trombone (Fig. 63), dating at least as far
back as the fifteenth century.

RANGE

The range of a brass instrument should be thought of in terms of

the length of its tubing, and the portion, or number, of partials of its
harmonic series it can produce.
The length of the tube, regardless of its diameter, is a reasonably accurate gauge of the pitch of its fundamental tone. Length is also a factor
in the availability of upper harmonics, because the shorter the tube
the more difficult it becomes to sound the highest partial tones. Two
tubes of equal length may differ in range because of different diameters.
A wider bore facilitates the production of lower harmonics, whereas a
narrow bore is better for the higher ones. To these considerations we
must add the width and depth of the mouthpiece used, and the aptitude
and skill of the player.
Tones higher than the sixteenth harmonic can be sounded by some
players but they are not practical because of their difficulty and in-

1
flindam,"nt.l.ls

6l'

Ii'

Fig. 63. Positions of the Trombone Slide

The fundamentals given in the diagram are those for the tenor trombone. The seven positions of the slide, shown by dotted lines, provide
seven different series of harmonics, moving down by half steps a diminished fifth. Change of position cannot be effected instantaneously,
so that there are problems of playing technique to be mastered, but the
slide system is ideal for perfection of intonation, since the slide may
be moved at will to satisfy the ear.

BRA S S r :-i STR U ,\I E N T S

[ N S T R U ,\ 1 E N T S

1 11

VAU ' E S

Although inven ted fairly early in the nineteenth cent ury. t he valve
system was slow in gaining acceptance among musicians, and it was
we ll after 1850 before instruments equipped with valves could be said
to have become established in the orchestra .
The operation of a valve opens th e wa y for the air co lumn through
an extra loop of tubing. at the same time blocking the original path. so
th at th e to tal tube length is greate r th an before, and therefore lower
in pitch. Depressing the piston or leve r acc omplishes instantaneously
what wa s previously done by changing crook s.
Two types of valve mechanism are used. the rotary valve and the

pismo valve. Their method of operation may be seen in Fig. 64-

o
-v. l.... f"boo

/
lever up

\
lever down

Rotary V alve
Fig. 64. Valves (path of air column is show n by broken line)
The drum of t he rotary valve is w ou nd w it h linen fishline or gut,
attached to th e co nnecting ar m of t he finger lever in suc h a w ay th at
depressing the lever gi\'es the drum a qu arter turn. T his aligns the openings inside the drum in th e man ner shown in the diagram . The piston
valve works up and down within a cylinder. Both are provide d with
springs, w hich return the valve to its original position whe n t he pressur e of the finger is released.

llJ

L'\e basic valve system employs three valves, operated by the first
th ree fingers of the righ t ha nd, except on the horn, wh er e th e left
han d is used for fingering. T he valves are arranged so that the first
valve (the one nearest the player, and played by the first finger) lowers
the pitch of t he tube a whole tone; th e second valve lowers the pitch a
half tone; and the thi rd valve lowers the pitch a tone and a half. Two
valves, or three. may be dep ressed at the same tim e. The follow ing
table gives the possible valve positions and combinations. These are
sometimes identified by number with the trombone positions having a
corresponding effect.

Valt:es Depressed

N one
1':0. 2
N O.1

N o. j , or nos. I and
N os. 2 and )

N os. I and)
N os. 1,2, and)

Interval by Wbicb
Pitc h Is Louiered

Corresponding
Tr om bone Slide
Position

none
semito ne
wh ole tone
minor third
major third
perfect fou rth
augmented fourt h

fi",
second
third
fourth
fifth
sixth
seventh

The use of valves in combination presents difficult ies of intonat ion.

The len gt h of each valve tube is that proportion of the whole tube
length (without valve s) necessary to low er th e pitch by thc desired inte rv al. If, however, one valve is dep ressed, the ot her valves do nor then
add tu bes sufficien tly long to meet the pro portional requirements of the
new total length. This is less serious where the shorte r tubes of first and
second valves are co ncerned, bur t he discr epancy is pronou nced w hen
the third valve is used in comb inat ion.
In order to compe nsate for t his defici en cy in th e th ird valve, its rub e,
in trum pcts and co rnets, is ge nera lly ma de a litt le longer, wit h t he result
tha t notes played using t he th ir d valve alone are flat, and have to be
play ed sha rp by the lips. Fo r t his reason, th e combination of first an d
seco nd valves is preferred to the third alone.
The valve tube can be pulled out a bit by the hand not engaged in
finger ing, an d instruments are often equipped with rings or levers to
fa cilitate this means of pitch adjustment. Some instruments have auto-

214

BRASS INSTRU ,\IENTS

INSTRUMENTS

marie compensating devices. Finally . extra valves may be added. on

the larger instru ments, for the purpose of correcting pitc h.
Other reasons for adding more valves to the thr ee-valve system are
to extend the range wit h lower tones, and to effect the transposition of
the enti re instru ment to a new pitc h. These devices will be described
in connectio n wit h the individual instrume nts concerned .
It is to be noticed that whereas in the woodwind instruments the
process of changing the pitch of fundamental tones is one of shortening
the air column by opening holes. in brass instruments it is one of lengt hening the air column by adding tubing. T he ascending valve found
on some horns of French manufacture is an exception. \ t ent ion should
also be made of the technique of hand stopping. by which tones of the
horn can be flattene d witho ut lengthening the tube.

FISGERI SG

If th e student will rake the trouble to write out the harmon ic series
of s-foor C. transposing it six rimes downward prog ressively by half
steps. he wi ll have before him the notes theor etically ob tainable in
the seven valve positions. or combinations. as show n in the table. It
will be at once apparent th at in the upper p.:ut of the range the same
note can be found in rnore than one series. J\ tany of these will be harmonics known to be out of tun c. and so avoided. O thers will be occasionally chosen for their special sound. or because of their fingering
in relation to that of preceding or following notes. :IS in trills, for instance. In principle. hocvever. that fingering is chosen which involves
the addition of the least amount of tub ing. the purcst ton es being those
nearest to the open series. without valves.
The simplest view of the fingering is had by considering a descend ing chrom atic scale in the performance of which the valves arc employed for their original purpose of lowering the pitch of open tones
progressively by half sreps.

(I

(p

1'1 _

111 _

191_

[ 101 _

215

7 _

( Il

II I _ _

[:'

( I)

h1 -----

~ J# 1,if],; 252" rE: dE r$af-r lr r'r r'r I

"

'

I)J

hi

!i:
..

11

j
I

,J
I

2
I
I

; J
I

"

,
I

I....

=1

~ ~

J
J
(numbcl' of die han nonicl are " . en Jin brackm)

b'J

~
I

fig. 65
T he proximity oi the uppermost open tones (nos. rz to 16) suggests
the possibility of playing with the lips alone in that register. but using
the valves helps intonation and articu lation.
As the scale descends. the intervals between the open tones grow
larger, and the necessity for the usc of the third vain increases. T his
means that the attendant pitch defect is more pronounced in the range
of the bass instruments. and it accou nts for the prese nce of extra valves
on instruments like the tuba.
Since the total lowering of pitch by th e three valves comb ined is a
diminished fifth. no tones arc available between the fund amental and
the F~ above it. Extra valves arc needed if this gap is to be filled in.
The total (t heoret ical) extension of the pedal tones down from 8foot C, as given in the figu re, would necessitate the sounding of the
fundamental of a tube nearly I z feet long.
No brass instr ument can enco mpass this entire scale. In st udy ing each
instr ument. the scale should be tran sposed to fit the individual tube
lengt h. and the instrument's capabilities and limitations should be
learn ed.

E:\1. BOUCHURE

In general, th e lips are loose for low tones and tigh t for high ones.
Considerable muscular development in the lips is needed for t he produ ction of high notes and for contr ol of tone. T he conformatio n and

BRASS I N ST R U M E N T S

I I' S T R U ~I E I' T S

216

text ure of th e lips is ver y importan t, some perso ns possessing more narural capabilities than ot hers in this respect. It is interesting to note that
horn players beco me specialists in either low notes or hig h. and :IfC not
expe cted to c hange tha t specializatio n. O ften long stu dy and experimentation arc necessary to discover just the right shape of mout hpiece
to suit the individu al mouth.
Th e lips must be able to pick out acc urately the right harm on ic in
the series. and make the proper adjustment where valve changes arc involved . Following are some technical details of embouchure, based on
the 8-foot scale.

;'

..

EX. 237. DvoHk-Symphony

110.

2 17

p. 55, ed. Kalmus

[."go

" d"" .

d.

P1'P

li S .

~7J

I~ C

Fig. 66
" dim.

In ( a) the three interven ing har moni cs must not be accidentally

sounded, and if tOO much tensio n is gin n for the upper C, the next
harm onic, D , may sound.
In (b) th e problem is that of slurring from one tone to a seco nd tone
which is a lower-numbered harmonic, but with a higher fundamental.
D is the fifth harmon ic fr om the fundamental B11 ( first vain), wh ile
C is th e fourth harmonic fr om the fun damental C (open).
Slu rring between adjacen t harmoni cs in th e same series, ( c), gives
th e best legato on br ass instruments. If th e harmo nics are not adja cent
(d), more skill is called for to avoid sounding intermed iate tones, and
to minimize any possible break between th e two tones.

TO X GU ING

T onguing on brass instru ments employs all the various tongue

stro kes used by the woodwinds. The tu of the wo od wind attack is more
like tJ in th e upper brass and like d ii (French du ) on trombone and
tuba. ;\l ore vari ety in soft and shar p att acks can be had with brass than
with w oodwinds. Exam ple 237 is an illustration of soft attacks in extreme pianissimo; Ex. z38, of sharp atta cks in forte.

TkB . I

"

...

B""

lU'"

='"
P1'P
,

P1'P
U~d

,-

c <1

<

. ,

by permission 01 t be o r ijtin11 pu bliih et , N . Simrock, Jbmbur &.

r:
>- ~

f Jmt.

t x S T R U .\ 1 E:-; T S

218

EX. 238. Strauss- Do n Juan

BRASS INSTRUMENTS

P' 9, ed. Kalmus

EX. 239. Dcbussy-c-Jenr

219

P: 98, ed. Durand

Scherzando

:,~

1'V. IN C

MM
'M '

"
Pe rm issi on vanl( d b y Dll ra nd (t Ci ( . Paris, copyri gh t o.. n(n : Elkan _Vogd, P h ilad ( lp hia, Pa., . ~nl"

.. ,

"

m .

"

The following is an instance of the use of double-tonguing for th e

entire brass section.

EX. ' 40. Rimsky-Korsakoff-Scheherazade

-'

P' '"9, ed. Kalmus

Vivo

~~

MM.

'"
u

ev

Rep r lnl( d ..Ith

ee

permissio n of th( copyrll,h t o wne n C. F. P( lera Co rpo ration, New Yo rk .

The storzsndo, shar p acc ents, and forte-piano arc especia lly well
suited to bra ss. Care sho uld be taken to write the exact kind of accent
desired.
Fast staccato in single-to nguing can be used for all bra ss instruments,
but it is to be expec ted that tubas, and the 10\\' registers of horns and
trombon es. will respond less prompt ly th an th e smaller tubes. For lightness in fast tonguing. the tr umpets, or corne ts, are the best in the brass

group.

m . ,
I'" A

II

n.o .

~( brasi only ) "

Copyri&ht by !ot. P. Belal(lf; 501e II( n ts ~J' &: Hawk es l,;wd b, ~nni... ion.

Brass players are not in agreement as to the relative merits of t -t-k

and t- k -t in the articulation of tri ple-t onguing . T he majority seem to
favor t-t-k. Double-to nguing can also be used for triple rh ythms, alternating the t and the k as the initial st roke of each triplet, thus: t-k-t,

BRASS I N S T R U M E N T S

1:-; S T R U ,\ 1 EN T S

210

k-t-k , etc. In any case the effect of tri ple-t onguing is best on the high -

EX . 2.,p .

Strauss-Don Qu ixote

pitch ed instrume nts.

b ngS.1rn

E X. 241.

D ebussy- La Mer

'~

,
"
Hl"
IS ,

'"

,
"

P: 51, ed. D ur and

Alleg ro
Jl sourdmr

piu I'

PI'

H o,; .

10,; f

II

1\

t"

sourdmr

'"'

IN!

P~rmi"iun

"

PI'

pili I'

~t

Cie. , Pari!, WPl'tight owners ; Elkan Vog el.

P~.llade lphi a.

P a.. 31<'-<11 <

F lutter-tonguing is easy on the horn or trum pet, less easy on the

trom bon e or tuba. It is sometimes indicated for brass as a tremolo, like
a bow ed tre molo for strings .

'I,

!!
crete.

."

"

TR I'.

."

I :-' Il

,
"

crete.

granted by Durand

i
-?'

,
p --

i
- s-

"
I"

fQurdi~

..

crete,

."

P: 55, cd. Philharmonia

,

III muted

221

~i

.
V

crete.

II

f
, ~

f
-

"'ff crete.

,
u

",,;'(foe

--.

f!

TRB.

'gf
(brass o n ly)

eresc.

Repri n ted with the permiion of the wpyrighl owners C F.

P e lc r ~

Corporation, New Yur k..

BREATH I:SG

M ore wind is required in brass playing than in woodwind playing. It

is essential that a reserve of wind is kept available to the embouchure
at all times. Th e air is blown into the tube of the instrument, wh ere
some of it condenses, making it necessary to drain the tubing from time
to time, eith er by mean s of a water key or by pulling out the valve
slides.
Ph rase mar kings are like th ose for woodwind. It is unfortunately not
general prac tice to mark the places where breath is to be taken, as op -

INSTRUMENTS

BRA S SIN S T R U .~ I E N T S

posed to tongue articulations. These are often very important for the
correct phrasing and dynamic emphasis of the music. The difference
between an interruption for breathing and the effect of tonguing is
especi ally noticeable in th e brass, most of all in chord progressions such
as those in Ex. 237 and Ex. 238, where all th e voices ar e in the same
rhythm. Composers should stu dy this detail of phrasing, which ought
not to be left to the decision of the individual player or the conductor.
The wind is controlled by the diaphragm. It is not permitted to puff
out the cheeks, a condition under which command of the tone would
be impossible.

At the other end of the dynamic scale, the brass cannot match the
softness of a string or woodwind pianissimo. It pro vides, however, a
real pianissimo in terms of the brass itself, and this is a valuable resource
in orchestration.

222

DYNAMIC RANGE

The full dynamic power of the brass is a dominating force capable of

obliterating the sound of the rest of the orchestra, and it is often allowed
to do so by conductors lacking either authority or discrimination. The
limit of loudness and tone-weight of strings and woodwinds is a physical fact. Forcing them to compete with the brass simply results in disagreeable sounds, with the brass still far in the lead. Orchestral balance
in great climaxes is an impossibility unless the brass volume is measured
by the sonorous capacity of strings and woodwind.
This problem of balance is a besetting one for the composer and
orchestrator. Its solution lies mainly in the understanding of the music
by the conductor and the orchestra. The first perform ance of a new
and unfamiliar score is seldom a satisfactory test of the merits of the
orchestration, and, on the other hand, it must be recognized that man y
well-known and well-loved symphonic masterpieces are made to sound
well orchestrated only through sympathetic and understanding adjustment of the written parts in performance.
The practice of marking the brass at a lower dynamic level than
strings and woodwind should be reserved for special purposes, and not
resorted to as a corrective for faulty balance due to the lack of understanding referred to above, or to un skillful scoring. Good brass players
know that dynamic indications do not signify absolute, but relative,
value s. It goes without saying that the orchestrator strives to place the
various instrumental voices so that the effect will be as near as possible
to that imagined.

223

MUTES

Muted brass is of course still softer, and it can be reduced to inaudibility. A vast array of mutes, of every conceivable shape and tone color,
have been invented in the twentieth century, products for the most part
of the enthusiastic interest in new sounds in the field of popular music.
Thirty years ago it was believed that the new mutes would be introduced into the symph ony orchestra, but at the present writing it cannot be said that standard equipment of the symphonic brass section includes such coloristic resources as Solo -tone, Harmon, Whisper,
Tonalcolor, Vocatonc, or cup mutes, to name but a few.
The mutes ordinarily used are cone -shaped air chambers of cardboard, wood, fiber , or aluminum, with small blocks of cork to pre\-cnt
too tight a fit when one is inserted into the bell of the instrument. The
usual sound of muted brass is somew hat metallic, more akin to the oboe
sound than co any other in the orchestra. It can be cutting and strident
when attacked with force. Loud muted brass is a common orchestral
effect. Mutes are used on all brass instruments, and a similar muted
sound can be obtained on the horn by hand-stopping.

SCORE MARKISGS

Horns are placed above the trumpets in the score. just below the
bassoons. If there are four, two staves are used, with two horns on each
staff.
Three trumpets may occupy one staff, unless the parts are so different in rhythm as to cause confusion in reading. in which case a
second staff is allotted to the third trumpet.
First and second trombones are on one staff, usually in the tenor
clef, The third trombone is placed on the same staff as the tuba, in the
bass clef.
The custom of omitting key signatures for horns and trumpets is

224

I NSTR U ,\ 1E N TS

fairl y universa l. alt hough some composers pref er to incl ude them.
Originally t he pa rts for th ese inst rumen ts we re always in C. w ith an
indication of t he proper crook to sound in th e key of the piece. Mod er n
players often express a preference fo r this fr eed om f rom key signatures,
especially w he n they may be using an inst rument in a key o ther t han

CHAPT ER

TW ELVE

TH E HORN

th at prescribed. and tr ansposing the part . Trombones and tub a are

gi ven t he same key sign at ure as t he strings .
The directions given in Chap ter Six (page 126 ) are eq ually applicable to brass parts.

Fr. cor; Ir., como; Ge r., Horn

horn is oft en called in E nglish th e Fren ch ho rn. but it is

significant that it is not so called by th e F rench. T he te rm is
supposed to han originat ed in England in the eigh teent h century. H owever, the hom as we know it today has been developed
mainly by Germans, and it could with more justificati on be called
the G erm an hom .
A true French hom doe s exist, almost exc lusively in France. It is
an inst rument of small bore, eq uipped w ith piston va lves instead of
th e rotar y valves generally used o n th e ho m . Its [One is of a ligh t, brilliant, and open q uality, quite different fro m the w ar m, rich, and rath er
dark tone of the Ge rma n ho rn, used practically eve rywhere.
The hom w it ho ut valves is called the natural horn, o r hand horn
{Fr., COT sim ple; lr., como natu rale; Ger., lVaJdhorn ). Ea rlier names ,
such as hunting horn, cor de chasse, como da caccia, }agdhorn, are not
found in sco res of the period w e ar c studying. The horn with va lves is
called the valve horn ( Fr., cor a pistons, cor cbronuuique; It., com o
ventile; Ger. , V emilhorn ).

il E

THE XATURAL HORN

In its eighteenth- and nineteenth-centu ry sha pe, th e na tural hom

is an op en hoop or co il of brass tu bing, a q uarter of an inch in diameter

at the sma ll end holding t he mouthpiece, expand ing ge ntly to a diameter
of 3 inches at th e th roat of t he bell. T he bell flar es wi dely, measur ing
about I I in ch es across, T his w ide bell is conside re d to favo r t he lo wer
partials in the make- up of th e tone of th e ho rn.
225

227

THE HORN

INSTRUMENTS

226

Ri\:'\GE

Fig. 67. Natural Horn with Crooks

A tuning slid~ in V-shape is located within the circle of tubing. This

bore IS necessarily cylindrical so that the slide may be moved
In and out.
Crooks of various sizes can be fitted onto the end of the tube, the
mouthpiece being inserted in the end of the crook. Some crooks were
later made with slides, enabling them to be attached in place of the
tuning slide.
The crooks most used were those which pitched the horn in the fol~art of the

lowing key" Boalto, A, AD, G, F, E, ED, D, C, and Bobasso. The total

tube lengths, when crooks are added to a horn pitched in 8-foor C,
measure from approximately 9 feet 3 inches for the horn in Bb alto to
18 feet 6 in~~es for the horn in Bb basso. The following are the intervals
of tranSposltJon, shown by the effect on one note of the harmonic series
the eighth harmonic.
1
written

IOtInd on horn

in flb.-alto

Ii.

in A in AllinG in Fin E in ElIin 0 in C in Bb-basso

~
~~
~I~
Fig. 68

The range of the horn is from the second harmonic to the sixteenth
inclusive, with some qualifications. The shorter rubes, from F up. sound
with difficulty above the twelfth partial, whereas these upper harmonies are more easily produced on longer tubes. On the other hand,
the pedal tone comes out well on the short Bb alto horn, poorly on the
F horn, and hardly ever on lower-pitched crooks.
The separation of horn players into "high" and "low," together with
the evolving of taste in quest of the ideal horn tone, brought a preference for the lower-pitched horns, and a great development in the
technique of tone production in the lower part of the range. For a time .
the keys of E, Eb, and D seemed the most preferred, and more interesting and important parts were written for the second player, or for
the fourth if there were four horns. In the nineteenth century, the
preference turned to the middle pitch of the F horn, and the F horn
became the standard horn, to which the valve system was applied. The
principle of high and low hornisrs persisted and became permanent.
In the usual quartet of horns, first and third are high, and second and
fourth are low.
The low players of the natural horn used a larger mouthpiece and
developed a different embouchure. They also added to the horn's available notes by the discovery that the second harmonic can be lowered
as much as an augmented fourth by the lips alone. These tones are called
artificial. or factitious, tones. Figure 69 shows their place in the harmonic series. Modern horn players do not make a practice of using these
tones.

:1

4J J

Id

,j

jJ

Higher pitches than Bb alto have very rarely been prescribed. In the

Haydn symphonies may be found horns in

B~

alto and C alto. The C

alto appe~rs to be the horn without crooks. "Horn in C" always means
a horn with C crook, sounding an octave lower than written.
As for low pitches, the horn in A basso is seen in Italian opera scores,
the B~ .basso crook is called for in Brahms' First Symphony, and the Db
crook 10 Romeo et Juliette, by Berlioz.

;,; J ,J A
Fig. 69

jl~

I N ST R U M E N T S

228

ll9

TH E H O R N

BASS CLEF :!\"OTATlOX

When the bass clef is used for the horn, the notes in that clef are by
cu stom written an octave too low. H ence the part for horn in F in
Fig. 69. sounding a perfect fifth lower than written in the treble clef,
sounds a perfect fourth higher than written in the bass clef. Modern
composers have tried to correct this illogical notation by writing note s
in the bass clef in their proper octave, bur when thi s is done a note
should he given in the score-"horns in the bass clef sound a fifth
lower than written," to avoid misunderstanding.
.

piano, but would be unconvincing in forte. The problem does not arise,
of course, when th e phrase is play ed on the valve horn.
O rchestral composers were sparing in their use of ne w notes available
as stopped tones. Instances like the fourth horn part in the Adagio of
Beethoven's N int h Symphony are exceptional. But the hand technique
proved subsequently most valuable as a means of tone control and correction of intonation on the valve horn.
T he natural horn, wit h all its limitations, had a vita l and lasting influence on melody and harmony. Melodic turns of ph rase for all sorts
of instru ment s, even the pianoforte, often show characteristics of natu ral horn music. The following is an illustration of this universal
qu ality in simple horn melodies.

STOPP F:D NOTES

It was discover ed that if the natura l horn were held so that th e

right hand could be inserted in th e bell, the hand could, by partially
closing th e throat of th e horn, not on ly control the quality of the tone,
bur also correct the pitch of those harmonics that were out of tune.
F urthermore, by lowering th e pitch of the harmonics in this way,
many new notes were made available. Half to three -quarters closing of
the tube lowered the note a half tone, fu ll stopping a w hole to ne.
The stopped tones, however, had a decidedly du ll and subdued
sound in contrast to the open tones, and great skill in embouchure and
right-hand tec hnique was required to achieve equa lity in tone in melodic passages containing stopped notes.
EX.

'43 . Schubert-Symphony no. 7

f~dm"

~.

P'

I,

ed. Eu lenburg

~~;' :." f r rlt~F'~!pF'~

1' 0

+ 0

00

W
R~ pri nt.d

tion,

:-;~ W

"oith th~ P<"rmission of the 501.

Yor k

ag~nts

for

Eul~nburg

Min iatu re

SCOr~! :

C. F.

P~"T!

Corpora -

In the Schubert example, notes requiring stopping are marked with

a cross. The A needs less stopping than the B, since it is sto pped fro m
the already flat seventh partial. The F is stopped from the eleventh
partial, whose pitch lies between F and F~. The passage is succ essful in

EX. 244 .

Beeth oven-Piano Concerto no. 5

Allegro ~

H I'oi .

Il'I ~

II

P dolcl

P'

I I,

ed. Eu lenburg

---..

~ ~ ~~

Rcprlntffl wit h th . P<"rmission of the sol. a gents for Euleo burg Miniatu," Scores: C. F. Potu s Corporation, No". York.

CHOICE OF CROOKS

In general, th e crook chosen was that of the key of the movement,

as being the one that wo uld give the most notes of the scale. Exceptions
to this rule might be prompted by a planned modulation to a related
key in which horns we re to be given a prominent part. or by a preferenc e for low-pitched horns wh en th e key is high, e.g., E horns for a
piece in A major.
When four horns were used, they we re most often crooked in
pairs in two different keys . Berlioz frequently wrote for fou r horns
crooked in four different pitches, ingeniously chosen to provide certain com binations of notes.

THE 110 R:-i

INSTRUMENTS

130
EX, 245.

Berlioz-Romeo et Juliette

P'

12,

ed. Eulenhurg

IS I:

r
liS. III
IS G

--

",

TJ-JE VALVE II O R N
Th e stage of transition from natural horns [0 valve horns was longer
for the composers than for the players. The new instrument had to
prove its value and overcome much prejudice and nostalgic feeling
for the natural horn, as well as general mistrust as to the future of valved
instrumcnrs. The horn without valves W:lS used. as least occasionally.
up to the beginning of the twentieth century; on the other hand, many
composers wrote as though fo r natural horns even when they knew the
valve horn would be employed.
In Rienzi, T he Flying Dutchman, and Tonnbduser, \V agner specified two valve horns and two natural horns.

liN. '

H!'l. IV lb'b=

231

EX. 246. W agncr-Tamlbiiuser: Baccbanale

P' 14, ed. Kalmus

The felloe.'ing example shows the much-d iscussed experimental

crook markings used by \V agncr in L obengrin.
EX. 247. W agner-Lobengrin: Prelude to Act III

Reprin.ted w}th the pcrrniiSion of the

li on, l';ew ' o rk .

""I(

ag"'t. for Eul en bu rg Min iature Score.' C. F. p,,," Co,-,....-

I'

P' ' 7, ed. Kalmus

232

1:-: S T R U ~I E :-: T S

TIlE HOR:-:

The indications call for instantane ous changes in the key of the horn,
to be accomplished by valves instead of cr ooks, as formerly. \Vith the
horn crooked in F, as was th e case, "in E" could be met by de pr essing
the second valve and playing as on the natur al horn in E. In the same
,v ay , for "in D" one coul d use th e third valve, or valves I and 2. But
no combination of valves can put the F horn "in G," so-here it was
necessary to transpose up a major second and playas for the F horn
with valves. Perhaps W agner had in mind the system of crooks as applied to th e C ho rn, but at any rate the no tati on was abandoned aft er
L obengrin.
Mu ch fine horn music is contained in the works of Brahms, usually
in th e sty le of hand horn music, and mostly playable on th at instrument.
There is no doubt, how ever, th at it sounds bett er on the valve horn, if
only because of the elimination of sto ppe d notes.

monic and beyond, th e to p notes were difficult and ti ring to the embouchure. To obtain th e same sounds on th e Bb ho rn, the notes were
transposed down a perfect fou rth, so that th e sixteenth harmonic of
the F horn became only th e twel fth harm onic of the fi b horn.
It beca me apparent, however, that the most valued attribute of the
horn-its ch aracteristic warmth and dark beaut y of ton e---could not
be supplied by the high -pitched Eb horn, wh atever else it had to recommend it. Today th is pro blem seems to have reached a w orkable solution with the invention of the double horn.

EX. 248. Br ahms-SympfJo11Y 110. 3

Poco allegrerro
H :-l.1
1:01 C

I'tJ/'F.

. ~

--= =---

233

p. 75, ed. Kalmus

~

...

'~

C'

- = . :::=--

Fig. 70. (left) Single Hom in F; (right ) Double Horn in F and Bb

THE MODER:'>! HORN

In th e pr esent cent ury the valve horn in F (tube length including
valves about 17 feet) cont inue d to be regard ed as th e sta ndard horn,
but increasing demands in th e high regi ster led to the adoption by first

The double horn is fast replacing the single horn in orchestras. As

its name implies, it is actually a combination of the F and fib horns into
one instrument. The valve tubes arc duplicated and operated from a
single set of rotary valves, with a fourth valve, for the thumb, to switch
from F horn to Bb horn, and vice versa. The sw itch can be made at any
time and in any part of the range.

and third players of the high Bb horn (tube length including valves

RANGE

under J 3 feet ) . They we re attracted by its brilliant tone, and the ease
with which it produced tones of th e same pitc h as th e highe st partials
of the F horn. \Vhile the F horn was playable up to the sixteent h har-

Music for the double horn is alw ay s written as for F horn, wh~ther
played on the F or on the Bb division. T he choice is left entirely to the
player, and is not indicated in th e part.

2J4

I N S T R UM E NT S
~

written r:ange of the double hom

tl J ,J lJ

J I~ ,J .I

TH E H O R N

:E

::nd hum unlc :16lh hannoruc on f diVl$lOn

.on F WVl:llOn IIat h harmonic on Bbdivisio n

pedal tones on fill divi!;i~

Fig. 71

235

The Bb division is used not only for the greater faci lity gained in
the upper register, and the prompter response of the shorter tube's low
register, but also fo r the alternative fingerings made available in all
parts of the range.
The double horn com bine s the good qualities of the F and Bb horns
whi le making it possible to avoid their defec ts. Its own peculiar problem for the horn player is that of equalizing the tone between the two
divisions. Th e Bb divi sion tends inev itably to have a certain hard ness
ch aracteristic of the Bb horn, in compa rison to the tone of the F division, but this is successfu lly overcom e by goo d players. The fu nction
of the right hand in the bell becomes of prime importance in controlling
the (One quality of the double horn .

F I:!'o."GF.RI:-1G

On the dou ble horn of the usual type, th e two divisions can be used
separately as sing le horn s in F and Bb. but play ers of the double horn
have come to regard it as a single instrument . When using th e Bb divi sion to play parts written for horn in F, the ment al process is not the
same as w hen using the single Bb horn-namely, to transpose the written part down a f ourth and then finger fo r the resulting notes. It is
rather to emp loy directly a new set of fingeri ngs for the notes as written. This involves learn ing a new set of finger ings for t he do ub le horn.
The steps in this proce dure are compared in the follow ing figure. (See
Ch apter Eleven, Fig. 65, for the normal fingering on th e sing le hom .)
Sound.

W ritten part, with fingering on the F division

of the doub le horn (same as for single horn

STOPPED TOSES

Al th ough the technique of the hand horn is no lon ger necessa ry for
co mpleting the chromatic scale of the hom , the hand is constantly engaged in refinin g the pitch of most no tes. Stopped tones in th e modern
sense are, how ever, qu ite diffe rent from th ose used on the natu ral ho rn.
The hand is inserted far enough to close the tube completely. T his produces tones of muted quality, and since it is necessar y to force the wind
a little th ese notes have the metallic vibrancy characteristic of muted
br ass.
EX.

'49. D'Indy-lstar

p. I, ed . Durand

Pum ission granted by Durand .1 Cie., Pa ris, eopyri ght oom us ; El k...n \'ogel. Ph iladdphi a. P..... &gome...

in F ).

HO"~=
no'

~Jp' J=
I

Transposition of the parr to obtain the same

sounds, with fingering on the single horn in Bb.

Ori ginal written part, fingered on the Bb division of the double hom (thumb valve to be
dep ressed also) .

Fig. 7'

The act of full stopping cuts off enough of the tube's vibr ating
length to cau se all sto pped notes to sound a half tone higher. It is t herefore necessary for the player to transpose them down a semirone to
compensate for this. Some horns arc equipped with an extra half- tone
valve. operated by the thumb. to effect the transposition automatically.
T his valve is called th e stop valve, or transposing valve. It is fou nd com monly on the Bb horn, but not often on the double horn because of
the adde d weight of the extra valve.

I ;-I S T R U M E ;-I T S

236

Mutes. of metal or cardboard. are also used on horns. They are so

con structed that they ?O nor alter the pitch, except for some types of
meta l mutes that reqUire t he same pitch correction as stopped notes.
Stopped notes arc apt to be unrel iable below middle C (written), and
mutes are often used for these lower nores in preference ,to stopping.
~lthough the muted horn does not sound quite like the stopped horn,
In usag~ the two terms are sometimes carelessly interchanged.
Despite the fact of their occasional misuse, the tenus should be used
in thei r tru~ meaning. For brass instruments, the directions for inserting
and ren~ovmg mutes arc the same as fo r using them on stringed insrru-.
merits, m all languages. The word stopped (Fr., boucbe; Ir., cb iuso;
Ger., gestop ft) means hand stopped, canceled by op en (F r ., ouoert ; l r,
apert o; Gcr., otim, nic bt gestopft ) . Single stopped norcs arc sometimes
marked by a cross, canceled if necessary by 0 , for open .
EX. 2 50 .

Falla-El Amor Brujo

237

THE HORN

P' 6" ed. Chester

o

EX. 2 5 1.

Erwas $Chlcichcni wopft

,u ,"
,

,~
I "

MS .

ON.

"

"

IN I'

~f ~P

gtst opft

"

/:>u_____ 0

---== fIf ==- P

Copyright 1911 by Unlvena\ Editi on A. G. ; renewed 1939 by Alma )L, hler We,r.1 Coed by p erm i... ion.

In th e following passage written for natural horn, the sudden piano

and the rise of a half tone on the last nor c will be obtained simultaneously by keeping the G finge ring and playing th e Ab as a stopped
not e. It is believed that th is met hod was not used in Beethoven's day,
when the Ab would have been partially stopped, fr om the thirteenth
harm onic.
EX. 2 51 .

Beeth oven--Sym phony no . 3

Allegro con brio

HN

P: 49, cd. Universal

Mahler- Das L ied ',..on der Erde

-r>

P: 35, ed. Kalmus

; - --:--- ~

~: ~~ Wolett ~ e Ie
Ie r~l'
crete,

"
T RI LLS
Copyr ight for all coun tri es ]. & W. Che.ler Lt d., London .

~orn play ers often ignore th e direction to play with mutes, pre~ernng the less bothersome and qu icker hand stopping. In their defense
~t ~ust be added that the practice is abetted by composers who are
indifferent to the distinction between the two effects.
T he metallic sou.nd of stopped tones is less noticeable in soft playing,
more pro no unced m forte. Frequ entl y th is kin d of sound is called for
in exaggerated form by the word brassy (Fr., cuivre; Ger., scbntetternd). It . is obtained by lip tension and hard blowing, causing the
metal to VIbrate. The degree of brassiness can be varied , and the sound
can be made on open notes as well as stopped and muted. Th e usual
marking is stopped, with a sforzando or forte sign (Fr., boucbe-cuiore;
Ger., gestopit-stsrk anb/asen) .

On th e horn, trills are played either with valves or by the lips alone.
The lip trill s are possible only whe re two harmonics lie a second apart,
so th eir range is limited, as is also their chance of good intonation. In
effect they can be compared to vocal trills. Trills made with valve action suffer from the inertia of the valve tubes when called upon to speak
qui ckly. T he second valve being the shorte st, half tone trills are likely
to wo rk better than whole tone trills, although there are exceptions.
H orn trills never escape a certai n sluggish quality, especially in comparison wi th woodwind tr ills, and they are not among the best features
of th e horn .
In the following example, the tr ill is used in music suggesting a rustic
dance.

1:-; 5 T R l: .\ 1 E:-; T 5

238
EX.

253. Mahler-SY111pbony n o. 9

fit
I ~

HH .
'H'

,,

tv

""

Land ier

"

p. 65, cd. Boc sey & H awkes

I,

"

-"

l'

THE HORN

d"n.

..

-. ,.

d'm

EX.

255. Strauss-Don Quixote

Gemich lich

" ,

"

239

p. 48, ed. Phil harmon ia

r ,

l'J'

" ,
~

l'J'

Co pyri ght 1912; ren.w ed 19<Kl, by L'nh"erul E diti on A. G. L'sed by permluion

TO~GnNG

'"

All types of tonguing arc used in horn playing. The arti culations cannot be as sharp and crisp as on the trum pet, because of the lengt h of
the tube. Care should be taken to provide rest for the tongue in long
passages in fast tempo. The following is ver y difficult.
EX.

Reprin ted wi th the pcrm is. ion of th e copyright o wnerS C. F. Peters Corporation, New York .

The foll owing is an instance of effective and delicate use of both

double- and triple-tonguing.

25+ Moussorgsky-Ravel-Tableaux d'une Exposition

P' 87, ed. Boosey & Hawkes

EX.

256. Ravel-Rapsodie Espagnole

P' 69, ed. Durand

j
Perm ls.ton li\ranted by Durand et Cic., Paris, co pyrigh t own ers; Elkan-Vog d, P hila delphi&, 1'a., agem s.

PermiMlon gunted by Duran d et Ck, Paris, copyrigh t

owne~;

El kan -Vogel , P h iladdph ia. P l.., agents

An arrangement like that in the next example would produce a more

rhythmic result, being more playable.

GLISSANOOS

A qui ck slurring upwards over the harmonics of any given finger

position produces the horn glissando.

Copyrlpt 1921 by Edition Ruue de Mu alque . Used by pcnnlSil on.

\
240

INSTR UMENTS

THE HORN

CA:\l PA N A IN ARIA

It is usually advisable ro doubl e ext reme high notes in loud passages,

to assure volume and security of attack.

When the horn is in its usual playin g position th e bell is point ed down
and away from th e listener, in addition to its being partially closed by
th e right hand . O ccasionally th e player is directed to play w ith the
bell up (Fr., pa-villon en f air; It., campan a in aria; G er., S cbslitricbtcr
auf). The right hand is taken out of th e bell, and th e horn is raised into
a horizontal plane, so that the sound may come free and unobstructed
from th e bell. The effect is lusty and blaring. Witho ut th e control of
.
the hand in th e bell, the notes may not always be in tune.

Copland-5y1l1pbony no. 3

EX. :60 .

.J =110

,, "
HN.

IN

tv
, ~

P'

EX. 258. M ah!er-SY111phony no. 4

12 I ,

ed. Philha rmonia

=- ..,=--

"N.

=-- w

""

~.1

"

EX. 259. Shosrakovich-SY111p hony no . 5

~~
.I

"

~-e~

;=0-

lib.)

W'

"!f" ~

(I V lid Jib.

It is likewise advisable to do uble extreme low notes, even wh en vcry

soft; in fact, low rones in pianissimo gain much in steadiness and tone
quality, and need not sound any louder when play ed by two horns
instead of one. In the follo wing example, three horns arc used on the
bass part.

vt

"N.
r. .

,
r

"

p. 89, ed. U niversa!

,',

Fererhch und gemessen

, . -----...:- '! ,-_.

m n prt PI' dro t

',

---

.. '!

'w~ ,.

- -- -

,~

<I'" <I ~ ,~<I '''<I~

'-'---"

P' 46, ed. Musicus

~,'fi~~
Copyr ight 1945 by Le<'d. Mu sic Co rpo rat ion , :-:ew Yor k.. C""d by p erm iss ion.

' I :==-

& Hawkes

Copyr ig ht 1947 by Ha wkes & So n ( Lo ndon) Ltd. Vs.d by p erl ni ... ion.

,
n, "
The horn has alway s been a favorite solo instrument. Its most comfortable harmonic range is from the third or fourth harm onic to about
th e twelfth. The follo win g solo calls for fine br eath control to ach ieve
a perfect legato. A note in th e score directs that the high B is ro be
tak en only if it can be played piano. The horn plays in canon an octave
and fifth below the flute. Harp chords and pulsating strings for m th e
accompaniment.

.J

.t1'f

EX. :61. J\1ahler-Sy mphony no.

MELODIC USES

p. 70, ed. Boosey

" .t1'f

r
u

n.I.I

.\

241

Melodies played by horns in octaves are rich and sonorous.

THE HORN

INSTRUMENTS

l42
EX. 262.

Debussy-La "Jer

P: 6, ed. Durand

Modere

:,~~
HN.

243

of the principles of the natural horn, and that the best writing for the
instrument carries the suggestion that it might be playable on the hand
horn . This is of course not literally so, but passages like the following,
even though effective and successful for their special purposes, cannot
be said to be idiomatic horn music.

>N'

EX. 264. Strauss-Elektra

P expressi' et Jammu
P erm issi on Iran ted by Du ra nd et Cie. , Pa ris, copyri gh t ow nuI; E lk a n Vo gd , P h ilad.Jphia, P a. , a gent _

P' ,87 , ed. Boosey & Hawkes

Sehr schnell

The unison of the entire horn group. usually four horns, is frequently
employed when breadth and force are desired. If the score calls for
more than four, all can be united on the melody. Example 263 is for
six horns.
EX. 263 . Holst-The Planets

P' 83, ed. Boosey & Hawkes

Allegrogiocoso

.....-;---

'''' ~fJrlfJIEJr~
"
i

cresco

6 HNS.

I , II

cresco
III, IV

v, '"
Used by p..rm lssion of ]. e u rw en & Sonl , L td .

cresc

The low horns, second and fourth, may be taken up to the top of the
horn range occasionally, and especially when they participate in this
type of doubling. The classification of low and high horns remains in
force, however. Second and fourth players cultivate the lower notes,
for which they are more talented by nature, but all four can play the
entire range.

AGILITY

Although technical improvements in the hom and in hom playing

have made possible the execution of music of considerable virtuosity, it
remains true that agility is not in the nature of the instrument. It is an
interesting fact that the style of horn music is still under the influence

Copyright 1916 by Adolf Fu r'tner , iL'I sign ed 1943 to Boosey & Hawkes, Lid . Uaoed by perm iss ion. ( For
Po rtug al, I ta ly, Gennany , Danzll, USSR &S of 1935: Fu rstner, Ltd., London.)

I NSTR U ~I ENTS

244

HARMO~IC

USES

For many years, from the mid-nineteenth century on, it was a common habit of composers to use the four-part harmony of horn s as a
foundation for orchestral writing. This "blanket of horns ," as someon e
has called it, could be so unobtrusive as to be unnoticed by the lay
listener, and it offered a sure means of obtaining continuity and fullness of sound. The growth of interest in contrapuntal voices and in
clarity led away from this procedure, with the result that it is unusual
today.
.
The harmonic background can be presented by horns in all kinds of
figuration and rhythmic division. As in the next example, it can be skillfully arranged to have contrapuntal interest and tran sparency.
EX. 265. Stravinsky-Dit,'ertimento: Le Baiserde la Fee
p. 70, ed. Boosey & Hawkes

,
H

JI dolu

Copy r ight 1938 by Edition Ru",", de M usique Revised nrsion copyright 1949 by Boosey " Hawkes I nc.
Vied by pe rm ission .

Horn tone combines well with that of all instruments. The horns
therefore form an important link between brass and woodwind. Indeed, they seem to be as much a part of the woodwind section as of
the brass, to which of course they belong by nature. This perhaps accounts for their being placed in the score above the trumpets, so they
are near the woodwinds.
In respect to tone-weight, horns are unmistakably weaker than what
is called the heavy brass-trumpets, trombones, and tuba-whereas
the horns in turn are stronger than the woodwinds. \Vhen in combination with other brass they must be carefully placed, and sometimes
doubled, if balance is to be maintained.
The larger symphony orchestras possess eight horns, but lesser ones

THE HORN

245

cannot be expected to have more than four or five. A fifth player may
be given the duty of assisting the first horn, playing his part in the less
important measures, so that he may save himself for prominent solo
passages. Extra players may be engaged for works requiring six or eight
horns. Even more than for the performance of scores calling for these,
the eight horns are a great advantage in that the players may change
about, affording rest for fatigued embouchures.

THE TRUMPET

CH APTER

247

THIRT E EN

Fig. 73 . Classical Trumpet, Crooked in Eb

THE TRUMPET
Fr., trompcu e; It ., tromba; Ger., T rompete

Trumpets pitched higher than F were rarel y called for. In pieces

written in G major, for example, C trumpets might be used, or none at
all. In Beetho ven's Seventh Symphony in A major, D trumpt:ts are
chosen rather than the heavily croo ked A tru mpets.

TRASSPOSlTIOS

trum pet as kn own to Haydn, Mozart, and Beeth oven was a

slende r brass tube, fold ed twi ce, with a flaring bell of moderate size (abour 4 inches across), and fin ed with a cup mouthpiece. The bore, measuring und er half an inch in diameter, was cy lindrical except for the last foot and a half or so, whi ch became conical
as it approached the bell.
In the eighteenth century, trumpets were made in various sizes, and
th ese could be length ened by adding crooks. The C trump et was an 8foot tube, and its harmonic series was therefore the same 8-foot series
presented in Chapter Eleven, Fig. 6 2. This series is the written series
playable, with restrictions to he noted, on the natural trumpets of the
classical period. Just as in the case of the horn, the sounds pro duced
will be transpositions of the series according to the rube length s of the
various instrum ents. It is to he noticed that this is the same series as
that of the " horn in C alto," to which the different horn crooks wer e
added. Also, the series is an octave lower than th at of our cont emporary
C tr umpet, w hich is a a -foot instru ment.
N ear the beginning of the nineteenth century, the choice of pitc hes
had settled on the F trumpet as the standard instrument , having a rube
length of about 6 feet. It was equipped with a tuning slide, and croo ks
could be applied to put the instrument in E, E b, D, and C. The lower
pitches of B, Bb, and even A and A b could be obt ained by combining
crooks.

HE

21"

The C trumpet sounds as written. The shorter trumpets sound higher

than written, the longer ones lower.

, 00"gB
written

sound on
.trumpt[inF

mE

inEbinD in C

InB

inB\> inA

(8 th humOfU(; )

Fig. 74
RASGE

In the early eighteenth century trumpeters had developed the art of

playing very high harmonics, even going as high as the twenty-first
partial (a perfect fourth above the sixteenth parti al) . This technique,
known as c1arino playing, was acquired through long practice and
specialization, aided by natural ability, and a shallow mouthpiece. In
comparison with trumpeters of toda y, the player had also the slight
advantage of a lower pitch, requiring less lip tension for a given har monic.
Examples of these high trumpet parts may be seen in the works of
J. S. Bach, but after the middle of the century the art of clarino playing
appears to have suddenly declined and to have become lost completely,
doubtless because of the change in musical style from the linear to the
symphonic idiom. Composers of the classical period almost never wrote
f or tru mpets above the twelfth partial, although higher harmon ics were

1:-1 S T R U .\ 1 E :-I T S

TH E T R U .\ 1 P ET

obtainable on the trumpets with lower-pitched crooks.

T he peda l tone was playable only on the F trumpet, the second harmonic w as of uncert ain pitc h on most trumpets, and the third harmoni c
poo r on the low crooks. In short, th e range of the classical tr umpet,
with few exceptions. was restricted to the harmonics numbered thre e
to twelve. inclusive , giving the following w ritten notes:

This extremely limited repertoire of notes remained in force until

the middle of the nineteenth century, w hen valves were incorporated
into th e tr umpet. T he ingenuity and adaptability sho wn by the composers of the period in th eir efforts to make the most of such small resources attests to the need they felt for the sound of [Cumpets in th e
orchestra. O ne cannot study th e orchestration of these important composers intelligently without a knowledge of the technique and limita tions of the classical trumpet.

248

5'

~s

."

"p

h '

249

Fig. 75

ORC HF:STRAL CSES

Among these to nes, the seventh was too flat, but it was nevertheless
occasionally written.

T he most familiar trumpet effect in the classical orchestra is probably

the tr aditional flourish of trumpets and drums, usually in the tutti,
with hor ns.

EX. 266.

Becrhon n-Sy mphollY no.!)

P' 27. ed . Kalmus

EX. 168. J\ loza rt-Sy m pbony in C11lajoT, K . 55 1

p. 84. ed. E ulenburg

HN . I
lI" C 1.1

The eleventh harmonic, F::. lay in pitch between F:: and F ~ . and if '
used, requ ired correction with the lips. N o hand stopping. like that on
th e horn, was ph ysically possible.
In th e fo llowing examp le, it might seem th at a peda l to ne is indicated
for the second trumpet. It is an unusual instance of the appearance of
the bass clef in trumpet pans, and it is reasonable to suppose that the
practice, followed in writing for the horn. of placing notes in the bass
clef an octave roo low , has been followed here . That would give the
seco nd trumpet not a peda l tone bur the second har mo nic, even that
being an unreliable no te on th e D crook.
EX. 267. ,\ Iozarr- Do n [nan: Overture

P'

11

2.

ed. Kalmus

Ii':F'R"l=

Rf p rl ntoN! ,,"ilh thf ptrmiuion of lhf .,, If OSen l. to r Euknbu,g :l>!ini. lu rf seer.. : C. F. P ri ers Cor po r-alion, ~f'" York .

W hcn trumpets w ere used harmon ically, for loud tutti chords, or
for dynamic accen ts, they were often doubled on wha tever no te of
the chord was available to th em. The composer evidently prefe rre d to
risk a bad ly balanced chord rather than lose tone-weight by omitting
one tru mpet. T his is doubtless the reason for the occurrence of trumpet
pans like the following.

THE TRUMPET

INSTRUMENTS

250

EX. 269. Becthoven-Symphony no. 6

p. '43. cd. Kalmus

EX. 271.

Beethoven-Sy11lphony no.

Allegretto

The three chords of the tutti from which this is drawn are the triads
F major, D minor, and G major. The C trumpets can contribute only
one note of the D minor triad, hence the doubling of D, and the unorthodox voice leading of the second trumpet part. The two trumpete~
probably played the note somewhat less than fortissimo. Furrhcnnore,
the long classical trumpet must have been less piercing in tone than our
present-day instrument.
Long held notes in octaves, rhythmic punctuation, and patterns on
one or two notes, are other characteristic features of trumpet parts.
Also an occasional solo phrase of short duration might occur. Themes
were often constructed on the harmonic series, so that the trumpets
could play at least part of the melody in the tutti.
EX. 270.

Beethoven-SY11lphony no. 5

p. 3', cd. Kalmus

And3ntC cantabile con mota

;',:'~:,~retl~

'"

251

WIND

1 TaP.
IN C

w'-'
TlMP.

P: 3J, cd. Kalmus

,.... ,
IN C II

The trumpets were not assigned loud passages exclusively. The following entry is an example of delicacy in the use of trumpets and drums.

THE VALVE TRUl\fPET

\Vhen the valve trumpet was introduced, in the middle of the nineteenth century, it was the same standard trumpet in F with a 6-foot
tube, now lengthened by the three-valve system to nearly 8% feet.
Its written chromatic range, from third to twelfth partial was, then,
as in Fig. 76, sounding a perfect fourth higher on the F trumpet.

::';~ 7
#

Fig. )6

252

The lowest rones were probably of useless quality. Examples of these

low notes written for the trumpet in F cannot be regarded as proof of
their playability on the F trumpet, because of the likelihood of the
part having been played on a differently pitched instrument.
Composers continued to write for trumpets in the keys of the various
crooks, such as E, Eb, and D , and even C and Bo. One concludes either
that the parts were transposed and played as for F trumpet, or that
trumpets of brger sizes were used.
Richard Strauss, in his revision of the Treatise on Instrumentation
by Berlioz, advises as the best procedure t he writing for trumpets in
a variety of keys, choosing those keys which \viIl cause the written
pan to appear as far as possible in C major. This will make it convenient
for the trumpeter to transpose the part and play it on the instrument
of his individual choice. The advice is based on the knowledge that
performers will not necessarily usc the instrument designated. and that
.diverse practice makes it impossible to predict what their choice will be.
T hese remarks by Strauss are 01 great importance to the student of
the orchestration of the last half of the nineteenth century. and, as we
shall see, of our own century. A part marked trumpet in F may not
have been play ed on that instrument, and, what is eve n mo re significant,
th e com poser may not have expected that it would be.
R eports of the tone quality of the F trumpet, its nobility, its heavi ness, its tendency to dominate, its superiority over the modern trumpet,
all doubtless contain a part of tru th , as can be ascertained by playing
on th e original instrument. Nevertheless, there is nearly alw ays a question whether or not the testimony is based on actual hearing of the
F tru mpet.
W e may exercise our imagination as to the effect of the following,
if played on the instruments indicated.

253

THE TRUMPET

INSTRUMENTS
EX. 27 2.

p. 28, ed. Philharmon ia

Bruckner-SY11lpbony no. 7
Allegro moderato
!\

"A

no

.tJ'
A

I V V

V V

' A

V
A

A.,
A A A

\
A

AA

A A

THE MOOERS TRUMPET

The trend toward grea ter use of the high register, and p reference
for more brilliance and agility, led to the adoption of smaller instruments, and in the twentieth century the standard trumpet is either the
C or the Bb trumpet. in thei r modern forms. These trumpets have tube
lengths one-half as long as the classical trumpets of the same keys. The
tube of the C trumpet measures 4 feet, not counting the valves, and
th at of the Rb, 4 feet 6~ inches. T he fib trumpet can be changed to
an A trumpet, ordinarily by pulling out a specia lly designed slide at
th e first V-bend and adjusting the valve slides for the new pitch. Some
tru mpets with rotary valves exist, but piston valves are the universal
sta ndard for the trumpet, in contrast to the horn.

Fig. 77. Modern Trumpet in Db and A

IN ST R UM EN T S

T ilE T R L' .\ 1P ET

The written series of harmonics we have used thus far must now
be replaced by one an octave higher.

Lower sounds than the F;::: can be obtained by such drastic expedients
as pulling out the valve slides and the tu ning slide as far as possible.

~
I

"

EX. 2 7 3 .

'j

p. 35. ed. Durand

Ravcl- R.lpsodie Espsgno!e

Fig. 78

The fundamental tone can sometimes be produced. wit h extraordinari ly flexible lips. Irs sou nd is of such poo r qua lity that irs playability
has not been cult ivated. and it should not be inclu ded in the range of
the trumpet. H armonics above the eight h are more easily obtainable
on the Bb trumpet than on the C. and as usual the flat seventh harm onic
is avoided.

The C tr umpet sounds

lower than written.

as written, the Bb trum pet a major second

FlSGERISG

The notes playable in the seven valve positions are as follows:

000

255

OJO

0 1 0

00 )
Of I

01)

I O J

TOX E QU.-\U T Y

T he tr umpet possesses carrying power sufficient to sound with authori ty over the full orchestra. The volume and ton e quality depend
somewh at on the bore, w hether small. medium, or large, and on the
width and depth of the mouthp iece employe d. T hese fact ors arc decided by individual taste. T he n , tr umpet preser\"Cs a little more of the
fullness of rune characteristic of the older trumpets, whereas the C
tr umpet has more intensity and at the same time more delicacy . T here
has been a not iceable increase in the usc of C trum pets in the last
twenty- fi ve years. T hey arc often played when Botru mpets are specified in the score. O n the ot her hand. m:lIlY tr umpeters prefe r to play
the C pans on the Bb tru mpet.
In the low register the trumpet sounds fu ll. and with much solemniry.

Fig. 79

As previou sly noted, the usc of the third valve pr esents into nation
difficulties. The Ab series can be corrected by the lips, but the last rwo
series cannot. Low F:: and G, and their fifths C# and D, not being
duplicated in anoth er series, can be fingered only as in Fig. 79, and arc
therefore bound to be out of tune. These pitches are corrected by
mechanical devices. The first valve is lengthened by a spring tr igger
for the left thu mb, and the third valve by means of a ring for the left
third finger. T hese devices may be operated while a note is sounding.
Hi gh A b is another note co which special attention must be given for
intonation.

EX. 2 74.

Shostakmich-Sympbol1y

110 .

p.

I.t,

ed..\l usicus

Cop)Ticht 1 ~5 by Letd s Musk. Corpon,tion. r.;tw Yort. l:std by Pt rmission

The normal comfortable range for melodies lies between midd le C

(written ) and the G a twelfth above. H igh and low points in the
melodic curve may exceed these limits, if desirable.
K

256

TilE T R U ,\ 1PET

INSTRU\lENTS

EX. 275. Hindemith-Concerto

Nicbt sch1srpen
7'

'.

~7

fOT

Orchestra

_
.

257

P: 6, ed . Schott
EXT RE :\1 E HI GH :SOTE S
'7

Th e nimh harmonic is often playe d by those t ru mpcrers w ho make

a pr actice of pby ing C trum pet parts on the
(rllmper. since t hey
must play D when the high C is writt en. :\ written high D is much
mor e diffi cult on the C trumpet. h O W CH f . ; \ p;trt like th e following
wou ld most pr obably be played on the D trumpet.

n"

EX . 1 77.

B<1 ft<Jk- Collcerto for O rcbestrs

p.

Copyriahl 1915 b)" B Schoth ~h ne: rco u .-cd l'lS! b y Falil lI in <kfn ilh

J =9 1

m~c.

rn l'

ed. Bcosey & H aw kes

t '....:! b y pt'nniSAlo n.

In the high register. from G to C. th ~ ton e is . nat.ural~y most penetr ating. These upper no tes have a beautiful quality In pian o, but the y
arc difficu lt to play sof tly.
EX. 276. Stravinsky-Sym phony in C

107 .

P: 65, ed. Schott

Copyrilht 1'}.16 loy I b ..

k~1

'" Son (London) Li d

l'~

b) prr m i'lSI<.on .

The production of higher notes is a mat te r of lip tension, aided

by the kind of mouthpiece and the bore of the insrrumcn r. Dance band
trumpet ers frequently plav up to G , th e twelfth harmoni c, and even
further, but it is noticeabl e th at this is accom plished at a sac rifice of
quality. especially in the medium and low registers. The siruation is
reminiscent of the clarino pbying of the eighteenth cent ury . But
whereas the clnrino playe r was admittedly a high register specialist, the
orchestra trump eter of tod ay is expected to be at his best in the medium
part of the range . It would he folly for him to weaken this more valuable aspcct of trumpet playing for the sake of extending his range upward.

ML'TES

Cop yri ght 1945 b)" Scholl & Co " Lt d

l: oed b y p<"mi ..,o n.

M uted tru mp ets can give fo rth the most piercing sound in th e or chestra (Ex. 278), and on the other hand th ey can be used softl y for
a kind of ech o effec t, a sou nd as of an instrument played at a distan ce
(Ex. 279 ) , At one ti me in th e early twenti eth centu ry . mu ted tr ump ets

T II E T R U ,\ 1PET

I ~ S T R U ~ I [:-;: T S

2511

were so muc h in vogue that they were heard almost as freq uently as
open trumpe ts.

P: 6 S.,cd.

EX . 278. Stra\'in sk y-PetrollChkJ

R ussc

F.X. 28 1.

Debussy-La ,Her

259

P'

",P . 1
11'0' r

"," oJ t
pp ........-:=

COPl <i ~h l I.y E d ih un R ..a w de ~l u " Q "e .

by

Rn u.ro

"n~ i "n cOP l n~l.t 1 9~~ b y l>oc.ow y &: 1I~"'k..,,, l'~d

pt"r n,,,~ , on

p. 45. cd. Unive rsal

EX. 279- Berg-Violjn Concerto

. A

Allegr crto

,DPf

I"

'-

' i p.J, ror d

, ,= [npt.

,.,. .". .,,=.

"
n ~ =- '-"-'
"=

122,

cd. D urand

or:/.3

PP --==.

4q-.-.:r~-:"":~ ~ ~--- ~ ~~~~;~~4'?'#8

- = =
pp

P enn is. IOfl gunl(1J b)' Duund

pp

rl

pp

pp

Cic. , P U is, COI 'l-righ l o....n c rs; Uk :on-\"ogd, I'h il:odt lphil, 1'1_. IlcnlS

TRILLS

A few lip trills are possible in the high register. but trills on the
trumpet arc ordinarily mndc with valves. ~ lost arc \'ery good. but
some arc awkward in effect because of awkwardness in th e fingering.
T he following examples show fingeri ngs that do not produce good
tr ills.

.." ( p,m ou ltj

Cop) . ic h i \936 by l ' n i- u u l Ed it wll .'\ . G. l'wd b y pt r m is~iOll.

g
TO X G L'I ~ G

Fig . 80

Separately tongued notes on the trumpet arc more incisive th an on

th e ho rn. They are especially forceful w hen accented .
EX. 1 8 0 .

Str'.l\"insky-L'Oise<11t de Feu

P' 129. ed . Bro ude Bros.

Rep rod uced by pt nn i" ion of J. &: W. Chester Lid , London .

Compared with the horn , the trumpe t responds more quickly to

the various to ngue strokes. Its staccato is extremely crisp and pointed.
Double- and triple-tonguing are performed on the tr umpet with a
lightness and neatness unsur passed by any ot her wind instrument.

Fast running figures are quite playable. although perh aps not in th e
best trumpet sty le. The following gives a dazzling splash of color, the
trum pets sounding wit h a loud tutti for the first two beats, then wit h
on ly the marking of the beats by pizzicato strings and timpan i.

T /I E T R U ,\ \ PET

1:-; 5 T R U \ 1E :-; T 5

260
EX . 2 82 .

R avcl-Dapbnis et Chloe

P' 269, cd . Durand

preponderant. When mu ted, however, it blends especially well with

the English hom.
EX .

p. 25. ed. D urand

, 84, D eb ussy-c-La .lI er

rerenu
Io",dmt

,.., ~f.j --;$1 1 i5

IS f

:...

" tzp' tsrrf

( 14"'JO" 'l;;irh E.ll }l,f j rh ho rn '
~

",

P um lpion If"ftled b y Du rand et Ci e. hr if , copyr ight o.. " tl"$; Ellr."n \Olld. Ph iladelphia.. Pa " aaenta-

.-"

:. - :r".

f'umi~~ion

26 1

lI, a n ted by D u ra nd .\ Cie .

Pari ~.

pp

\\'hen the br ass section includes three or fou r tru mpets, a para llelism
of chords suggests itself, and this effec t has been wid ely used. The following passage is accompanied by full pizzicato chords on eac h eighth.
kettled rum on each quarter, and arpegg io figures for two clarinets and
bass clarinet.

cop)'ril:ht o..-n e,, ; El ka.n\'ogd, Ph ila d elp h ia, 1';1.. &j;en l.

EX. 285 . Casella- Partita for Piano and O rchestra

P: 29. ed. Uni versal

Music of a fanf are or prono uncement character falls naturally in the

trumpet 's sphe re.
EX. 183. Copland- .Hmic for the T heater
." alto moderato
>- ""'.-....

'"

IS C

"

p. 3. cd . Cos Cob
~

==

sIm p, (411. de,",

..
"
~<

f -

" ON>'"

troppo

'I l"VOUJ

~--

'"

IWI

---~

Copyr igh t 19J! by Cos Co b P re5&. In c. l"..ro by pt. m i"',on o f Arro....

Cos Cob Prey

Pr~.

~ .

.....-=

1m;., in t o rpor.ll n e th.

Combinations of other than br ass instruments in unison wi th the

trumpet are usually not successful. T he trumpet is too assertive and

"---.:...---

Copyrirlu l't!6 b y l:niar<.l.l E d ili un A. G; rcn c..-fd 1953 by \ ' YOCUlt C ~ ... l ~

l 'M'd by ~rm is~ion.

262

I~ STR U ~I [~ T S

Al.'XILIARY

I~ STRL'.\ tEXTS

The aux iliary instr uments of the trumpet family are the small trum pets in D and E" and the bass tr umpet.
The modern D trumpet is nor to be confused with the earlier J)
trumpet, which had a tube len gth of about 7 ~-S feet. T he small f)
tru mpet measures 3 feet 5 inches , not including the valves. It shouid
be remarked here that all comparisons of measurements between new
and old instruments should take into account the fact that the eighteenth-century pitch was not only variab le bur was. in a gcncr:ll way.
about a half tone lower than the pitch of the twentieth century.
Small trumpets in Eb and 0 exist as scp,u arc instruments, bur t he 0
trumpet is now equipped wit h a device for changing to Eb. thus combining the (\\"0 into one instru ment. T his is a grea t convenience for
the player, who may find it advantageous to play an E b part on the
D trumpet, or vice versa. Some players like to use a smaller mo uthpiece,
ot hers use the same as for the C trumpet. T he technique and the written
range arc the same as those of the C instrument. T he D trumpet sounds
a majo r second higher tha n written, t he E b trum pet a mino r third
higher than written.
T he tone of the small trumpets has a tendency to shrillness, especially
in th e high register, where they arc most used. Followin g are examples
of parts for eac h.

EX. 286. Britten-Four Sea Interludes from Peter Grimes

p. , 8, cd. Booscy & H awkes

~E!;. J_
.r- = =

Copyright 1945 by B<x>sey & Hawkes Ltd . t:",d by p('rrn ission .

THE T R U hI PET
EX.

263

,87' D 'Indy-SY 11lphony in Bb

p. 186, ed. Durand

Perm i!ls lon gran ted by Du rand et Cie ., Paris, co pyri gh t ow ner. ; Elk an -Vog el, Phi la dd phia, Pa. , a gent.

The bass trumpet, as writte n for by \ Vagner and Strauss, in th e keys

of s-foor C and th e Bb below, is to all int ents and purposes a valve tro mbone . It is played by tromb on ists, using th e tr omb one mouthpiece.
The bass trumpet in Eb, however, preserves a tr umpet quality with a
large trumpet mouthpiece, and it sounds especially well in th e register
where the standard trumpet is not at its best. It is supp lied with a fourth
valve, by means of which it may be changed to a bass trumpet in D .
This add s a half tone to the down ward range of the Eb instrument, so
that its lowest w rit ten not e is F, soun ding th e Ab a major sixth lower.
EX.

188. Stravinsky-Le Sacre du Printemps

P' 104, ed. R usse

4
nu:,::; ~J-t~ ~@;~
Lento
CO'7I loyd.

BA~S

Cop yri gh t 1921 by Edit ion Ru_

d~ Musi 'l u ~.

"'-sed by permission.

The bass trumpet may be used to play melodi es wr itten for Bb or

C trumpets in th e low register, wh en a more resonant ton e is desired.
Also it is the best instrument on whi ch to play parts for the old er tru mpets, if they happen to descend too low for the mod ern trumpet.
EX.

189. Strauss-Ein H eldenleben

m~ g

Iangsam

p.

220,

ed. Eulenburg
..."

m":::::2
'
dill
= ~
"
p
.
.~. ereso
"" dim.
' !/to 'dim

With th~ permission of th~ publisher F. E . C. Leuclr.ut. Mu enchen, Leip~il. Cop yr il1ht 1899, ren ewed
1927, by F. E . C. Leucka rt.

264

T 11 E T R U ,\ 1PET

INS T R U ~l E N T S

In modern R ussian scores a trom ba con tralta may be found, an instrument descr ibed by Rim sky-K orsako ff as having been invent ed by
him. Although it has th e same fun dame nt al as th e ninet eenth-cent ur y
valve tr umpet in F. its bore and mouthp iece give it a range fro m th e
second to abou t the nin th partial, w hereas the older F trumpet played
from the third partial up to the twelfth .
The small n and E b tnlmpcts are used in the perform ance of clarin o
tr umpet parts by Bach, H andel, and ot hers. Special instruments fo r .
th is purpose have been constru cted in high F and G , sometimes called
Bach trumpets. This is of course a misnomer. The instruments do not
fu rn ish the harmonics originally playe d. from eighth to sixteenth, bur
th eir harmonics from fourt h to eight h sound just as high. since they arc
but half the length of the original trumpets. The gaps between partials
are filled in by means of the valve system.
H igh est of all trumpets is the Eb sop ran ino, with a main tube length
of 2 feet 3 % inches. It is used in some military bands.

265

Long used in bands and the ater orchestras, cornets were first introduced into the sy mp hony orchestra to sup plement the trumpets and
fill out the brass harmony, a usage seen in Fr ench scores we ll afte r the
valve trumpet had become established. Cornets we re fou nd to combin e
more sympathetically with other instruments than did the tr ump ets,
and to be mo re appropriate for melodies in a style like the fo llowing .
EX . 290.

Tchaikov sky-Capriccio Ltalien

p. 49, cd. Kalmus

T HE CORNET
Fr., piston, cornet

a pistons;

It., corne tta; G er., K ornett

The cornet originat ed in France about 1825. It is not a trumpet bur

a descend ant of th e post horn , and thus it has more family ties with th e
horn. Formerly its rat her squa t, compact appe ara nc e was in contrast
to th e streamlined trumpet, but the mod ern cornet has come to resembl e
th e trump et more and more, both in external shape and in tone quality.
First made in a variety of pitches, the standard cornet is now in Bb.
with a slide ch ange to A. It has the same tu be length and range as the
Bb trumpet. Its bore is two-thirds conical and one-third cylindrical,
and it is play ed with a cup mout hpiece.
The cornet tone shares characteristics of both trumpet and horn.
The heroic qu ality of th e trumpet is lack ing, but, on the other hand, th e
cornet is capable of a warmth and mellow smoothness associated only
with th e horn. It must be added th at the corne t is rarel y well played,
so tha t its good qualities are no t often to be apprecia ted.
An outstanding feature of th e cornet is its superiority over the other
brass instruments in ease of performance in mu sic requiring fluent
agility and virtuosity.

The cornets are nevertheless not regular members of the sy mphony

orc hestra. Rather, they arc adj uncts, to be employe d on special occasions. This is perhaps a result of the circumstance th at cornets and
trumpets have grown to be so nearly alike that the distingui shing characteristics of the cornet are scarcely noticeable.
The follovving examp le is in typical cornet style.

266
EX. 291.

INSTRUMENTS

Stravinsky-Petroltchka
CHAPTER

FOURTEEN

THE TR 0,\1 BON E

-_ a r

Fr., trombone; It., trombone; Ger., Pormme

Copy right by E diti on R\lS5e de M \lsiQ\le. Re,!.sed versi on ooPlrigh t 1948 by Boo"",y &: l ia ,,kes. Cled
by per mission.

principle of the slide trombone, described in Chapter Eleven

(see Fig. 63), dates from antiquity. No really essential change
in the instrument has been made in at least five centuries, if we
except certain alterations of mouthpiece and bell proportions indicative of changes in ideals of tone quality. Also, the tenor trombone,
pitched in c-foor Eb, seems ever to have remained the standard, typical
slide trombone.

HE

m:
Fig. 81. Bb Ten or Trombone
The tube is cylindrical for about two-thirds of its length, becoming
conical toward the bell, which measures about 7 inch es across. The
mouthpiece is a shallow bowl cup, more like a large trumpet mouthpiece than one for the horn, cornet, or tuba. The slide is made with
fine precision. its outer walls being about a hundredth of an inch thick .
A water key is provided for drainage. The instrument is balanced in
playing position by a weight situated in the V -bend of the tuning slide.
In some makes of trombone the weight is contained within the tran sverse braces. l\ laterials going into the trombone's construction are
brass, chromium, and nickel.
267

[J','STRUMENTS

268

THE TROMBONE

SLIDE T ECH:-;'lQUE

The left hand hold s th e inst ru ment by the mourh pipe brace and
stead ies the mouth piece aga inst the lips. The right hand operates th e
slide, holding the slide hand bra ce lightly.
In Fi g. 8 I . the slide is seen com plet ely closed, the ends pressing upon
co rk, c ontained in w hat ar c called th e cork barrels. In improved models
th ese cork barrels ar c repl aced by spring barrels that permit pit ch ad justments in the closed pos it ion.
\ \ "hen closed, t he slide is in the first po sition, with a tube length
identical w it h that of t he natural horn in B alt o. The bor e and mout h-

piece of th e tr omb one. however, are nor designed to produce harmonics

as high as th ose of the horn.
As the slide is ext ended, th e posit ions are id enti fied by number as
each half tone alteration in pitch is reached, Th e distances between
adjacent positions increases as the slide is furth er extended. From first
to seco nd position is 3 ry~G inches; from sixth to sevent h position is 4 %
inch es. At its grea test extent the ent ire instrument has a rub e length of
J 2 feet, 7 % inches, just about the length of th e classical horn in E.
The following shows the notes available in the seven slide position s.
Mu sic for the trombone is w ritten in bass and tenor clefs, th e tenor
clef to S3\"C Icger lines in th e high register. The trombone has always
been a non tra nsposing instrument, the notes sounding as written.

~ :l{lIl

bh!'@

.A

. 0_

t,

positions:

'"
I

II

1'9"

\U )

III

IV

1#"1
v

IQ)

VI

Fig. 82

The ninth and tenth partia ls are used ch iefly in the first two positions.
They are less difficult to produce in the five lower-pitch ed series, but
th e notes are better taken as lowe r-numbered partials in higher position s. Trombonists tod ay play as high as the twelfth harmonic on the

269

tenor trombone, bur the se extreme notes are not thu s far a part of the
trombone ran ge for sy mphonic purposes, probably because th e need
for th em is not felt, considering th e presence of horn s and tr umpets.
T he fundamentals ( pedal tones) of th e first three positions arc of goo d
quality. if approached with time for ad justment of th e emb ou chure.
The low E, second harmonic in the seventh position, is th e poorest
note in resonance.
It is to be noted that op tional alterna tive positions arc available for
many tone s, but that quit e a numb er can be obtained in on ly one position, especially in th e lower octave. Care shou ld be taken that wide
changes of slide position do not have to be made rapidly. T he fo llowing passage is very awkward if played on the tenor tromb one, since
it necessitates alt ernating sevent h and first positions.
E X. 292.

Bartok-Dan ce Suite

p. 66, ed. Un iversal

Comodo

'::'

:);! J ; g J ~
P

CoP)'~lg.ht

penn l.lon.

CO'/l

sord

1924 by Unh'enal Edition. Copyright ll.Aigned 1939 to Boo",,)' & lI a,,kes Ltd. Used by

Int onation problems inh erent in valve combinations are not present
in the slide system. Pitch can be adju sted to perfecti on by slight movement s of the slide.

THE ALTO TRO\\BONE

Until the late nineteenth century, the three trombo nes makin g up
the custo mary tr ombone section of the orchestra were alto , teno r,.and
bass. With the ascend ancy of the valve trumpet, the alto tromb on e
gradually came to be repl aced by a secon d tenor trombone, and th e
grouping- two tenor and one bass-became standard practic e. French
composers have shown a preference for a group of three tenor tr ombon es, and they have been reluctant to usc the bass. In genera l, however, when simply three trombon es are indi cated , it is und erstood that
th e third is a bass trombone.
The alto trombone is pitched a perfect fourth above the tenor, so its
f undament al in closed position is E b. Its playing technique is the same

THE TROMllONE

INSTRU ,\lF.NTS

270

271

as th at of the other trombones. Parts for it w ere writt en ordin arily in

the alto clef, an d t his is probably one reaso n for the usc of t he alto clef
for first and second tr ombon es, seen in some sco res even wh en no alto
tr omb on e is inten ded. This practi ce is co mmon among Ru ssian co mposers. O ccasional notes for th e alto tr ombone that are too high to be
playe d on th e tenor are most often give n {Q the trum pet (see Ex . 295 ) .
Fig. R.;. Bass T romb one with F Arrachmcnr and E Slide

THE BASS TRO\mONE

The advantages of the F attachment arc nor limited to th e acquisitio n

of not es not playable on t he n, rube . It makes of th e trombone really
two instruments in on e, or even th ree in one if rhe E slide is co unte d.
a development comparable in significance to th e invention of t he
double ho rn . It provi des virru allv unlimited possibilities of inte rchange
through t he entire range of both tenor an d bass divisions.

The bass t rombone is pit ched in F. a perfect fourth lower th an th e

tenor. In Englan d t he prefe rred pitch is G . w hile in Ge rmany in the
ni neteenth cent ury bass trombones in E b were widely used. In t he
twentieth centu ry these have all been gr3du:1lly superseded by an inst ru ment call ed the tenor-bass trom bone. whi ch in its present form is
now called simply (and not always accu rately} t he bass t rombone"
T he tenor- bass t romb on e is a
tenor trombo ne with a so-called
" F att achment." a device consisti ng of a loop of extra tubing. accomrnodated with in the up per C -ben d. of sufficient lcnarh to gi ve t he instrument a fundamental F when added to th e main tu bing. ro tar y valve.
operated by the left thumb. con trols t he addi tion of t his extra rubinu
~
in the manner of a valve on the horn.
\ Vhen the ten or-bass trombone is designed princi pally for service
as a bass tromb one, the bore is enlarged, the size of th e bell in creased to
about gY:! inch es, and t he F tubing eq uip ped wit h a slide which , wh en
pulled out , lowe rs the F to E. This last was needed ro complete t he
filling of the gap between low E of the tenor trombon e and its first
pedal tone, Bb. \\'ith about 3 feet of extra rub ing added, the distances
between slide positions are gre ater, so that the slide is long enough for
onl y six po sition s when rhe instrument is in F. The low B~ is obtained
by pulling out the E slide (Fig. 8J).

l,

TO~ G1.:I~G

All ronmi imrs are used on the trombone, condition ed bv the fact
that th e mout hpiece is a large one, and fast ton g-ue strokes arc fatigu ing
if continued long. A rtic ulations in t he low register tend to be 3 littl e
sluggish. A certa in heavi ness is expected in th e follo wing p3ss;1ge. In
the sco re, the tr ombon es are doubl ed by st rings. an d in P3rt by ho rns.

teno r

tr ombone

r.gsIU OJl5

F valve

on

,j
VII

II

III

Fig" 83

T H E TR 0 .\\

I N S T R U ~\ E N T S

272

EX. 293. \Vagner-Die G ott erdammerung

Sehr lebhaft

,dI
,(J"

l"'

'

"

,(J"

, ~

,(J'"""r'

- ., .

273

Flutter-tonguing can be employed, and there are a few examples

in modern scores.
EX. 294. Scbocnbcrg-c-Frce O rcbestral Pieces

P'

I I,

ed. Peters

, .. b.. .

c h'

no,

p, 309. ed. Schott

no N

....

R ep ri n ted with th e permi:;.sion of the copyright o wners C. F . Pe ters Corporation, :\ew York

LEGATO

A perfect legato is obtained only between two adjacent harmonics

in the same position. Slurring two [Ones that require a change of slide
position demands skillful co ordination of tongu e and slide movement s.
\ Vhen t his type of slurring is w ell execute d, t he break in continuity
necessary to avoid portamcnto is barely discernible.

EX. 295. Schumann-Sy1l1phony no. 3

P' 97. ed. Philharmonia

"---~.u~~D

.-,

O n the other hand, it is more characteristic of trombone sty le to

employ a soft tonguing on each note of a cantabile melody. The intervals are not slurred, but the tones are as closely connected as in a nice
ch ange of bow by the strings, except at places where breath is taken.

1:--1 S T R U ,\ 1 E:--I T S

274
EX.

THE TRO MBONE

296. H indemith -Sy mphollY: M atbis der Maler

Rulug

lxw~

~. p:-a

::1~
I

.., Smft

- p..
I

htr.JQrtT~!rn

p.

I,

ed. Sch orr

Jj

275

Tlt OM BON l!: IN ,

(GOOO)

~"?Sj O@~d~
J

rr
~
I~E~:i!~~~~

hum')fllC$: I

t> ... .

posnicns :

'. '
,;< ' 15 ~I~.
... ~
Copyrt&h1 1934 by

TllO M8Q>;[ IS Bb (tMPOSSTlLt)

IV

III

II

V II V I

'

VI V I V I I I I I I

Fig. 85

T he glissando over the overtone series of a sing le position. like the

horn glissando. can also be played on the t rombone.

Sc ho ll s Sofhnc, "la inz l' ""d b}' ~ rm i ....ion .

LX.

The trombone requires more wind t han either trumpet or hom.

Phrasing shou ld be arranged to allow fr equent breathing places.

298. Bart{.k-Violil1 Concerto

I\'~'(f.;,~ _~

P'

133.

cd. Boosey & H awkes

;;:;;;' *jdJj: ;U tCHiiJii.ir\1

TRILL.5

T rills c an be made with the lips on adjacent harm onics. T hey are
therefore limited [Q trills of a major second. T he following excerpt
contains two lip trill s playable in the fourth position .
EX.

197. Srra\'insky-L'OiscJu de Feu

A Il~ro

p.

16 1 ,

cd. Broude Bros.

..

..utff~ <f'.tf'-= <f'

TO:SE

Th e tone quality of the trombone is hom og eneous throughout t he

range. with a natural increase in brilliance and penetrating power
as t he high registe r is approached. In the low rcgi stcr.nn extremely soft,
subdued piani ssimo CJn be produced. especially effective in chords for
three t ro mbones.
EX.

m .

299. D cbussy-c-L a .\ler

P: 15. ed. Durand

"

o ~,II1.

Reprodu ced b y ~ rm isi ion o f }. & W. Chesl~ r Ltd ., Lo ndon.

GLl S SA ~[)o

Th ere is natura lly a tend enc y to allow t he int er venin g sounds to be

heard w hile shifti ng positions, and t his has bee n exp loite d as a specia l
effect, the trombone glissando, shown in Ex. 297. T he glissando on
the trombone is comparable to the string glissondo. and its use can easily
be abu sed. It cannot be made over an interval l.r rgcr than an augmented
fourth. the total displacement of t he seven positions, and a glissando is
no t possible if it involves a c hange of harmonic number, as demonstrated
in t he following figu re.

T he fortissimo of t rom bones in the low register has a dramatic, cras hing sound. wi th treme ndo us pow er of c rescen do . \V hen uncont rolled,
it causes t he me tal of t he instrum ent to vibrate, giving a prono unce d
cuh;re effect . In ge ne ral th e eX:lggcfJte d brassy sonority is un pleasant,
bu t on occasion it nuy no t be in app ropriate .

Sibclius-SY lllphollY

EX. 300.

p. 37. ed. Brcitkopf

110. 1

Allegro energicc

TU'I','lt d

":'~-~>~
::~
: "
f ~m(.

molto

.IT

cresc.

TRO~IBONE

THE

J :-I S T R U ~I E :-I T S

276

The high register is difficult to subdue to anything less than mezzo

forte, with average orchestral players. The extreme notes suggest tension and excit ement.
EX. 303 . Schmitt-An toine et

POln~

277

Cteopatre

p. 106 , cd. Durand

Cop yri cht 190Z, renewed lY3Q, b j" lJr c itk op l & lI a.rt el. u ipz ig

In medium register the trombone is closest to th e horn in timbre, but

with a lin Ie more solidity , even hardness, comparatively speaking. The
piani ssimo unison of three trombones, in the next example, makes a
full, round tone, without being loud.
EX. 301.

Schubert-Symphony no. 7
Allegro rna non

P: 30, ed . Eulcnburg

n .

.tf

- ' ( TW: .

Perm ission gra n ted by Dura nd et Cie.. Paris. wp)' righl owners ; 'Elka n -\'O lld , Phi ladelphia , P a. , ag ents.

(top~

M UT ES

Muted trombones are extensively employe d to redu ce the volum e of

tone, as well as to obtain th e new tune color. Th ey are not as piercing
in fort e as muted tr umpets. In the low reg ister th ey have a sinister
quality. In the followin g example, a novel effect is created by doubling
the muted trombone in unison with low strings cot tegno.

TIl0 M1l 0 N S

EX. 304 . Berg-Violin Concerto

p. 8, ed. Universal

p
Rep r in ted ,,-ill> th e perm; ", ;"n o f t he so l. 3-genu lor Eu le" b u, g M in i" lu re Sco res " C. 1'-.
t io n, :-:.w Yo rk.

P.tu~

The same uni son in fortissimo is overpowering, especially if pitched

somewha t higher. It can easily dominate the mass of sound of the whole
orchestra.
EX. 302.

Rirnsky-Korsakoff-Scb eberazade
Allegro
I

(l

p. z )6, ed. Kalmus

non troppo maestoso

"" "JlH "

III

.(I'
Co p yr igh t b y !<of. P . lie/aid!; sole a genl.> llOO5CI' & H awke s , Cse d b y pr rm ission

mit D.nnPftr

Corpora-

(u,,)

II

....

Copyright 19J6 b y Un h 'er sal Ed il io n A. G. tJled b y pe rmissio n.

ORCHESTRAL USES

The tr ombones are by tradition gro up instr uments rather than soloists and the y are used very frequently in three-part harmony, perfo rming a harmonic background function similar to that performed
by horns. In large tutti passages, the comparatively light tone of the

278

x ST R U \ 1 E x T S

TH E TRO ,\ \ B ON E

horn s is insufficient, and the trombones may be combined w ith them .

O r, the trom bones may take over the harmonic burden. leaving the
horns free for melodic activities. The trombones arc regularly associated wi th t he mba. making eit he r a four- part texture, or a three-part
harmony with the bass doubled in octaves o r unison. All three trombones may join the tuba on the bass line. T he trombone harmony
sounds wel l in either open or close position. In Ex. 305 there are, in the
score, full doublings by woodwind, ho rns, an d rru mpC[s, b ur t he phra se
is dominated by the trombone tone.

279

R hy thmic, contrapuntal style:

EX. 307 . I-lindemit h-Sy mpbonic Meunnorpbosis
p. 28, cd. Associate d M usic Publishers

>

TIl.B .

~
u, ~

...
...

S t-Ji. ,

mf_

. ,

'. ~~

"i'rbJ

>

~.1

( H OR:-' 5, TIl. P. , T l 'BA ommed l

EX. 305 Brahms-Sy mpbol1Y no. 4

Allcgr.Q encrgl.c o C ~ss. ionaro

m!:,W
if

. If

~.

t:i. ;

~.

p.

Ja

12 5,

ed. Kalmus

rl

If Lp
a

' ~.

,
The most suitable melodies for the t rombones arc those havin g a kind
of deli berate dign ity and solemnity, or those of a choral type that
would be sung by more than one voice ( Ex. 296 ) . Such melodies are
give n normally to two or three trombones in unison, o r in octaves with
t w o on t he upper part. T he m ore intimate and personal type of melody
(Ex. 306), for one solo tromb one, is much less com mon in symphonic
mus ic.
EX.

306 . l\1ahler-S)'11lphollY

1/0. ]

p. 82, ed. Boosey & H aw kes

..:. ~
~f

1:'1 ,,.1

j~

Cop yrig ht 1945 by A-"<Xiated Mu sic P u blishers. In c.,

J .j
~ ew

.J

.J

,.i,.I .!

f
I

:r
York. t:.., d by perm iss ion.

Lig ht staccato:

P' 9. ed. P hilhannonia

EX. 308 . Strauss-Till E ulcnspiegel

Schr lebhaft

i .

"':JiEa ' .ef1$J j ~, IijJ ~

~

.If poco nt. P

Rep rint ed ....ith the per mission 01 th e copyrigh t o wners C. F. Poten Cor por at ion. New York.
D uet between t ro mbon e an d trumpet, both muted :
EX.

309. Copland-Concerto for Piano and Orchestra

P: 30, ed. Cos Cob

TIl.P ,

'N c.

,0

IV

d'l'on sord.

.~ .

>

m .

Follo wi ng are ot her examples of o rchestral trombone writing.

>

~f~
COf/J~

V""d by p"rmi"ion of Vninrsal Edition A. G.

>

>

1-..'-----

>

-.-

~f
Cop yr ight 19<'9 by Cos Cob P reM, Icc. Used by pe l'Tllission 01 Arrow Prest, I nc. , incorporat ing
C~ Co b Pre ss

th~

INS T R U ,\ 1 EN T S

280

TH E TRO ,\IBON E

Colorful phrase in parallel chords (doubled an octave above by

oboes, English horn, and clarinets):
EX .

3 10. Debussy- l beria

EX.

281

P' 316, ed . Brou dc Bros.

J 12. Ve rdi-Falstalf

P: 37, ed. D urand

Rubaro

rrh dQm: er rTf

/C

!FE< ~. ;;1 ;> .";~, g

..'i
. , -. . . .: :. . :t>~ 2

.J:...

m.

'"

pf------r ------- f " -

by Durand

~I

ex. J II. Prokofi eff- ChoU!

P' )8, ed. G urheil

Andant
"e
g
n~ _
>Il
~
~
~~ :
:>

nuI. lI ~
III

::

iJ:-

.t1' ttnuto
Copytj~ht lo2~

morrndo

TH E V ALV E

TRO ,\1BO ~ E

ell'. PariL, coPyrillht o...-n".; Elkan -VOlld, I'hiladdphi a, Pa ., ag en ti

Unison fortissimo with wide skips, cove ring the ent ire range (the
tu ba plays an octave below) :

By co u rtesy of G. Ricordi & Co., cop)'righl owncrs

Tt!&A

I'Nm j~~ ion gr3nt~d

--t

:>

;>

;>

>-

~ p t SnJlt

by Breit kopf & llartd (A

G ut hc il). Cop yr igh t a ""ign ed 1947 10 B00"",Y & lh.wk. . Used

b y p er m i",i on .

T HE

CO~TRABASS

T RO:\ IB O:" E

Pitch ed in fib. an octave below th e teno r trombone, th e contrabass

trombone was included by \Vagner in the br ass sect ion of the R ing
des Nibe lungen, the object being to exten d th e tromb one family dow nward, so th at it wo uld not depen d on th e tuba for its low bass. Th is instrument has been seldom used by other compose rs (Strauss-Elektra;
Schoenberg-G urrelieder), and it is gene rally considered unsatisfacto ry because of the physical demands it makes upon the player.
T he It alian con traba ss trombone that Verdi called for (Ex. 312)
was a valved instrument. Its part is usually played on the t uba.

The th ree-valve system has been app lied to trombones. The valve
trombon e has had succ ess in bands, but it is not used in the or chestr a.
Although the valves give greater facility in the performance of fast
figures, they possess the defects in intonation of all valve systems, and
th e valve tr ombone lacks the characterist ic feature of trombones- the
slide-that has distinguished the tro mb one family for centu ries.

TH E T UB A

C HA PTE R

F IFTEEN

28J

Both types of valve arc used, rotary or piston, according to personal

pr eference. T he valve system is the regular three-valve system, plus
usually a fourth valve, occasionally a fifth, and in some cases even a
sixth valve.
THE FOl:RTH VALVE

TH E T U B A
Fr., tuba; l r., tuba; Ger., Tuba

tuba is the brass instrument least understood by composers.

\Vhen the score calls for tuba, the tuba placer and the cendu ctor must decide wh ich of several instrum ents is intended,
and also which of several instruments will best answer to the musical
needs as shown by the part written for the mba. Even when rhc instrument is specified-i.e., bass tub a or contrabass tuba-it is often found
that the pan is better suited to a tuba of different size. Since a real
bass tub a has been in use only from about 1S75, it is called upon to
play pan s not planned for it, such as parts for the earlier small tub a
or for the obsolete op hiclcidc.
T he modern mba player may choose from four or five different
tu bas. H e adopts for everyday usc th e one that seems to him best for
th e general run of tuba parts, most of whic h are simple bass parts, lying
neither too high nor too low and having no outstanding tec hnical or
musical features. On the ot her hand, he occasionally finds reason to
select anothe r tuba for a particular wor k or a special solo passage. It
may happen that as many as three tubas are used by the same player in a
single concert.
The tubas employed in the orchestra are pitc hed in o-Foor Bb,
I a-foot F, rq-foot Eb, r6-foot C, and Is-foot Bb. They arc constructed
wit h a wide ly conica l bore, except for the necessarily cylindrical valve
system, and a very wide bell, details which, together with the large,
deep cup mouthpiece, facilitate the sounding of the lowest notes, including pedal tones.

HE

282

N ormally the fourth valve lowers the pitch two and one-hal f tones,
a perfect {ourth . T he pitch difficulties encountered when using the
th ird valve in combination with first and second arc more pronounced
in th e larger instr uments than, for example, in the tr umpe t. Since the
four th valve can be made the right length to lower thc pitc h a perfect
fourth, it is most valuable as a substitute for the combi nation of first
and third valves, correcting the pitch of the sixth- and sevent h-valve
positions. Also it is a convenience for simplifying some fingerings.
Whi le it is true that the fourt h valve oilers an extension of the range
downward. the notes produced by combining the fourth with other
valves arc hopelessly sharp, unless the instrument posscsses automatic
mechanism for lengthening the valve tubing.
The four -valve finger ing as applied to the second harmonic of the
small Bb tuba (eupho nium) is shown below. T uba parts are regu larly
written at their actual sounding pitch.
o

!' .J

,
!

Fig. 86

By th e time the

B~

is reached, the accumu lated discrepancy in the

valve tu be length s amounts to at least a half ton e, so that the note will
sound C un less compe nsated in some way .
A fi ft h valve is sometimes added, most often lowering the pitc h a
perfect fifth and functioning in a manner similar to the fourt h valve.
A sixth valve may gi\-e aid to finger ing by transposing down a half
ton e. Individual tuba players han devised various systems involving
fr actional tube lengths and even combining high and low instrume nts
into a doub le tuba, in their efforts to solve the problems of intonation
and range.

INSTR

284

U~I

THE TUBA

El"TS

The first three valves arc op erated by th e right-hand fingers; the

fourth may be arranged for the right as well, or it may be located for
the left hand, along wi th ot her extra val ves.

THE T UBA I:S 9-FOOT

~ J I I'
- - ch romaric

Bb

Except for some French tub as in 8-foot C, the smallest tuba in com mon use is that pitched in o-foor Bb, ge nerally called the euphonium,
or tenor tuba. Other na mes ar e: Fr., tu ba bssse, tuba ordinaire; Ir .,
tuba bassa, fiicorno basso; G er ., Basstuba, Tenortuba . It has usuall y
four valves, sometimes five. Range:

TU"O," TL'BA
IN I b

~.

The pedal tones are of goo d quality but difficult. \Vith five valves,
the low F, E, and E b shown can be pr oduced as second harmoni cs,
without recourse to pedal tones. The w riter has w itnessed the pla y ing
on such a tuba of a complete chromatic series of pedal tones down to
and including th e l ~ -foo t Bb. It is risky , however, to write lower than
D. Notes higher than the eighth partial are inadvisable.
THE TUBA IN I4-FooT

1..::.-,,-=-:-_2.-_~

28S

c hro IJW:ic

pedal tones

Fig. 87. Tenor Tuba in B],

The eighth partial may be exceeded by individual players. Likewise

the downward limit of the pedal tones produced in the valve position s
varies with player and instrument. The French tuba in 8-foot C, constructed with wide bore and equipped with six valves. can produce
tones as low as those customarily written for the larger tubas.
The o-foor rube length is identical with that of the tenor trombone
and the horn in Bb alto. The bore of the tuba is much wider than in
these two instruments, placing its natural range rather lower in the
harmonic series. The euphonium is also a wider-bored instrument than
the baritone, a three-valved band instrument of the same length but
more suited for higher parts.

THE TUBA IN I I-FOOT F

This is the most generally used all-around tuba, often called the
orchestral tuba in F. It is also referred to as the bombardon, or simply
the bass tuba. It may have four or five valves. Range:

Eb

This tuba is known as the E b bass, or bass tu ba in E b. It has four or

five valves, and it is preferred by some to the F tuba because of its
heavier tone and a slight advantage on the low no tes. Range:

~
~~~~~

.~~:.~

chromatic

'pedil t~

Fig. 89. Bass Tuba in E b

TH E TUBA I S

I 6-FOOT C

This is the instrument design at ed by W agn er as the K ontrsbssstuba,

and used by him as the bass of the gro up of Wagn er tubas, to be described later. It is also called the double C tub a (CC) , or co nt rabass
tuba in C. Man y players prefer this large instrum ent for general use,
alth ough its pon de rous to ne makes it more suitable fo r music in W agnerian style t han, for instance, th e music of D ebussy and Ra vel. R ang e:

286

T HE TUB A

I N S TR Ui\l E l' T S

The pedal tone is possibl e bur very difficult to produce, and the
valve tones jusr above it are unre liable. Notes above the eighth harmonic had better not be written for this tuba.

THE TUBA I N

IS -FOOT

Bb

M or e properly an instrument for military band, th is huge tuba is

sometimes employed in the orchestra. It is known as the double B bass
(BB b), or contrabass tuba in Bb. Range:

T J ,J

~E2iI

(~I

pedal tone

~)--

287

TOSE QUA LITY

The deeper mouthpiece cup, and the greater conicity and wid th of
th e bore, give the tuba a smoot her, rounder, and less trenchant tone
than that of trumpets and trombones. Th ere is. in fact, more affinity
with the horns in tone quality, but by reason of tone-weight the tuba
is rig htly associated with the " heavy brass," a group whose homogeneity is by no means perfect.
The tuba's resources in beauty of tone are best shown in soft, quiet,
legato phrases in the middle register.

chromatic

- - --

EX.

313. \Vagner-Eine Faust Onverture

P'

l'P

The pedal tone is barely possible. The ext remely heavy sound of
th is tuba makes it somewhat unwieldy for orchestral combination. It is
capab le of a fine pianissimo, and if properly understood and skillfully
handled its good qualities could be used co musical advantage.

EMBOUCHVRE

In playing the tuba, the lips are compressed or tense on ly in the high
register. N or mally , they are rather loose and cushicnlikc, and are given
added relaxation for lower notes by dropping the jaw. T he low est rones
requ ire the utmost looseness of the lips, while at the same time the capacit y of the lips to vibrate must be maintained.
A n enormous amount of breath is called for, espec ially on the largesized tubas. It is not un common ro breathe for single notes, in slewmoving nonlegato basses in the low register. A device for helping the
holding of long bass rones was once tried, whereby air was conveyed
to the mouth by a tube connected ro a son of bellows wo rked by the
foot, but th is invention appears to have r emained a curiosity. Long
slurs and long held notes shou ld be used spariogly.

Reprinted wit h the

p",m i~;on

ed. Peters

u~TUBA *#~

Fig. 91, Contrabass T uba in Eb

I,

..

of the copyri ght own"", C. Y. Pet",' Corporation, :-:e... York .

Low tones can be soft and unobtrusive, but the high register tends
to have a shouting qua lity not easily subdued . W hen lo ud, the rone is
hearty and robust, capable of sounding ove r the orchestral tutti.
EX. 3l4 .

Strauss-Also Sprach 'Zaratbustra

Sol" lebhaft
er

'~ TC,,:, ~
I I J!
.(}' ~#.

P'

105 ,

ed. Aibl

e-r ~
.. ~

Reprinted ....ith the permission of the cop yright o wners C. F Pe t.", Corpora tio n. New York .

THE MUTE

The tu ba mute is usually a large cone made of cardboard or other

light material, and over 2 feet high. It is used chiefly as a means of redu cing the volume of sound. The effect is muffled, becoming straine d
in th e high registe r.
EX.

3 15. Stravinsky-L' Oiseau de Feu

J ~ 80
C01I JOTd .

..,r 'I

,v"' :Pi t

Rep rod uced by pennlMion of

l.

& W. Che. ter L td ., Lon don.

P:

102,

cd. Broude Bros.

INSTRUMENTS

T HE TU BA

AGILITY

Trills are surprisingly good on the tuba, bur little use for them has
been found in symphonic music.

\Vere it not for the constant necessity for replenishing the wind
supply, the tuba could be said to be an agile instrument. The two examples following show its rem arkable capacity for active movement in
th e low register.

EX. 319. \ V agner- Prelude to Die M eistersinger

P: 43, ed. Philharmonia

288

EX, 316.

Hindcmith-Symphonic M etamorphosis
P' 23, ed . Associated Mu sic Publishers
Li\'C:ly

J ::.1)6

~J~

Co p yr ight 1945 b y

A~iated

M u s ic r u b li. h en . Inc . :-:ew York. {;""ct b)" penni ion

EX. 317. Shostakovich-Sympbol1y no. 7

p. 95, ed. Leeds

Modn aro (poco allegretto )

m,

:fln~p?S'B~RJ ~

-e...

Sehr m.issig bewege

BASS T \J BA

289

g~Fh:=::S

rl~

"'/ crete.

It is to be expec ted tha t the tenor tuba can play lively figures wit h
more lightness and flexibility than can be had with the U:1SS tuba. The
following is an excerpt from the well-known characterization of
Sanc ho Panza by Richard St rauss. The ten or tuba is wr itten as a transposing instrument . sounding a major second lower. This is a departure
from the usual custo m, whi ch is to w rite the parr at actual pitch.
EX. 320. Stra uss-Don Q uixot e

P: 39. ed. Philharmonia

,...,
.J

r
Cop yr ight 1945 by L<:ed .

~f u.ic

Corporation, !\ ew York . U""d by permission.

\ Vide skips are negotiated with comparative ease, and are a means of
gaining interest and variety in the bass line. They may be slurred, as
in Ex. 3'4 or detached (Ex. 318) .
EX.

3 18. Ravel- La Va lse

P' 87, ed. Durand

Mouvt de Valse vienooee

Rep r int .,.j WIth the pe rmlQtOn of !he cUPl nght [,,"n or. C f . Pett,. Cor po rllll ol\, Nt" York.

P~rm ;s~ion

granted by L ur a n d et C ie" Paris, copyrigh t ovoners; Elkan -Vo gd, Philadel ph ia. Pa .

a~fntl.

INSTRU ,IIEN T S

290

TilE TUllA
EX, 323. Stravinsky-J eu de Cartes

TO S G t:I~ G

Sing lc-, doublc-. and tripl e-tonguing may be empl oyed on the tuba.
T he foll ow ing exampl e of Bunce-tongu ing is quite unusual.
EX. 32 1. Schocnbcrg-Er':~:JrtUng
m 1l

DPt .

f l:Itt ",",--ullgr

. ...

29 1

P' 64. cd .

."

e niver sal

"

",

M .

=;

no.

>

>

~ -

,~ I~~~

"

I,

ed, Schott

>

. ~

f
>

~-------~;.
;~

., ~

p.

~~

" I'"

>

>

:>-

f~

,,>

.,

>

>-> ' ,

_ ~ :> . . . ,.>

'N .

f
Cn p )'r il:hl 1911 b)' t"nj~~f'l;l l Edi tio n, ....i ~nna.; r~nc"'cd 1950 b y Arnol d ~ch<xnbt , . a m l Ed .. 'ard Steuer" "'.nn . l",...d by P<'rn li .. ion

The pianissimo staccato of the mba can be co mpared to the dou blebass pizzicato. Sharp rhythmic to ngu ing may become hea vy and tend
to drag if co ntin ued long, especially in forte .
EX. 322.

Mahler-Sympbony no. 8

ItS .

, ,"

~.

no.

I'"

"

,","c.

StUO

~>

>

r. .

,
f

p. 34. ed . Universal

~>

>

Cop yrigh t 1937 by B. S,ho ll ' s

S~hn ~,

secco

Ma in , . l: oed b y

..'"

.>

p~rT"i,"~ion

Cop yri,ht 191 0 and 1911 by L:nivcrsal Edi tion A. G.; ffn e...cd 19J 7 and 1938 by Alma M&hler- Werfd .
lI'lf:d by !l<'rmiu i on.

ORCHESTRAL USES

The most ordinary functi on of th e tuba is to contribute massive

solidity to the bass of the orchestral tutti, doubling other bass instruments at th e unison or octave below. It often act s as bass of a quartet
w ith three tromb ones, and as bass of the entire br ass ensemble, doubling
the bass tromb one, or perhaps the fourth horn. O ccasion ally, the tuba
alone supplies the bass to a wind grouping, as in the following example.

The tuba participates in melodic basses of a br oad. expressive character (Ex. 324), and is an indispensable adjun ct in pond erous, melodramatic mu sical situ ations like th at in Ex. 325.
EX .

J24 . Prolw fietf-SY1l1pbony no. 5

A ndmrc:
TV.A

. _

~ E $ ::r
. / rJptw .

e:.Pyr ilh t 1 ~ b y Le<:dlo ~IU 1i' Cor po .ation, :-; ~ ... York . t".-ed by Permi.~;on.

p. J 2 , cd. Leeds

292

THE TU B A

I N S TR U M E N T S

293

By W llrlft,y or G. RltOl d i & Co .. cOPFigh t O...nell

\ Vhen the tuba is used as a solo inst rument, the particular tuba
wanted- should be spec ified . In R avel's score of th e Pictures at an Exhibition, the tuba solo is pr eferably played on th e euphonium, the small
Bb tuba. ye t the tuba part in the remainder of the score suggests that a
larger tuba should be used. T he solo (Ex. 326) is very difficult for the
F tuba, and players regularly usc two tubas in the performanc e of this
w ork.
EX. 326. A1oussorgsky-Ravel-Tableaux d'un e Exposition

P' 45. ed. Bocsey & Hawkes

Fig. 92. (lef t) Orchestral Tuba in F; (right ) \ Vagner Tuba in F

T HE WAG:SER TUBAS

~A

I
Perm i~~i "n

gr a n ted liy D u ra n d tl Clt _. Pari s. co p yr igh t ow lle....; l::lkan -Vo gd. P h ila d elp h ia , P il_. a,o:tnlS

One may conclude that the F tuba is probably the best all-around
or chestral tuba. The smaller tuba should be regarded as an accessory
instrument, to be specified in the score. The Eb five spaces below the
staff ( I4-foot Eb) is a safe botto m limit for all bass tu bas. T heir upper
limits vary, as has been seen, being in gene ral the eighth harm onic of
th e ind ividual tu be length.

\ Vagn er planned to organize the brass section into four complete

families, eac h having its distinctive tone color. The itorn gr oup was
completed by raising the number to eight, th e trumpets by the addition
of the bass trumpet, the tr omb ones by the addition of the contrabass
trombone; and finally an ind ependent family of tubas was conceived
as consisting of two tenor and two bass tubas of a special typc, added
to the contrabass tuba pit ched in to-foot C.
Th e ten or and bass tubas designed by Wagner, sometimes referred
to as the Bavreuth tubas also called, in German, TValdhormuben, and
in Italian, corno tub e, arc rather more like horns than tu bas. They are
pit ch ed in c- foot BDand I a-foot F, hence t heir tube lengt hs are identical wit h horns in Bb alto and F, and with the euphonium and F tu ba.
The bore is wider than that of the horn, but not as wide as that of th e

294

rx

5 T R U .\ 1E N T 5

tuba . They arc equipped wirh horn mout hpieces. and the int ention was
th at t hey should be played as alte rnate instru ments by the fifth, sixth,
seventh. and eighth hornisrs.
T he \Vagn er tu ba is made in ellipt ical form. the bell point ing up and
to on e side (Fi g. 9 2). Four valves arc provided and arc sit uate d so th at
th ey may be opera ted with the lef t hand. as on the ho rn. The fourth
\ "3) \,(' is need ed to co rr ect pitch in the lower valve positions. a fu nction
accomplished on the horn by the right hand in the hell. The ranges are
similar to those of horn s of th e same pitches.
T he tone of th ese instr ument s is strange and individual. imp ossible
to descr ibe. and not to be forgotten, once heard . It is a broad er. less
con centrated [One than the horn tone, and less suscept ible to modification. Few composers after \ \ .agn cr han wr itten for the W agner tubas,
and few o rchestras possess th e instr uments. T he outstanding examples
of their use besides the Ring of the .\'ibellmgs are Strauss' Elektra, and
the Seventh and X inrb Symphonies of Bruckner.

S OT.' TIOS

W agner's first notation for the se tubas was the logical one of writing
exactly as for horns in Bb alto and F, sounding a majo r second below
for the tenor and a perfect fifth below fo r the bass. The bass clef
was used as in the "old not ation" for horns. Later he changed his notation to Eb for the tenor tubas (sounding a majo r sixth below), and fi b
basso fo r the bass tubas (sound ing a major ninth below) . The instrumerits were the same, however.
In Bruckner's Seventh Symphony and in St rauss' Elelara, the tenor
tu bas arc written in Bb, sound ing a majo r ninth below, th e bass tu bas
in F, sounding an octave plus a perf ect fifth below (Ex . 327) .
In his Ninth Sy mphony, Bru ckner wrote for the tenor tubas in Bb
sounding a major seco nd lower, and fo r th e bass tubas in the bass clef
through out, sound ing a perfect fo urt h above the written notes.
T he follow ing is a familiar examp le of the \ Vagner tubas. T he unison
doublings by violas, 'cellos, and double-basses have been omitted.

295

THE TUBA
EX.

P: 57, cd. Philh armoni a

P7 . Bruckner-Sy m pbollY 110. 7

- i
....,..

Sehr fciuIic h und Ian.....

TE:S oa

n:1l1L5 :1
~

.,

,/" , ",
I ~

I " .'

I"'

---p

.I

CTr J&.

..

~~

CT"&.

--

CTrJ&.

----

....

~,

....,..
I

d_

I'

__ ;~ ; 1:1 __ _~

Ir

Ii"". ~

__il

d'"

r...,..

T HE OPH ICLEIDE
In the middle of the nineteenth century th e bass ophiclcide was commonly used to play bass parts. It is called for in scores ~Y ,\ t en.del~ohn.'
Schumann, ~t ey erbeer, V erdi, and others, including \ \ .agne r III R,enZI.
These parts arc now played on the tuba, and the ophicleide has become
obsolete.
T he ophiclcide, in shape, resembles a met~1 bassoon, ~xccpt that it
is much more widclv conical, the bell measuring about 8 inches across.
The tube is pierced wit h large note holes, covered b~ padd ed ?is\".'S
operated by keys . Opening the holes shortens the rube as III wo~dwlllds.
Th e mouthpiece is slightly more cupped than the h?rn mouthpiece, and
from each of the fundamentals obtained by ope nmg holes a few harmonics C3n be produced. It is said that the ophic lcide, whe n well
played, soun ded not unlike th e eup~onium .
The bass ophiclcide is pit ched in either a-foot C or c-foot Bb, and
its ran ge is similar to that of th e bassoon.

PER C U S SIO:" I:"STR U ,II E:"TS

C HAPTER

S IXTEEN

.......
PERCUSS ION I:-:STRU .\IENTS

of percussion may be simply defined as t hose instruments in which sound is produced by striking one object with
another. T he result, as concerns the art of music , varies with the
different instruments. from a pure musical tone to what all will agree
is a mere noise. " 'e shall deal only wit h instruments that have had a
fair amo unt of use by serious composers of orchest ral music. Furthermore, w e shall inclu de in t he category of pe rc ussion some inst rument s
wh ose playi ng technique is not of a per cussive nature, for the reason
that in practice th ey are assign ed to percussionists to play . Fin ally . alth ou gh t he piano is clearl y a percu ssion instrument, the key board instruments, excep t th ose play ed w ith mallets, will not be considered as
within th e pe rcussion sec tion.
The co mmo nest classification of percussion instruments divides
th em int o instruments of definite pitch (kettledrums, glockenspiel.
erc.} and th ose of inde finite pitc h (bass drum. cymbals. crc.).
A more scienti fic classification distin gui shes those wit h a vibrating
membrane (membranophones), suc h as t he var io us dru ms. an d t hose
of metal. wood, or other substances ca pable of sounding w hen struck
(idiophon es), suc h as cymbals and t riangl e.
The stu de nt of or ch estration will find a more useful guide to orchestral practi ce in a th ird classificat ion based on the regul arity w ith w hich
the instru ments are employed in the orchestra. In this classification
th er e ar e four groups:
(d) The sta nda rd percussion section- the instruments mos t ofte n
seen in t he largest number of scores, and most likely to be heard in an

;o.;' ST Rl: '\ ' E:SlS

,%

291

average conce rt-s-ket tled rums, snare d rum, bass d rum. cymba ls. triangl e, tambourine. gloc kenspiel, wood block. tam-tam.
(b) Au xiliary perc ussion instruments-instruments on ly occasion ally employed. to supplement or substitute fo r t hose in the stand ard
grou p--casranets. xylopho ne. teno r drum, tsntbour de Provence, bells,
an tique cym bals. vibraphone.
(c) Sou nd effects-mostly imitations, realistic or suggestive. ~f
ext ra-musical sounds. As t here is no limit to this group. a complete hst
is impossible-sleigh bells. sandpaper blocks, wind machine, rattle.
.
w hip. cowbells. anvil. siren.
(d) E xotic instruments-for the most part. at present. Instruments
of Lati n-A merican origin-maracas. claves . gtiiro. bongos. timbales,
tom-to m. temple blocks.

KETTLEDRD.\IS
Fr .. timbales; It. timpani; Ge r., Panben
The kettledrums. universally known by thei r Italian name. the
tim pan i, arc nea rly always spoken of in t he plural, since never few er
than t wo arc called for. In t he classical period, th e regu lar practice was
to specify a pair of timpa ni tu ned to toni c and domina nt. l~()da~' three
and four d ru ms nrc often de man ded . wit h nume rous alte rations In tuning in the cou rse of a movement.
T he ket tledrum is of co ppe r and its hem ispherical shape resembles a
ke ttl e rest ing on a t ripod or stand. of which t he re ar e seve ral t y pes.
Stretched ac ross th e top is the c alfskin head. held in place by a meta l
hoop. an d adj ust able in tension by a set of tuning screws evenl y spac ed
ar ound th e circ um fer ence.
Tuning requires g reat skill and an unerring sense of pit ch . The timpani st is consta ntl y retuning his drums. while the orchestra may be
playing m usic co mp let ely dissonant with the new tuning: In r~cent
y ears t he introd ucti on of mechani cal ket tled ru ms, or ped al tim pam, ~as
mad e this problem some w hat less difficult. By thi s inve nt ion th e tension
of th e dru mhead can be regulated with a foot ped al. so th at t he pit ch
may be c hanged eve n w hile playi ng. In Fran ce and Italy. s~me ke.ttied ru ms are made to be t un ed by rotating them on a vert ical axis.
a system th at lack s some of the advant ages of th e pedal timpani.

298

I:\' STR

U ~ l E :\' T S

Most orchest ra timpanists usc at least t w o mec hanical kettled rums.

and some have all thei r d ru ms thus equipped.
These developments have rendered unnecessary the practice of indicatin g at the begin ning of t he sco re the numb er of timpan i need ed
and thei r initia l tuning. unless something o ut of th e ordinary is required .
such as five drums or more than on e player. Th e drumme r will. 011
looking over the pa rt . plan out which drums to usc. and the seq uence
of tunings. At the same time. the orchestrator needs to know on which
drum a ginn note is to be plaved. and what th e tuning problems are.
if the timpani :lTC to be used effectively.

PER C U SS I O :\, IN S T R U ~ \ E:\' T 5

299

cot to n thread, wood. co rk, sponge. T he heads are sma ll, medium, and
large, and th ey vary in hardn ess, the hardest being w ood , the softest,
sponge . "luch variety in ton e quality and vo lume can be obtai ned w ith
the diffe rent sticks. lia rd sticks not on ly are louder but give greater
cl arity and defin ition to sof t rhythmic figures. Soft sticks produce a
w ar mer and more resonant tone. T he playe r selects the sticks most
suitable for the stvle of the work an d fo r t he special musical needs of
each pass:lge. Composers occasionally specify soft sticks (Fr., baguettes
d' epol1ge; Ir, bsccbeue di spugm; Ger., Scb-:..:.:.wnm cbl.'igel), or h.JTJ
n iclss (Fr., baguettes en bois; It., bsccbene di /egno; Ge r., H olzscblsgel).

SiZES

DRL":\ l STROKES

Allowing for slight departures du e to persona l preferences. the fol lowing :JrC the head diameters and pit ch ranges of the usual orchestral
timpani:

Fig. 93

T he stick rebounds aft er each st roke. X ormallv the hands alternate

in striking. hut each rhythmic pattern. whether on one drum or more
than one, will have its own set of conditions affecting the order of
striking (Fig. 9-1- ) . T he drums are arranged with the lower-pitched
drums at the player's left. All notes sound at the written pitch.
Modcnro

Allegro

I r l r

There is a j r -inch drum. giving 8-foO[ C. Th e a j-inch drum (som etimes a a-inch ) ca n reach the upper B Stravinsky. in the Sscre du
Printentp s, has specified a tim p.mo piccolo, giving high ll:;, and R avel
stipulates in VE nfam et les Sortileges a petite tim bale en re, soun ding t he D above the sta ff; bur the se SITU II d rums, if available, certainly
lack t he characte ristic reson ance and sono rity of timpani.
O verlap ping of the ra nges affords a cho ice of t wo drums within the
octave F-F. It should be appreciated, however, tha t th e best tone will
be obta ined in th e middle of the ran ge of each drum, wh er e the head
is neither too loose no r too taut. For example, t he 10"" F and F~ will
be of m uch better quality on the j o-in ch drum th an on th e as-inch .

o.

STI CKS

T he timpanist sup plies himself wi th several kin ds of d rumsticks. The

han dl es are wooden, and the head s of various materia ls-felt, flannel,

I e I

1 ,

I r

e
!lE~"~$JFF3~~rtitzt8
Z== / I~
/

Allegrcno
I

m
1,1

If I . 1

Fig. 9+

The resonance of the timpan i is suc h t hat th e player has co nsta nt ly

(0 stop prolo nged vib ratio n by touching the head o f eac h drum w it h
th e fingerti ps. It is import ant t hat all not es to be staccato sho uld be
clearly marked as suc h. As a ll ad ded precaution, the Italian sccco ( dry)
mav be used with a single staccato note.
The kett ledrum roll is the drum's version of a sustained to ne. It is
made by t he rapid alternation of single strokes, and it is of powerful
effect in the orch estra . T he ro ll is written as a trill, and its exac t lengt h
must be carefully shown in the notat ion.

PER C U SSION INSTR UM ENTS

IN ST R U M E N T S

300

c,

t.~

>

>

EX.

)2 8. T chaikovsky-Symphony no. 4

_.

ra., ,

>

IN

In ( J ). each note is sharply accented , with a definite break in t he roll.

T he quarter note is of course a single stroke. In (b ) . the break in the
roll, betwee n the measures. is unaccented, and is like a cha nge from
do wn- to up-bow by the double-basses. In ( e), the roll is continuous,
terminating \,vithour accen t on the quarter note in the second measure.
All percussion instruments have t he fa culty of throwing inca relief
all dynamic changes. T hese should therefore be well calculated, and
indicated w it h all possible accuracy.

8~

.~ .

I~~

II

P: 64, ed. K almus

M od c nlfO _ai

-----=-~

301

.
0.-:

II

.- ,

l!ol F

"

..

~
_ '-

c...:... ..

_ ~

__

- - _.--- .-

PI'
ORCHESTR.~L

l:SES

The timpani ar c the only percussion inst ruments nearly always

present in a score. Their utility has been appreciated by <1 11 composers
in the history of or chestration. T heir most important functi on is th e
dynamic reinforcement of t he orchestral rurri, specifica lly of t he bass,
to which they add col or and buoyancy as well . Rhyt hmic outlines are
underscored by the addition of timpani.
So ft to nes arc effective in c ountless ways. In t he foll owi ng example
the ket tledrums alone furn ish the ostina ro bass.

...

:, ~ - :'-

II

". '

~ i ........,., f~
~
10::::::.,
~

Follow ing is a solo passage for fo ur drums, played by one play er.
EX. J29. Il olst- T he Planets
Allegro

P' 160, cd. Bcoscy & H awkes

6---.

~ ~

,,~ tr;i4B#J~;i(~~~
"
l: u d by ptrmi ... ioll of

J.

crete .

.IY

Cur ..... ~ ... .\ SOil', Ltd .

T w o types of gl issando on th e mechanical drums arc shown in Ex .

330. At ( a), (b), and (c) , sing le strokes are given, eac h followed hy a
pedal movement cha ngi ng t he pitch of th e d rum, as indic ated, wh ile it
is srill in vib ration fro m th e single stroke. At (d), a roll is starred on the
G~, co ntinuing wh ile the pitc h is c hange d to C~ by th e pedal action .

302

1:-: S T R U .\ 1 E:" T S

P ER C U S SION II' STR U ,\I E :-: T S

EX. 330. Bart(,k-Jlw ;c for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta

p. 68, cd . Un iversal

Other special effect s includ e using snare drum stic ks on the timpani.
striking ncar the edge of the head; and using tw o different sticks at
once.
;\ la ny scores have called for large numbers of kettledrums, needing
more than on e playe r. The Sc ene ;11 the Fields, in the Fantastic Symphony. by Berlioz. requires four players for four drums. The extreme
is doubtless reached in the score of the Berlioz Requiem, in which are
listed ten timp anists playing sixteen drums.
In th e following rhythmic passage, two players play five timpani, incl uding t he timpsno picc olo.

Ad.agio

~q .

b.

.:

c.

d , ""

.... .

."

I " ' r>l' r ; ~ hl 1'<3, by

l ' n;>'u ",,1 b J 'l ' un. Co V} rillhl a ~~j ~n<'d 19.1<} 10 11........,. &. 113.. 1.. . 1.1<.1

l><: , n ll ~ " "n .

\,'".,d L,

The following chroma tic passage is likewise for the pedal drum, but
it is not a glissando. l t calls for a clear-cur pedal change on each half
step progression .

ex . H 1. 1l' lndy-l olir d'F;te .1 IiI .U 0 1ltJg l1e

A.::z

"N' :)' ,

EX.

j", 1: 6

', I+i1t1iHf1:J41& :!jPj@

IP

."

l'

332. DelJussy-Suuges
.\toocrc

"M"

p.

PI CLOLO

.....,

. IP

I . 1.

l 'a .

r-cd. jobcr r

110. 4-

CopYIlgh t 1921 b y Editi on

;:.

>--;.

1<,,_

,
~

de }1 \l 5i<i" ~. Used by prmi"!;on.

Ident ific ation of the var ious kinds of snare drum indicated in sco res
is often problematical. The na mes have different meanings in different
countries, so th at t ranslation s in printed scores arc someti mes misleading, and thi s is further complicate d by di vergent usage by both CO Illposer s and per form ers.
The term mare drum refers to the cha rac te ristic ap pa ra tus of gu t
st rings , the snare s, stretched across t he under side of the lower drumhead and vibrating agains t it. Side drum is another ge nc ric term, derived
fr om t he pract ice of attaching the drum to a belt, an d to the right side
of t he player, for playing while marching. Dru m, in French, is caisse or
tambour; in Italian, CaH J or t-mtburo; in German, T ronnnel.

p. 1+6, cd. Philha nu onia

:> :>

t&~ ii !e
sr >~

r-t~

TI IE S:"ARE DR U.\I

Pcsanre
(~dlu b~((h(N(

. ,

~Il,: n ,s.

333. ~' l a h l c r- SY 11lpbo l1Y

For more forcef ul accents, two d rums Illay be tuned to the same note
and st ruck simultaneously, or both sticks may be used simultancnuslv
lin rhc same d rum. Th e latter is meant in Ex. 333 .
E X.

~}

TI M !>

2 ::-I=
,~=~
" ~:E
t I~
pp~
-==:

I ' h i l~ dd l, h ; ~.

f ~ ~-

"~ rn , i ,~ ;"n I" , "' I,,;n l ~r .a n lr<.l b~' E<lil;o ns j c~n j"I"' rt, [' M ;s, rr~ n (~ . r np )",illhl o ... n~ .. ; E1l.a n \,,~ ...

(:0. Inc..

p. Il;, ed . Ru sse

,,~

Sometimes the kett led rums arc muted IJ \, a doth or handk er chief
placed on the head opposite the striking point ( I. coperti, covered }.
A t remolo may be performed on t w o drums.
E X.

3H. Srravinskv-c-Le S,1Cre dn I'rinternps

ICTtt

30l

304

INSTRUMENTS

The French caisse claire is the smallest snare drum. being made to
sound as light and clear as possible. Stravinsky spe cifies large and small
sizes of thi s drum in L'Histoirc du Sotdar. The name m are dru m usually
means a drum slightly larger than t he ordinary caissc claire, and it corresponds to the Ital ian tantburo piccolo (Gcr.. Heine Trommct v. In
French scores, tam bour and tambour nulitaire ( Italian. tantlntro militare) are used for snare drum, w her eas in En glish. military drum (also
parade drum, field drum) usually means a drum larger than t he common snare drum.
Th e distin ctly larger and deeper side drum is call ed the tenor drum,
or long dr um (Fr., caisse routome, It.. casse rullante, Ger., Rubrtr ommel). It is the only side d rum wirhour snares, and so cannot properly
be call ed a snare drum.
T he tambour de flro"o'ence is a specia l reg ional dru m, suggestive of
revolutionary tim es, and best remem bered for its ostinaro pulsation in
the Farand ole of Bizet 's L'Arlesienne, It is th e lon gest of the side drums,
and it is also some times ca lled lon g drum, or tab or . Its effect is usually
simulated by some other instrument or imitation.
In summary, it can he said that the standard small drum is th e snare
drum, '4 or '5 inch es in diamete r an d about 6 in ch es de ep , and that
th e principal auxiliary is th e tenor drum (r nisse roulante'), a drum of
varying size, but about tv/icc as big as the snare drum, longer in proportion to its diam eter, and without snares. If other types are used, it
is well to explain them clearl y in a note in the score.
The upper of the two parchme nt heads of the snare drum is call ed
the batter head, the lower is th e snare head . Th ey arc held in place by
hoops, and th eir tension is regulated by metal scre w rod s. Although th e
snare drum docs not gi\'e a tone of definite pit ch , it is an inst rument of
fairly high indefinite pitch, due to the action of the snares , whic h seem
to double the frequency of the vibrations. By means of a leve r th e snares
can be loosened , wh ereupon the pitch of the drum drops ro ug hly .1Il
octave , and t he tone becomes some thingc like a torn-rum, or Indian
drum. This effect is called for by' marking the part "'..~.:if/)oi/t snares (h.,
scordato or senza cordc y, The second movement of Bartok's Concerto
for Orchestra begin s and ends with a phrase for snare dru m alone, t he
snares loosened.

PERCUSS ION I N S T R U ,\ I E :-I T S

EX.

335. Bartok-Concerto for Orchestra

A1Ic~o

lOS

p. 29, cd. Boosey & Hawkes

scheeando

'WlIbvut """(1

II~d ; );Id 1 ffl lP ; B il m~

~UM

."

~ll'J ./)1 J J I J
.P

dim.

Copyrig ht

19~6

by ll u . kn &; Son (London) Lt d. l: ..,d b y pcrmi... ion .

Normally the drum is played with snares, maintaining its characteristic rattling sound and bright, dry tone .
The cylindrical shell of the snare drum, formerly of wood, is now
made of brass. Other side drums are of wood, as a rule. The two drumsticks are of ha rd wo od, usually hickory, with oval- shaped tips. Sticks
with felt tips arc sometimes used on the tenor drum, and regularly on
the tamb our de Prov ence,

DRUM STROKES

Music for snare drum, and for other percussion instruments of indefinite pitch, is written preferably on a single line, without clef, the
stems pointing either up or do w n. The regubr five-line staff is also
used, since the manuscript paper on which composers work is alr eady
printed that way.
Drum strokes are combinations of single and double strokes. In the
double stroke, the stick rebounds and repeats the note . The most imporrant drum st rokes are the roll , th e flam, and th e drag.
The roll is made up of rapidly alternating double strokes.

..
2

rrllrr lIttl l t t l l r

Fig . 96

In Fig. 96 are shown two ways of writing the roll. At (a), it is written as a tremolo (in drum notation the three crossbars mean a roll , not
necessarily thirty-second notes) . The notation (b) as a trill, has the ad vantage of showing the exact duration of the roll more vividly. In (c)

IN STR U ,II E NT S

PE RCUSS I O N I N STR U ,\I E:-.'T S

the met hod of playing the roll is shown, righ t and left sticks alte rnat ing ,
with double strokes. T he roll could just as well begin with the lef t
stick.
R olls are kno wn by th e number of strokes ma de, counting the rerminating single stroke. The roll in Fig. 96 is a seve nteen-stroke roll. Short
ro lls arc shown in Fig . 97 at ( a) , th e three-stroke roll . and (b), th e
five-stroke roll.

posers in the matter of pr oper notation of drum music. It is most import ant that the composer's intentions be made as clear as possible to
th e performer. Rh yt hmic differences arc especially pronounced where
percussion instruments arc conc erne d.

306

IJ.

written

nM,"'~

r r

' Iffi
i I I II Iffi' \ IWr ~i i Ifl i I I
i 11 11 I Il.'~
I I~T "I

..
ii

b.

c.

d.

It ) I W
IItlt
flji
li t
It

."
~1usic

Cor pora ti on .

S~W

"' 011<. t: sc.d by pe rmission,

lit

The {l1.fl1l is the common stroke fo r a single accented note. " 't itreo
as a note preceded by a single grace note (F ig. gSa), it is played with
t he hand that is to strike t he principa l note held high er than the other.
Although both st ick s hit practically at once, t he principal note receives
the accent. T his is called a closed flam. \\'hen the gra ce note falls on
the beat; it is an open flam. The open flam is not often used.

I~

Fig. 98

The drag (or ruff) gives a heavier effect than th e flam. It may han
two grace notes before the beat, play ed with a double stroke (c) , or
more; as in (d ); and using single strokes.
T he paradiddle is not a kind of stroke, but an arrangemen t of single
strokes to cause accents to fall alt ernately to right and left sticks (Fig.
99)
14

FA
'"P

Fig. 97

".

r4

Cop)'righl 1916 by Leed s

II

'4

P: 6 2, cd. Leeds

Allegro ruarcaro
M'UT"n

II. pbyed

. ~

EX. 336. Proko fi c ff--SY111pbol1Y no . )

307

rnJ [J"'JJ I Q'TI nnf=t l r t l t l l tltrlrl!

Fig. 99

By means of the flam, drag, and single stroke, var ious rhythmic
nuances are conveyed. Drummers arc in the habit of using th ese strokes
even when they are not written, because of the negligence of com-

T he rim shot, sounding like the repon of a pisto l, is made L.\Tplacing

the left stick with its tip on the head of the drum, the middle of the
stick resting on th e rim, and striking it sharply with the right stick.
The direction to play on the rim pr odu ces an effect on the wooden
dr um, but the rim of the metal snare drum has little sonority.
Th e snare dru m may be muffled by covering th e Latt er head with a
cloth ( Ir., coperto). Anot her spec ial effect is obtained by using wire
bru shes in place of drumsticks, making a rustling or shuffling sound.
Th e sna re drum gives sharp ness and clearness of outline to rhy thm ic
figu res and acce nts in the orchestral tutti. T he ro ll is a valuable support to a crescendo, although its effect becomes du lled quire soon if
pr olonged. It is a commo n mistake to regard drums as suitable only
for loud passages. The snare dr um is outstandingly adapted for the
con cise execu tion of rhy thmic pattern s in soft dy nami c nu ances.
EX. 337. Ravel-Rapsodie Espagn ole
A5sa.

TA MllOt:R

.nime

P: 47. ed. Durand

~'~"n~1"fI'r"f.,...;~+-~~~::rt'rb'1"'~~
pp

P~rmlss ion

gr anted b )" D u rand

~t

Cle. Par is, copyrigh t o ,,"ners; Elk a n .Yo gd ,

Philad~lph ia,

Pa., a gent s

The drum strokes used on the snare dr um are employe d on all ot her
side drums, as well as on other per cussion instruments played with
snare drum sticks.

308

INSTR UMENTS

THE BASS DRUM

Fr., grosse caissc; lr., cassa, gran cassa; Ger., grosse T rammel
Th e ba ss drum is made in sizes va ryi ng. in diameter of th e head. from
about 24 inc hes to 36 inches, and even 40 inches for big band drums. In
the symphony orchestra th e usu al bass drum has a diameter of 30 inch es,
th e she ll being 16 inch es wid e. more o r less. It has no snares. and th e
t w o parch ment heads arc caref ully " runed"-t hat is, ad juste d for t heir
best reso nance, by sc rew handles space d around th e rim. Th e d rum
is supported o n a specia l stand, or it may be eq uipped with sp urs to p revcn r roll ing. since it is in an u p rig h t pos ition. t he hea ds in a ve rt ical
plane . .~1 o s t drummers phy w ith the rig ht hand , although th e bass d ru m
may be str uck on eith er head .
The carry ing pow er of the bass d rum is gr eat er t han that o f any other
orchestral inst rument. It is o ft en remark ed tha t its so ft ton es are felt
rather than heard, like some of th e de epest orga n pipes. \ \ "hile it is an
instrument of indefinite pitch, it f requently g ives th e illusion of so unding the fundamental note of har monic groupings pl ay ed by high er instruments.
The bass drumstick (Fr., maillocbe; Ir.. ntm aa; Ger., K loppel) has
a wooden handle, with a fairl y so ft , larg e knob. mostly of felt. Th e
head is struck an upward or down ward glancing blow, and th e d ru m's
resonance is such that its vibration ma y need t o be sto pp ed by dam ping
with the left hand. Notes of different len gths may th er efore be written .
F or a sho rt, secco note, the damping is effected b y both the left han d
and the stick. which is kept against the head on striking.
Because of a slight lag in the bass d ru m 's responst', t he play er has
to anticipate the conductor's beat in order to so und in time. This slowne ss in speaking is also detrim ental to quickly repeated notes, an d
rhyth mic figures of any co mplexity are distinctly unsuitable for t he
bass drum. The roll, written either as a trill or as a t remolo, is performed b y holding th e stick in the middle and st riking altern atel y wi th
butt and knob. or with a double-headed stick, or wi th two st icks , striking the two drumhead s alt ernately. The roll is also pla yed on the bass
d rum with two timpani st icks, the effect being like a roll err a ke ttledrum of extraordinary depth in pitch.

PER CU S SIO;-.l I;-.lSTRU ,\IE;-.IT S

309

The bass drum may be w rit ten on a sta ff. w ith bass clef , or on a single
line, lik e th e snare drum .
Spec ial effects arc obtain ed by using snare d r um Slicks. v, ire brushes.
or bt:atin g th e drum w ith a bundle of birch rods ( C er., Uut h.: ). .\ (ufftin g is accomplished by slackeni ng th e t ension on the heads. :\ k ind o f
dam per at tachme n t. regulat ed by a thumbscre w. has been invented for
the bass dru m .
T he uses o f th e bass drum arc dynamic, rhy t hmic, an d colorist ic. Irs
effe ctiveness is in versely proportionarc to the fr equen cy of its appearance in t he score. Bass d ru m parts co ntain fcv.. notes.

T il E Cn ID,\LS
Fr ., cyrnbatcs; Ic.. pi/Wi, cineiti; Gcr., Bccleen
C y mhals, usu ally Turkish by tra dition. arc made of a brass alloy, in
mat c hed pa irs, in various sizes, and in grades of thickness from papcrthin to heavy. The cymba l player of a symphony orchestra genera lly
uses two pairs. one 15 or 16 inch es in di ameter. the ot her r8 inches.
The cym bals arc not entirel y flat, but slightly convex. so that jus t th e
o ut er edges t ouch. T he ce n t ral po rti o n o f th e disc is raised in a dome
shape, and at the very center a hol e is drilled to allow for th e att achment of a leather st rap by which the cymbal is held.
The tone of the cymbals is ringing and brilli antly metalli c. Small
and thin Chinese cymba ls used in d ance ba nds ( 13 and '4 inches) give
a sou nd desc ribed by t he ir t rade nam es s-cisb cy mbal an d sizz le cy mbst,
b ut th ese are not available in the sy mphony orc hestra cxcept by special
sp ecificat ion .
The normal single note stroke is the two-plate stroke, t he dashing of
th e t w o cymbals together w ith a swinging, brushing mo vement, not
a di rect face- to-face blo c... A lou d two -pl ate stro ke will cause the
cy mbals to sou nd fo r an astonishing It:ngth of t im e if they ar c held in
the air . This effect is indica ted by a tic from the note with no not e fo llow ing , or by t he words let ring (Fr..laisser vibrcr, It., lasciare vibmre;
G er .. klingen lassen). Sometimes a dotted line is used to show the duratio n of sound wanted. Tn pianissimo the two cymbals arc barely touche d
or brushed to g ether. or t he so und may be created by merely pu lling
t hem apa rt.

310

JNSTRU~ IENTS

The staccato two-plate stroke is made by striking the cymbals

smartly together and immediately damping by touching them to the
chest. Repeated clashing makes the two-plate roll, indicated as a trill
or tremolo, and marked 2 cym., to distinguish this rather crude effect
from the roll on a single cymbal.
The single cymbal, suspended on a specially constructed b racket,
gives a variety of tone colors and rhythmic effects. It may be struck
with a snare drum stick, a timpan i stick (hard or soft), with a meta l
triangle beater, or even with the fingers. A special effect is the dance
band choke, in which the left hand grasps the cymbal, stopping its vibration with each stroke of the stick. \ Virc brushes and the blade of a
penknife have been used on the suspended cymbal.
" !hen two sticks arc employed with the suspended cymbal, it is usually for the roll. T his is best done with soft timpani sticks. T he sticks
play on opposite sides of the circumference of the cy mba l, to keep it
in balance. H aving a dynamic range from the softest whisper to a trip le
forte of incand escent power, the cymbal roll is a brilliant means of
adding excitement to the orchestral crescendo. N eedless to say, it is
easily overused.
The cymba l part may be written on a single line or on a staff wit h
bass clef.

THE

TA~l -TAM

This instrument, called by the same name in French, Italian, and

German. is also called t he gong. T he gong is of Far Eastern origin, and
t hose of Chinese make are preferred to T ur kish ones. It is a bronze disc,
larger th an a cymbal, with the rim turned down all arou nd, pr eventing t he outer edge from vibrating. \ Vhen the instrument is struck
gently, with a stick having a soft, chamois-covered head, the vib rations
start in the center and seem to grow, giving off un predictable overtones. It is extremely violent when struck with force .
The large tam -tam is 28 inches in diamete r. Some orc hestras have
also a smaller one measuring about 20 inches, and com posers occasio nally stip ulate large and small, or low and high, tam-tams. Each is freely
suspended in a square or circu lar frame .
T he sound has been described as dramatic, evocative, quivering, and

PERCUSSION

INSTRU~lENTS

3II

om inous. Soft strokes arc the most effective. Spec ial tone colors are
obtained with various sticks, such as the triangle heater. The tam-tam
should be used very sparingly, and the intended duration of sound
should be carefully marked. The part is written on a single line or on
a staff .

THE T AMBOURINE
Fr., tambour de Basque; It., t,11I1buTO basco, tamburino;
Ger., Scbettentronnnvt, T amhurin

T he tambourine is a small dr um, commonly 10 inches in diamete r,

with a single calfskin head. In the na rrow wooden shell are openings. in
wh ich are set on wires pairs of thin brass discs, called jing les.
The playing technique of the tambourine includes the following
resources:
( 0) The left hand holds up the instrument by the rim; the head is
struck wit h th e right-hand knuckles, fist, fingertips, or the back of
the hand. or it may be struck on the playe r's knee . Single strokes and
rhy th ms are played in this way, the jingles sounding a kin d of echo to
each stroke.
(b) T he tambourine is shaken in the air, causing on ly the jingles to
sound. This is called t he jing le roll. It is notated as a tremolo , sometimes
as a trill.
(c) The tip of the right thumb, moistened, describes an arc on th e
head in such a way that it rebounds several rimes, causing both head and
jingles to sound. This is called the thu mb tril l. It is recommende d that
the tremolo notation be reserved for the jingle roll, and the tr ill mark
for t he thumb trill, adding the wo rds sbaken or -unth tbe thumb, to
avoid confusion. Some players pur rosin and other substances on the
head to help in achieving the thumb trill.
(d) T he tambourine is laid, head up, on th e player's lap or on a
chair, and figures arc played near the rim with the fingers or with drumsticks.
The first three manners are combined in all kinds of rhythmic patterns, (a) and (b) being most used. T he part is written on a single line
or on a staff with treble clef.

INSTR U .~IENTS

PER CUSSION INSTRU ,\IENTS

The tambourine is w ell est ablished as a symphonic percussion instru ment, and its use is by no means limit ed to musica l ideas with Spanish
or Italian flavor . Its color is bright , lively , and festive. th e jingl es conrr iburing a spa rkle to th e pe rcuss ion ensemble. Also, it is an instrument
w ort hy of stu dy for the m:m)' delicate effects it can provide. The cambourine without jingles is ra rely used.

empl oyed for purely rh ythmic purposes in absolute musi c. The part is
on a sing le line or a sta ff.

l12

III

THE TRIA:\'GLE
Fr .. trim gle; lr., trisngolo; Ger., T riangel

THE WOOD BLOCK

The w ood block, also calle d C hinese block , is of Chi nese origin and
has been used orchestrally chie fly by American composers in t he
t wentieth century. It is a rectangu lar blo ck of resonant w ood . wit h a
reson ating cavity made by cutting a slot through the block. Three sizes
are usu ally made. 6 % inches, 7 y:? inches, and 8 inch es in the longes t
dimension. A hook is provided for attach ing the block to some co nvenie nt object.
Sna re drum sticks or xy lophone mallets are used to give single taps ,
or to play rhy th ms on t he surface of the block , ove r the slot. The tone
of th e wood block is high in pitch. hard. and ~ollow . Its indefi nite pitch
varies w ith the size of the block. The pan is on a single line or staff.

THE CASTANETS
Fr.. castagnettes; It., castagnett e; Ger., Kastagnetten
The true Spanish casta nets ( castaliu e/.H) arc holl owed-out shells
of hard wood, as ebony or rosewood. Two pairs arc used in playing,
one smaller t han th e ot he r, a pair in each hand . A st ri ng, passing
th rou gh holes in t he castanets, is w ound aro und t humb and finger in
suc h a w ay t hat th e two shells can he clicke d togeth er. Great skill and
art arc exhibited by native play ers and dancers, involving t he exploitati on of tone co lor as w ell as rh ythm ic virtuosity .
T he orchestra l castanets cannot be said to accomplish more t han a
suggestion of the e ffect of the native instrument s. A pair of castanets
is hinged on th e end of a handle, by means of whi ch they arc shaken
like a rattle. As is to be expected, castanets arc used most of ten to play
Spa nish dance rh ythms, bur th eir click ing sound has occasionally been

T he triangle is a bar of round steel be nt inro the shape of an eq uilateral triangle . .....ith one corner open. A numbe r of different sizes are
made, t he average orchest ral t riangle measu ring abou t 6 ~ inches on
th e side . T he left hand holds the triangle by a string passed through
one of t he closed corners, w hile the righ t hand strikes it with a short
metal rod. called t he triangle beater. Two beaters can be used if the
triangle is hung on a support. such as th e music stand . T o obtain soft
effects. a wooden stick may be used fo r a beate r.
Single strokes usually arc made on the base of t he t riangle. but some
di fferences in loud and soft nu ances are obtained by st riking ot her
poi nt s. The t riangle tri ll. writt en as a trill or tremolo. is performed by
rapid st rokes back and fo rt h with in th e uppe r ang le. Effects similar to
th e flam and th e drag may be used . as we ll as other rh yt hmic figures.
alth ough these will he more or less blurred by t he co ntin uous vibration
of the triangle.
The tone of t he t riangle is high . clear. and luminous. adding brilliance. sparkle. and gaiety to t he orchestral co lor. It is most pen et rating.
and ca n be heard in th e loudest t utt i. The t riang le is an inst rume nt of
indefin ite pit ch (a lthough some t riang les w rongly give a de finite not e ),
bur it will sound like up per pa rtials of wh ate ver fund amental harmony
it accom panies.
The triangle is of such outstanding effect that it must be used with
extrem e economy . The trill is especially liable to abu se, and in modern
times the triangl e trill possesses an unfortunate resemblan ce to ce rtain
elect ric bells, th e telephone bell in particu lar. The part is writt en on
a singl e line or staff.

I I' S T R U .\ 1E I' T S

314

P ER C U S SIO:-J II' STR U .\I ENTS

EX,

339- ~1a hl c r-SY JlJp h o l1 Y no. 4

315

p. 4 5, ed. Philharmo nia

THE GL OCKE:\SPIEL
Fr., jell de timbres, carillon; Ir., csntpsnctt i; Gcr., Gtocleenspiel

T he modern glockenspiel, commonly known as "the bells," consis ts

of thirty oblong steel slabs mo unted in a portable case. \ " hen the case
is unfolded flat on a tab le. t he arrangement of t he slabs presents the
appearance of a piano keyboard. Each piece of steel is tuned by size
so t hat a chromatic scale is available, sounding two oc taves above the
In its earlier fo rm. the glockenspiel was an inst ru ment playe d wit h
both hands on a key hoard (used by ,\f o Z;lrt in Tbe M agic Flute). T he
kevcd glockenspiel still exists, and must be used to play parts th at cannot he executed w it h mallets, T he mailer instrument is, however, much
superior in dynamic range and tone quality .

following writte n range:

4"- '

J'

Fig. wo

Some instruments arc made \\.. ith a few mo re semitones above or

below, bur it is adv isable to observe these limits. If the part is writ ten
on ly one octave below th e sounds, a note to that effect sho uld be ginn.
The sticks, called mallets, are ligh t, wit h small round heads. Th e
heads are of seve ral kinds, hard rubber, soft ru bbe r, yarn, w ood, and
even metal. Normally the glockenspiel is called upon to play only
sing le melo dic lines, using one stick in each hand, but it is poss ible for
each hand to hold rwo or three mallets to play chords.
The tones of the glockensp iel arc bri ght and silvery, like small bells.
It is ofte n difficult to say wit h certainty in w hich oc tav e its pitch is
loc ated, especially with t he high notes. Act ive figures are bl ur red by
overlapping of the sounds, but t his is a characteristic, not a defect.
Foll ow ing are two examples of part s for th e glockenspiel.
EX.

338. Debussy-La M er

p. 113, ed. D ur and

fE W ~E 'cr Em r7vrJa ~
pp

P~rmis.i on

l;ranl ed by

lJ u f ~ n d

el Ci e., P"ri,;, ro PFigh l " wners ;

El l a n ,V ,,~ el .

l'hi la d el p h ia, I'a .. a gen ts

THE VlBRAPHO:\E
A n American dev elopment of the glockenspiel, used mostl y in dance
ban ds. is the vib raphone, played w ith ma llets on ste el bars. but der iving
its indivi dual sound from resonating tu bes and a vibrating apparatus.
Und er eac h bar is a resonatin g tube. closed below like a stoppe d pipe
and tuned to t he note above. A disc is fitted to th e ope n top end of
each resonator. and these discs arc made to revol ve hy an elect ric
motor. T he vibrato ind uced by t he revol ving discs prolongs the sound
and , together w ith t he resonat ing tubes, creates a slowly pul sating tone,
which has been liken ed by its adm irers to t he sound of an impassioned
hu man voice. It is rat he r like a 'vox bununo stop on the organ, and it
may be because of its exaggera te d swee tness that so few co mposers
ha ve sought to introd uce it into t he sym phony or chestra.
The range of the large vibraphone is four octaves up wa rd s from
a-foot C, usually w ritte n at actual pitch. Th e instrument is equip ped
with a foot-operated damping devi ce, in action mu ch lik e t he pianoforte damp er pedal.

INS T R U .\ 1 EN T S

P ER C USSION INSTRUMENTS

BELLS

TH E ANT IQUE CYMBALS

Fr.. clocbes; It., campane; G er.. Glocleen

Fr., crotales, ey mbalcs antiques; It., crotali; Ge r., antiken Z imbefn

Repeated attempts to comply wit h com posers' specifications for th e

usc of real, deep-toned church -rower bells in th e or chestra have been
unsu ccessful ch iefly because of th e enormo us Si7_C requi red in a bell
to sou nd low tone s. It wo uld be out of the qu estion to 1110 v e into a
concert hall a bell big enough to sound low er th an middl e C. Bells
have what is called a hum tone, sounding an oc tave below the fund amental. or striking to ne, bur it is not relatively stro ng enough to pitch
the bell in th e lower oc tave. In most cases some kind of imit ation has
been devised, and wh ere actual bells are used th e notes are far hic hcr
"
in pitc h than th e composer 's directi on s would indicate.
In general use as a substitu te for real bells arc the tubula r bells, or
chimes. T hese are hollow rubes of steel . from I to 2 inches in diameter.
var yi ng in lengt h according to pitch. and hung upon a wood en fr ame.
A set of tubular bells usually has a chromatic range as follows:

T hese modern replicas of ancient G reek instruments are small discs

of brass, some not mo re t han a hand 's breadth in diameter, thicker tha n
or dinary cymbals. wi th a raised cent erpiece by which to hold them.
Th cr arc m~de in pairs, exac tly shaped fo r specified pitches. In play ing.
on e 15 held m each hand. th e rims are struck rogcrher gently. and the
pair are allowed to vibrate. It can be seen that t wo different notes in
q uick succession.wou ld require two players. each with a pair of cymbals. T he sound IS a very clear and delicate bell-like tone.

J 16

Fig.

101

A few sernirones above and below th is range can be provided by

having extra tubes made. The part is writ te n as in Fig. 10 1 . and sounds
at th e w ritten pitch .
The tube s are set in vibration by striking with a special hammer at
a point near the top.
The uses of the bells are for the most part dram atic and realistic.
Composers have always shown great interest in bell sounds, and the
student of or chestration would find it profi table to make a special study
of th e many ways these effects have been suggested with combinations
of orc hestral colors.

Fig.

JI 7

102

Figure 10 2 gives four exam ples of th e pitches w ritten for ant ique
cy mbals by four composers.
(a) Berlioz-Romeo et Juliett e, two pairs, sound ing as writt en.
( b) DeLJ ussy-L'A pres-midi d'un Fsune, sound ing an octave above .
(c) R avcl-Dilplm is et Chloe, six pairs, sounding an octave abov e.
(d ) Stravinsky-c-Ler N oces, "a ctu al pitch" noted in the score.

T HE XYLOPH ONE
Fr., xylophone; It., xiloio no, siloiono; Ger., X ylophon

The xy lophone is like a glockenspiel except that the bars are made
of ro sewood instead of steel, and modern instru ments are furnished
with perpendicular resonator s un derneath the bars. T he bars may be
flat or ro unded. The ranges of small, medium , and large xy lopho nes
arc as foll ows:

Fig.

103

I :-i S T R U ,\ 1E :-i T S

ll8

P E R C U SS I ON I I' S T R U ~ I E :-iTS

T he sounds are an octave above the written notes. T he exact octave,

especially of tipper roncs, is hard to determine , and oc tave transpositions are freely used by players not possessing th e largest instrument.
The playing technique is similar to that of the glock enspiel. with
round-headed mallets made in varying degrees of hardness and resilience. Some players become specialists on the xy lophone, and as such
develop a dazzling virtuosity. The tone cannot be called expressive, but
rather it is dry and brittle, w it hout lasting resonance. Rapid scales,
arpeggios, and figuration come out clearly without blurring.
The xylophone can be used for short solo passages, and it has many
orchestral uses of a rhythmic, dynamic, an d co loristic nature. T w o
examples of xy lophone parts follow.
EX.

340. Debussy-Gigues

p . 29, ed. D urand

m. ~t':_
P er m l io n gr anted by D ur and et Cie., P u is. copyr iRht owners; Elk a n \'ogd, Ph ila d el p h il , Pl_. 19m ts.

EX .

HI. Copland-Appalachian Spring

"'=0
,

'

l l9

SOUND EFFECTS
Sleigh Bells (F L, grelots; lr., sonagli; G eL, Scbellrn) : real sleigh
bells, also known as jingles, shaken or jogged by hand (i\1ahler- Symphony no. 4 ) .
Rattle (Fr., crecelle; lr., raganella; Ger. Ratscbcv- ratchet, whirled
around by a handle, causing a wooden slat to flap against a wooden
cogwheel (Smuss-Till Eulenspiegcl) .
W ind Macbine (F r., eolipbone; lr., eotiiono; Ccr., Windmoscbine),
large cylinder, contrived to make a whirring sound when turned by a
crank. Tu rni ng faster makes a crescendo and a rise in pitch (Ravel-

Dapbnis et Chloe).
IVhip (Fr. , [ouet; Ir., frusta): imita tio n of the crack of a w hip, by
clapping smartly together tw o hinged flat pieces of wood, also called
slapstick (Milhaud-c-Scccnd Symphonic Suite).
Among ot he r sound effects found in scores arc: sandpaper blocks,
rubbed toge ther to make a shuffling sound; anvils, struck with a hamchains, shaken or dropped to the floor ; cowbells of various sizes;
mer '' .
sirens, automobile horns, and assorted isbistles; imitations of birdcalls,
lion's roar, thunder; t he ticking of clocks; and the breaking of glass.

P' 60, ed. Boosey & Hawkes

EXOTIC IN STR U;llE:-iT S

L ATI N - A M ERI CAN :

.6

stCCO

Copyr ight 1945 by Haw kes & Son (London) LI d l'sed by

permi~sion

T he marimba may be describ ed as a more mellow xylophone. Its

resonating tubes are pitched an octave lower than th ose of the xylophone, and t he larger instruments have a four-octave range, starting
with a -foot C. The tone of t he marimba is warm and expressive, suit able for solo melodies. It has been used but rarely in the symphony
orchestra, although solos with orchestral accompaniment have been
written for it (Pau l Creston, D arius i\ lilhaud ) .

Afaracas: a pair of medium-sized gourds, held one in each hand. T he

dried seeds inside rattle when th e gourds are shaken.
CI,1'Ves: a pair of short round sticks of hard wood, held so t hat the
hollow of one hand acts as a resonating cavity when the sticks are
st ruck toget her.
G iiiro: a large gourd, sounded by scraping a stick ove r a series of
no tches cut in th e upper surface (F r., rape guero).
Bongos: a pair of single-headed dru ms playe d by thumping wit h th e
fingers.
T imbales: a pair of sing le-hea de d dru ms larger than bongos, attach ed
to a special stan d and played with drumsticks, also called rom-to ms.

320

P ERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

IN STR U ,\ 1E NTS
EX .

342. Ravel-Dllphnir et Chloe

321

p. 307, ed. Durand

CHrXESE:

Anim'

Chinese T om-T01l1: a small drum with two pigskin heads tacked on a

lacquered shell, played with hard or soft drum sticks.
T emple Blocks: a set of five, tuned appro ximately to a pentatonic
scale, and mounted on a rail to be attached to the bass drum or a special
stand. The block s are wood, generally round in shape, with slots or
indentations, and usually lacqu ered a bright red. The mallets have flexible rattan handles and round heads of felt; or snare drum sticks may
be used. The sound is hollow , between that of a gourd and that of a
wood block.

GROSSE

CAISSE

CAI SS[

I NDIAN :

Q.A IRE

Indian Drum, or T0111-To111: similar to the Chinese tom-tom, but

with a single head fastened over a wooden bowl.

TilE P ERCU SSION

EX S E~IBLE

Percussion instruments make their effect not only as individuals but

also as a unit, in which the effect of the whole may be describ ed as the
total of the effects of the parts. For example, when several percussion
instruments participate in a tutti passage, the fundam ental parcern of
the rhythm is not played in unison by all, but each contributes a por tion according to its individual nature. It is to be not ed in the following
example that no two instruments are given the same rhythmic pattern , but that all combine to create the over-all rhythmic design.
This skillful treatment results in a maximum transparen cy and vitality,
with changing tone colors, pitch levels, and, even more important,
tone weight s, on each successive eighth-note beat.

Perm in ion granted by Durand et Cie., Paris, cop},tight ow ne....; Elkan -Voge l.

Ph ilad~lph i a,

Pa ,. agenla.

The followin g is an example of unusual and imaginative scoring for

percu ssion ensemble.

I:-: S T R U ,\ 1 E l':TS

322
EX .

343. Hindemith-Symphonic Metamorphosis

p. 37. ed. Associated Music Publishers

CHAPTER

T1MPOJI

THE HARP

dtm.

,"

CH IMES

TIlI-\SGL

TOM-TOM

Fr.. harpe; It., arpa; C er., Hart e

Iff ,..

dim.

, I .

"

Irt

SE\'E:"TEEN

I.l.I I,
P

WOOO-BLOClt
SMAll. CYMBAL
SMALL GONG

HE nineteenth -century ch rom:lt~c harp. having scp:trate strings

for each half ton e. and also th e diatonic sing le-action harp,
are now entirely superseded by the far mo re versat ile diato nic
doubl e-action harp. This harp has fortv-scvcn strings tuned to the diatonic scale of C b major, wi th the follo win g range:

I.l.I I

dIm.

P dlmPJI

a.. r2:
'C
C-IN '<e- Dol.

""

Fig. 104. Harp

I"

""

I~ _~

""

,
"
~,~

------./
1'1'

1'1"

,~

""
~ I -,",

Copy r igh t 1945 b y Associated lIl u s ic Publi . hcrs, Inc ., :-:ew Yo rk t:...,d by permission .

The strings are tun ed with a key, fitting pins situated on the righthand side of the neck of the harp. Tuning is often necessary in the
course of a piece, and it can even be accomplished while notes are being
played by th e left hand .
From middle C up, the strings arc now made of nylon. The others
are of gut, the eleven lowest being wound with wire. As a help to the
player in locating the right strings, the unwound C-strings are colored
red, the F-strings blue .
The harp has seven pedals for altering the pitch of the strings. The
traditional form of the harp and the arrangem ent of the pedals is show n
in the following figure .
12l

324

THE H A R P

INSTRUMENTS
(a)

,~,
,
C

(b)

325
(c)

Fig. 106. Pedal Acti on of the H arp

Fig.

105

PEDAL :-'f EC HAS I S\ {

The pedals project through openings provided with notches for

three pedal positions, and they are connected with th e mecha nism in

the neck of the harp by wires running up inside the pillar. The stri ngs
are atta ched below to the soundboard, and above to the pins on the
left-hand side of the neck. Each st ring passes over two discs having
pins that act to stop the stri ng as shown in Fig. 106.

In position (.1) the pedal is in the up per not ch, the pins on the discs
do not touch th e string, so the string vibrat es in its greatest lengththe "flat" position ( the strings being tuned to Cb major ).
In position (b ) the pedal is in the intermediate notch, and the upper
disc has turned so that the pins stop the string, raising its pitch a half
tone-the " natural position."
In position (c) the pedal is in the lower notch; the lower disc has
turned, stopping the string and raising the pitch a whole tone-the
"sharp" position.
Springs return the pedals to the upper position (flats) when they are
released by the feet from the two lower notches" Each pedal acts simultaneous ly on all the strings of the same lett er name. It is therefore not
possible to have C~ and Cq at the same time, except enharmcnically.
The lowest Cb str ing lacks t his mechanism. It may be tuned to another pitch before playing.
Pedal changes ate made swiftly and noiselessly. A pedal may be
moved during playin g, when its particular string is not in use. Exceptionally, a pedal on the right-hand side may be operated by the left foot,
and vice versa, and it is even possible to move two pedals at once wit h

l:--'STRUMENTS

326

327

THE H ARP

the same foot . A continuous chromaticism, necessitating an exaggerated

use of the pedals, is, however, unsuitable for the harp .

EX.

344. Debussy- Le Martyre de Saint Sebastien

P'

2 5,

ed. Durand

PEDAL NOTATiOS

The harpist is obliged to study a new piece and plan the pedaling .
markin g the pedal changes w here th ey are to be made. For t his reason,
it is difficult to read any hut simple harp parts at sight, un less they are
written by a harpi st and the pedaling is marked. It is not necessary fo r
a composer to indicate pedal changes but it is a wise practice, for by
this means th e practicability of chromatic movements for the harp is
better unde rstood.
At the beginning of a piece the sett ing of the pedals may be indicated
by writing all seven scale degrees with their accidenrals (Fig. 107a) ;
or by arranging these in a more quickly grasped sequence, rig ht -foot
pedals above, left below, in the order of their radiation from the center
(Fig. I07b ) ; or by a diagram showing graphically the pedal positions
(Fig. J07C). In the diagram, the marks above the hor izonta l line represent pedals in the flat position, th ose on th e line are in the natural position , and those below, in the sharp position .
b.

[~

F~GJ Ab

CbOQ

I I 1"

I
I

I
J

Fig. 107

The initial pedal setting having been given , each subsequent pedal
change is shown by announcing the new note in advance of the time
for playing it, e.g., F~, A q. Examples of this procedure can be seen in
the scores of French composers.
ENHARMONICS

Enharmonic equivalents, called by harpists homophones, are in constant usc in harp playing, w hether or not th ey appear in the notation.
For instance, an F~ migh t be played as G b in order to avoid an inconvenienr pedal change. Repeated notes are preferably played by alternating two str ings tuned alike.

Pel"ln i~s iun

gra n ted by D urand et Ci e" Paris. copyri ght o", ners ; Elkan \"ogel, Ph ilad elphia, Pa.. age nts.

The enharmonic unison is a means of obtaining a richer sonority,

especially useful for low -pitched tones, where the single string may
lack body and carrying power.
EX.

345. Casella-A N ott e A lta

P'

I,

ed. Ricordi

Lento molro, misrerioso

By

cOllrl ~Y

of C. R icordi & Co. copyrj ghl ow ners

Passages containing many shar ps arc often impro ved in tone quality
by playing th em enharmonically in flats. The strings are at thei r best
in the flat position, at their greatest length.
It is unnecessary to attempt to anti cipate in th e notation all of these
enharmonic practices. What is mor e important is to make as clear as
possible the harmonic and melodic meaning of chromatic tones. This
may invol ve writing double flats and doubl e sharps, notes th at exist on
the harp solely in enharmo nic for m (see Ex. 346, next page).
Enharmonic tuning is fr equ ently used in th e harp glissando.

EX.

TH E HARP

I N STR U .\l E NT S

328

346. Dukas-A riane et Barbe-BJeue

p. 44' . ed. Du rand

EX.

P: 77. cd. Durand

347. Debussy-Prim e111ps

Andan rino

Assa anime

Ptnn lu lnn Il"U U<! by D ur and et Cie. , Fa . is, oopyr ighl o.-ne.. ; E lkU\ \'o&<,1. Philadel phi a., Pa..,

REb, F M,

sa

gli1l.

a ~nt1

Prrm l!.-~ ion Ir~nlrd

THE GLISSASDQ

This characteristic featu re of harp technique is no less effective for

having been abused. The overworked up -beat harp glissando in the
orchestral tutti has become one of the worst platitudes of music, but
this fact should serve to direct attention to other more tasteful and
varied possibilities in th e use of glissando on the harp.
In perfonning the ordinary glissando, the hand sweeps across the
strings more or less rapidly. keeping to the middle of th e strings. th e
thu mb catching each string when descending. the thi rd finger when
ascending (the rhumb is numbered first finger as in piano playing).
As this causes all the strings to soun d, the setting of all seven pedals must
be acco unte d for in the notation of th e glissando.
In th e fo llowing examp le, th e preparation of three enharmo nic tones
is noted , since th ese runings arc necessary to bri ng all th e strings in
tune wit h the diminished seventh chord. T he repeated notes resulting
are not noticeable as such when the glissando is playe d. T he setting
for the second glissando lists only those strings that need to be changed ,
As long as the re is no ambiguity as to th e timing of the start and finish
of the scale or arpeggio, the note values chosen do not matter. T hirtysecond notes are used most often. accompanied by the indication glis-

sando.

329

by Vtlu .nd rl Ck. P Ari... cop yrigh l ownrrs; Ellr.an \" ogd . Phi la dr lph ia. 1'&., l ee n(&.

It is not necessary to write all the notes of a glissando . One octave is

sufficient to show the tuning (Ex. 348). or the tuning may be shown
by thc pedal setting only. with just the first and last notes of the glissando written (Ex. 349).
E.X,

H8. R ous.<;cl-Raccbus et Ariane, Second Suite

p. 97. cd . D urand

UtlR~b

Mi ~F& b

,.,

So,"

HP . II

I'rrmlion cr1 n1rd by DtIf&l\d n Cie ., P Ari"" cop yri gh l o,..nr <1o; Ellr.an,\" olel, P h iladelphl&, Fa., alent&.

IN ST R U M E N T S

JJO
EX.

p. 47. ed. Boosey

349. Ban6k- V iolin Concerto

Allegro non u oppo

c s 0 , E, FHa, A,

"' ::::J
Cop~'righl

THE H AR P

/ L , po E
o;
:;~
~*
B

G'tUiO'

F'

I' ~/

& H awk es

~~i ==E=

are fingered alike-ascen ding. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2

etc.
EX . 35 1. Berlioz- Fd1J/astic Sympbony

vuse

,-=/

AlItgro non u oppo

HI

I,

descending.

I 2

34

I 2

3 4.

P' 60, cd. Eulenlmrg

. ;

1946 by lI a.. k u &: Son (London) Lt d l'..,d b y pc ,mi",,;on

The har p glissand o is played with one or both hands, and may extend
ove r th e entire range of the harp. It is based on scales, chords, or any
arrangement of the seven tone s. Special effects arc pro duced by playing
ncar the sound board ( pres de fa table}, or bv. using
. th e hands flat, instead of using only one finger. Also th e hand our he reversed so that
the nails strike th e stri ngs.
Double not es and chords are playable in g lis.o.;ando.
EX . 350.

Dcbussy-La .\fer

Ill' , I

P: 39. cd . D urand

Rt.
DO .'of

p
P~rm l,~ion

gr anted b y Durand et Cl e..

Pari~,

copyr ight o>v nnl;

.Elk ln \"OI:~1. rhi l a <1~ lphia,

Pa., a gents.

FI~GER I~G

The strings arc plucked ncar their midd le point. with the finge rt ips
and the outer edge of the rhu mb. Th e Iifrh finger is not used. On the
harp there are no fingering pacrerns suc h as tho se occasioned by the
arrangement of black and white keys on the piano keyboard. All scales

Rept int <<1 "..illl t il.

tion , ~_w )' o . k

p ~ ' lll i ..i<>n

of the ..ole a&<n t.o for E u le n l.>ur g

:"Iini ~ l \lre

S.or..,: C. F . I'_teu Corpo ra -

T he spacing of rhe strings in comparison with th e natural spacing of

th e thumb and fingers is shown in these fingerings for intervals: 1-2,

THE HARP

INSTRUMENTS

332

seconds, thirds, and fourths; 1-3. fifths and sixths; 1-4. sevenths to
tenths.
Arpeggios may be played with one hand, but are more often performed by alternating the two hands.
EX. 352.

Ravel-Le Tombeau de Couperin

P'

EX.

353. Bartok-Violin Concerto

333

P: 55, cd. Booscy & Hawkes

'4. ed. Durand

Copyright 1946 by lb.wk eo & So n ( Lo n do n) Ltd l'std b y permis:;iun.

HAR:'\lO:SICS

Permis vion

,.

gr~ nt c<l

~#~.

-I

Ly DUl'an<.l et Cl e., P a r i. CUP)'rillh l own.,.; El ka n -\"ogel. P hil a d elph ia, Pa_. agent.

Although both hands can play through the whole range of the instrument, rhe left hand more easily reaches the lowest strings, since
the harp rests upon the right shoulder (and between the knees) of the
player.
CHORDS

Chords for the harp should han at the most four notes to each
hand, as the little finger is not used. The reach of a tenth from thumb
to fourth finger is like the reach of an octave in chords for the piano.
Harp chords arc normally arpeggiated slightly, from the bottom up.
If a more pronounced roll is wanted, the vertical wavy line is added.
When the notes are to be plucked simultaneously, a straight bracket
is placed before the chord, or the direction non arpeggiato is written.
M ore often the player is left to decide these matters, according to his
musical judgment. Arrows arc used if the chord is to be arpeggiated
downwards.

Harmonics arc typical harp sounds, and they are widely used. The
only one practical is the octave harmonic, produced by stopping the
node at one-half rhe suing length and plucking rhe upper half of the
string, all done with one hand. The node's location changes with the
pedal position, the halfway point being found lower down when the
string is sharp than when it is in the flat position.
The method of playing harmonics is different in the two hands, as
the hands are not in the same position relative to the strings. For the
right hand, the fingers are closed over the palm, the node is stopped
by the second joint of the second finger, and the thumb plucks the
string. The left hand is held open, the node stopped with the lower,
outer side of the palm, and the strings are plucked by the thumb or fingers. Two and even three harmonics, if not over a fifth apart, can be
played at once by the left hand, whereas the position of the right hand
permits the production of but one harmonic at a time.

EX.

TilE IlARP

I N S T R U .\ \ E N T S

JJ4

p.

354. Ravel- Valses N obles et Sentimentales

0

HP. I

!~

Asset len r
0

18, ed. Durand

EX.

335

355. Debussy- N llages

P: 14, cd. Johert

"'lo ~

PI'

PI'
00

~ ~~

>0 0

0 0--9 0 0

0 Q..o 0

(unison w ith f1ule)

HP . II

&

PI'

;-

;l?

Permission gra.nted by Dur and el Cie . Paris, topyright own ers; E lkan -\'ogel. P bib delphia, Pl.., agent!.

H armonics are best on the strings of the midd le part of the range.
Above A (treble clef, first leger line) the strings become too short ,
and in the lower register the wound strings (the bottom octave and a
fourth) do not produce harmonics of characteristic tone qua lity .
In the notation of harp harmonics, the written note shows the string
played. A small circle is added, as in harmonics of stringed instruments,
and the sound is an octave above. Some harpists prefer a notation at
actual pitch, but if this method is followed it should be so stated in the
score.
The sound of harp harmonics is soft and delicate, suggestive of distan ce. It is a coloristic resource, and one that is easily covered by other
sounds . Another color is made by the unison of the normal harp tone
with the harmonic played on the str ing an octave below. Harp harmonics combine well as decorative melodic doubling of other instruments,
such as muted violas, and especially the flute.

J~an

JOhNt, Paris, han ct , co p )r igh l owne rs; Elkan -"or;:d

soxs i:TOL"FF~:S

0
0

T'u m i, ,,jo n r"r r~p r illl ;:rantcd by Editions

Co ., Inc., j ' h ila<lclphiJ., I'a ., a ,>c,' ts.

It is in th e nature of t he harp tha t to nes should he allow ed to vibrate.

Dry, staccato effects arc rath er the exception in its idiom. In the midd le
and low registers th e vibrations will last for some time , alt hou gh in
diminu endo, and it may he necessary to stop the sound. This is done by
damping the strinbJS with the flat of the hands, usually indicated by the
French word hou ffe: (Ger., abddlllpfcn; Eng., damp) . Short staccato
chord s may be marked sccco, as added precaution.
The effect signified by th e French sons hOl/ffeS calls fo r a special
harp technique. by which each tone is damped by the finger that has
just played it, as that finger is placed in position for the next note . If
t he notes are not closely spaced the damping has to be done by the other
hand. T he sound is that of a dry staccato.
EX .

356. Stravinsk y-PersJpbouc

J - 50

HP . I

brn

fUCC.

."

tons houffif

'O' _ _ u
8b .zjf ~

P' 44, cd . Boosey & Hawl..cs

- , ,'O"

_+

'

..

m JTC

L,L !

..

!
,
,

..

Cop yr ir;:h l 19.'4 hy diti'm Rus,"" de "l u , i'l u e Rtvi;d "",,iull ropp igh \ \ ').'0 by Boo ," y & ILtw k,'s I"c .
U""d by permi,siotl.

I N STR U hI ENTS

336

PRES

DE

LA

EX.

T ABL E

T HE HA R P

337

358. Strauss-Also Spracb 'Zaratbustra

P: 38, ed. Aibl

Sehr langsam

Plucking the strings near the soundboard ( pres de fa table) gives a

metallic tone , somewhat like the sound of a guitar.

H" 4-J~ '~

lIP bisbigilnulo

EX.

357 . Britten- Four Sea Interludes from Peter G rimes

P' 74, ed. Boosey & H awkes
Presec cc.n Iuoeo . ;
/n"ltmmU

H'

~(

r/

lI'PP

===--

Copy rlght 19'15 by JlooM,y &; Ha ..ltu Ltd.

"

~ts

U~d

I...,

,.I

M ELODIC U SES

, ,

iii

-(

pp

, ,

R(printed ",ith th( !><,rmis..ion 01 th( copyrig!:t O"'n(f'll C. F . Peters Corporation. r\:(W York.

,l..,

,J

The harp's tone is resonant and strong, but it cannot be said to possess
powers of melodic sostenuto. Melodic passages should be moderately
active in texture, and at the same time they should not contain too many
notes. The following phrase suits the harp admirab ly.

de III tllble

by perm ission.

EX.

P' 35, ed. Boosey & H awkes

359. Stravinsky-Orpheus

--

Ji o~
TR ILLS AND TREMOLOS

Repeated plucking of one string is necessarily limited in rapidity,

and harp tri lls and tr emolos are in conseq uence compa ratively' slow.
The trill can be performed by one hand (Fig. 108a) , but more rhythmically by alternating hands (b). A further aid is available in the enharmonic tuning of one of the notes (c).

Fig.

G'

10 8

The harp tremolo most often employed in orchestral scores is that

called bisbigliando (whispering) . The fingers of bot h hands keep the
strings in a kind of delicate rustling morion, without any particular
sequence of plucking. As the term implies, the effect is appropriate in
soft nuances. Three or fou r notes wit hin the reach of one hand are
w ritte n as a tremolo.

G'

Copy righ t 1948 b y Boo sey & H awk.es. Csed by penni<.sion

The upper octave and a half, because of the short strings, is less
capab le of melodic expression. The lower midd le register is excellent .
In the following example, the harp plays the chorale melody in canon
a fift h above the muted 'cellos. There is a very soft background of
muted horns and muted violins. The passage is remarkable for the impressive effect achieved with a few notes for the harp.

nR

I:" STR V .\l E:"T S

EX. 360 . Berg- V iolin Concerto

T HE H A R P
P: 83. ed. U nive rsal

Adagio

P dU~fO
Copyr iltht 19.\6 b~ Cn;,~ r~al Ed il lon .... G _ l ... d b y pnm iu. io n

Accom pan iment figures arc an eve ry day fu nct ion of the harp. T hey
ar c usually ha rmonic. bre aking up cho rds int o an end less variety of
:trpcggios and deco rative rigurat ion for one or two harps.
Special e ffect s. suc h as t he use of a plect ru m, or the pedal portamemo made by moving the peda l af ter the stri ng is plucked. have not
been exploite d by o rchest ral com posers . A m ute d effe ct, not unlike the
sou nd of a harpsicho rd. has been obta ine d by wCJ\' ing a st rip of paper
bet w een th e strings. Com poser s ar e urge d to inve stigate the novel
coloristic and exp ressive resourc es developed by Carlos Salzedo. T hese
have not as y et become a part of sta ndar d harp tec hniqu e, so that no
more than ment ion can be made here of t he falling hail and thunde r
effects. the xyloflu x, xvl harm onic and xvlophonic so unds. so unds of
the ram-tam and the snare drum without snares, fluidic so unds, esoteric
sounds, ere .
.\l osr sym pho ny orchestras possess tw o harps, and two arc called for
in sco res more often t han one. The second harp provid es more richness and volume, and also it greatly facilitates rhe crnplovrncnr of the
harp in modern c hromatic harmony, where the peda l changes pose
co ntinual problems in wriring for a sing-Ic harp. Th e sco re of L'O iseau
de Feu requ ires t hree harp s, G urrelieder four, and in Die Goiterddnnnerung the st ipu lated number of harps is six.

THE CL\ lBAL O,\1

T he cimbnlom (Ir. ci111/7.110 ongarese), the mod ern form of the ancienr dulcimer. is fo und chi efly in H ungarian gypsy orch estras, where
it is played in im pro visato ry sty le with great virtuosity. It is ge nerally
of trapezoidal shape, laid flat, and the metal strings are struck in various

339

w ays with mallets. which may be of w oo d or leath er . Some instrument s

arc equipped with a damper pedal device.
O urside its native environment, the cimbalorn is a rare instrumen t,
mention ed here because of a few instan ces of its usc by important composcr s. who have sought to introduce its highly individua l timbre and
idiom into orchestral mu sic.
T he following arc some modern works employ ing the cimbalom:
Bart ok-First R bapsody for Vi olin and Orchestra
Kodaly-H.iry l i nos Suite
StrJvinskv-Reu.zrd
Srravinskj--c-Rag- T im e

KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS

CHAPTER

EIGHTEEN

KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS

THE PIANO

Fr., piano; Ir., pianoforte; Ger., KJavier

assumed that the reader is familiar with the pianoforte and its
technique. \Ve are concerned here not so much with the capacities
of the piano as a solo instrument, as with its use as an orchestral instrument, occupying a status comparable, for instance, to that of the
harp or the flute.
There are five aspects to be distinguished in the association of the
piano with the orchestra:
<a) The early practice of employing a pianisr to play along with
the orchestra to give support in weak places, and to help the group
keep time and rhythm. This is substantially the same role that ,vas
played throughout the eighteenth century by the "maestro at the
harpsichord," who executed the realization of the figured bass on his
instrument and kept the ensemble together, but no special part was
written for the player, who read from the score. As the art of conducting developed, this usage died out in the early nineteenth century.
(b) The piano concerto, in which the orchestra plays the accompaniment, and is subordinate throughout to the solo piano part. Characteristic examples are the piano concertos of Mozart and Beethoven. Today
a work of this type is the occasion for engaging an outstanding virtuoso
pianist, not a member of the orchestra, to play the solo part. The piano
is placed at the front of the stage.
(c) The composition for "Piano and Orchestra," in which the solo
piano retains its position of prominence while at the same time the

T IS

3'10

HI

orchestra is raised to a position of equality. This is a flexible category,

some features of which can be noted in the solo concertos of the preceding paragraph (the slow movement of Beethoven's Fourth Concerto).
The solo part still is played by a visiting artist, but part of the time the
piano is used as an orchestral instrument (D'lnJy-Symphony on a
French Mountain Air). For this reason, conductors sometimes prefer
to place the piano within the orchestra rather than in front of it (Falla
-Nights in the Garden, of Spain).
(d) The piano as an orchestral instrument. This situation did not
come to pass until the twentieth century. The pianist is here comparatively anonymous and is a regular member of the orchestra (CoplandAppalachian Spring).
(e) The piano in the small orchestra. This is a further development
of orchestral composition in the twentieth century (Stravinsky-Suite
for S111all Orchestra).
ORCHESTRAL USES

The chief use of the piano as an orchestral instrument is one of

doubling. By this means an incisiveness, due to the percussive quality
of the piano, is imparted to any instrument or group--strings, woodwind, brass, or percussion, in all registers. The high register of the
piano is especially effective in contributing brilliance to the upper
woodwind. In the following example, two piccolos go along with the
piano up to its very highest note. The left-hand part doubles three
oboes and the second violins, while the octave in between is played by
rhe first violins and the xylophone.
EX.

J6I. Copland--SYlllpiJony no. 3

P: 45. ed. Boosey & Hawkes

Copyright 1941 by Hawkes & Son ( Lon don ) LId. U&ed b y permission.

342

KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS

I N S T R U .\ l E N T S

In the next example, the right-hand note s act as strong upper partials
to the left-hand part, which doubles two oboes and a trumpet. A bassoon plays in th e octave below. There are other parts in the score.
EX. 362. \ Iartinu-Symphony no. 4

EX.

)6+ Copland-Symphony no.

fl MoIra a11el!"rO
0 e.

P' 8, ed. Cos Cob

I
~

'f'

34J

--

prTI:.

363. Shostakovich-Symphony no. 5

P'

12,

ed. Musicus

J=91

!..(~ds

Jll'IOtJ

>

>

'-I n. ic Corporation. :-cw York . U",d by perm i..ion .

Among the numerous possibilities fo r the combination of the piano

with other instruments, the following is particularly felicitous, with
violins playing col legno.

Vl'I . II
DI\".

lfi

>

>

>

>

Copyright 1931 by CCiS Co b

Cos Cob P r~ .....

>

I' to/ legno

>

>

>

~
>

Itggltr

.0

~nn ission.

The piano is at a disadvantage associating with other instruments in

parts of a sostenuto and legato character. Better results arc obtained
if the piano part is kept in motion, in notes of not roo long duration.
Doubling of pizzicato is of course very much in its style. Here it must
be remarked that low-pitched staccato on the piano, when loud, often
sounds upper partials with undue prominence, creating a metallic tone
and disguising thc pitch. This depends upon the instrument, and it is
more likely to occur if a small piano is used.

Cop yright lQ4S by

-;' ritmico

t' ~
fJ

'fi

EX.

P: 97, ed. Booscy & Hawkes

0

Cop yright 1950 by H awkes & Son (London) Lt d t:5<'d by

>

;::

;::. ;::

--

P col legno
Pr~3S,

Inc. l'i5<'d by permi.sio n of Arrow Pren, I nc_, incorpontin g

t h~

SOLO PASSAGES

The piano delivers imitative thematic figures alone, just as any other
instrument. It is also given important solo parts, sometimes demanding
a high degree of virtuosity, although no more than that expected of
other players in the modern symphony orchestra .

INSTRUMENTS

344
EX.

365. Stravinsky-Petrouchka
Allegro

KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS
P: 64, ed. Russe
--,~

345

In the following, the piano carries the thematic material, over a background of repeated sixteenth notes by three horns. Strings mark certain of the melodic notes lightly.
EX.

366. Stravinsky-Symphony in Three Movements

P' ' 7, ed. Associated Music Publishers

..

'

pocomsrceta _ _ _

_ _'

Copyright 1946 by Associated Music P"blisbcco. Inc., :-:cw York.

U~d

by permission.

PERCU SSIOS

Dissonant chords in the low register of the piano are used in percussive rhythmic effects.
EX .

367- Bartok-Dance Suite

P' 3, ed. Philh armonia

Copyright 1924 by Un iversal Edition. Copyripl assi gne d 1939 to Booaey II: Haw kes Ltd . U...,d by
pem1ission .

The piano tremolo is combin ed with rolls on bass drum and timpani.
<C.

Copyri gh t Dy Ed iti on RUMe de Mustque. Rev ised version co"y rlghl 1'H8 by Boooo:y &: Hawkes. Uaed
by pc rm i5s ion .

EX.

KEYBOARD I N S T R U ,\I E N T S

INS T R U ~ I EN T S

346

368. Prokofieff-Sy 1l1phony no. 5

P: 39. ed . Leeds

TIMP

/~

e n,

/!

I.

-,..

;;;

l ,b- ~ ~,

/f=:, b

"i

fi '!.."'

.>

347

phony of Psalms; the extraordinary orchestra of Stravinsky's Les

No ces, comp osed of four pianos and percussion; and the use of an uprigh t piano, not necessarily in tune, for local color in Copland's Billy
the Kid.
In the small orchestra , or chamber orchestra, for whi ch man y wo rks
have been written in the twentieth century. the piano performs a
variety of services. It comp ensates for the absence of inst ruments like
t he harp and per cussion, and fills in middle parts in place of horns.
Sonorous writing like the following examp le gives. within th e perspe ctive of t he small orchestra, an impression of orchestr al tu tt i.

Cop }'r ;ght IQ46 b) " Leed s ~Iusic Corporation , Xe w Yo rl:. l'se<l b y pe rm ission.

EX. 370. Copland-fUmic for the T heater

p. 37. ed. Cos Cob

Allegro moho
PI A~ O

A:SD IL-\ RP

Some twentieth -century com posers have shown a prefe rence fo r the
piano to be used in place of the harp. feeling perh aps that the latter
instrument con veyed a certa in romantic association they wished to
avoid . Others have combined piano and harp. and some have used a
larger groupi ng of piano, har ps, and celesta, playing har plikc arp eggio s,
broken chords, and figuration ( D' Indy-Su111mer Day on tbe st ountain; Srravins ky-c-L 'Oisc,, de Feu) . In th e next example, a deep bell
sound is crea ted by the unison of two harp s and the piano. with doublebass pizzicato and timpani. The latt er are omitted from th e example, as
well as the held octa ve D for two bassoons, cont rabassoon, bass crOO1 bone, tuba, and a bass drum roll.
EX. 369. Brittcn-Sinfon ia da R equiem

:::>

::-

Copyr igh t 1932 by CO$ Cob P re.,. , I n c. I:sed by p e rmi >;l; ion of Arrow Pren, I nc., in cor po ratin g t he
Cos Cob P ress.

dim.

1 9~2

:>

p. I. ed. Boosev & H awkes

Andante ben misuraro

Copyr igh t

:-

::-

b y Hawk e$ & So n (Lon d on ) Ltd. Used by pe rmi!l'lion.

Unusual uses of the piano are the part for piano four hands in Debussy's Printemps; the employment of two pianos in Stravinsky's Sym-

Scoring fo r the piano creates some practical difficulties that shou ld

be at least recognized by the composer. T he piano tone ought to be
that of a o-foor concert grand piano . if it is to sound well in a full symphony orchestra. On a stage of insufficient size a smaller instrument
may have to be used. Furthermore, to avoid much rearrangem ent during a concert the piano may be placed far to the side of the stage, especially if its part seems to the conductor a subordinate one. This will
pro ve most unsat isfactory whe n th e piano is combined wit h woo d-

I N ST R U ME N T S

KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS

winds, because of the distance. The correct position of the piano is in

the center of the stage.

T he next example shows a simple but striking use of the celesta to

mark the final cadence of a symphonic movement.

348

THE CELESTA

EX. 3 7 2.

Shostakovich-Sym phony

cFL

EX.

37 1. Strauss-Der R osenkavalier
Zicmli ch

langsam

. " dim.

.-

P' 190, ed. Boosey & Hawkes

Copy right 1910 by Adolf F ursln(r , &""ign(d 1943 to Bool.(}' & Ha.""k(!, Ltd, L"l.(d by permission. ( For
Ponugal, I taly. G(nnany. Dan zig. USSR as of 1935: f urstn u , L td. London.)

p. 5 I, ed. Musicus

~.

'eEL"",

soto
VN.

~ - rtTfflgJ muud

Fig. 109

The gentle tones of the celesta have a bell-like ring but do not last
long, nor can they be played stacc ato. Easily covered by other sounds
in the orchestra, they are used primarily for decorative coloristic
touches in soft nuances. In the following familiar motive, the celesta
chords are doubled by harp, two flutes and picco lo, and three solo violins, muted.

Moderato J : 4J

The celesta may be considered a kind of keyed glockenspiel, in that

its tone is prod uced by hammers str iking steel slabs. The instrum ent
has a piano keyboa rd. and it resembles in appearance some modern
types of miniature upright piano. Each steel bar rests upon a tuned resonating wooden box, this feature giving the celesta a softness and
delicacy that distinguish it from the glockenspiel. There is also a
damper pedal.
The written range of the celesta is as follows, sounding an octave
higher:

:" ,I

110 .

-.

DI' I

Cop yri ght 1Q-l5 hy

'''- '

,'

[...,(d~

11WTmdo

.-r .

VC. ~l PE'
~H ~

-----n1Q1'mdo

"'--

M usic Corporation, New Yor k.

349

U~

by p"rmission.

IN ST R U M E N T S
350
The cclcs~ :J. oEre? participates in harplike tracery of the kind illust rated by this Barto k example . H ere it combines with harp and piano.
EX.

373. Ban uk-.ttusic for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta

p. 72, ed. U niversal

KEY II 0 A R D J:-I S T R U .\ 1 EN T S

HI

and have written fo r it in comhinatio n with th e small orchestra. There

is a tendency in th e man ufacture of contemporary harpsichords to produ ce instr uments of greater brilliance and pown , capable of sounding
wi th the large orchestra in a large hall. Th is invokes a sacrifice. however. of at least some of the intimacy and charm characteristic of the
harpsicho rd.
T he following arc some modern works emp loy ing the harpsichord:

Falla- EI R etsblo de .1I, e,e Pedro

Falla-Concerto for H srpsicbord and Five Instrument s
,\1 artin- Petite Symp fJonie Con cerrsnte
Poulenc-Concert Cba7l1p~;tre for H arpsicbord and Orcb estrs
Strau ss-Dance Suit e after Cou perin

T ilE ORGAN

........ ...,... -'-'

Copy~
i l: ht . 1937
permLUIon

by l.' ni ,cruJ Editi on. Co p yro_

"- " t a.Mil"cd 19,)9 to ~y & H ~ .. lr. "

LId. Uw d by

THE HARPSICHORD
Fr ., clavecin; It. , cembalo , elm...icembalo; O er., Cem balo

In th e harpsich ord the strings are not stru ck by hammers, but

pluck ed by th~ action of crow quills or leather tabs. Five to eight pedals
to operate register Sto pS, and a co up ler to combine the effects of the
[~O k.eyboards, afford considerable dynamic variation and octave duplication above and below the note played. The writ ten range of the
harpsich ord is as follows:

Fig.

1 10

Modem compos~rs ~ave shown interest in this baroque instrument,

perhaps because of Its Increased use in the performance of early music,

In th e time of Bach and H andel, th e organ w as an indispensable part

of rhe instrumental forc es employed in th e performance of or ato rios
and cantatas . whe re it was depended upon to fill ou t the real izat ion of
the figure d bass, As the textu re of music became more homophonic and
harmo nic th an linear , the organ was no lon ger needed for th is function. It was not until th e late ninete enth century that organ parts appeared in sy mphon ic scores (Saint- Sacns-S:\o'11Ipbony no. 3)
T he organ never became an orchest ral instrument in the sense that
the pianoforte did, but rather it may be said to have been associated
w ith the orc hestra for certa in specia l pur poses. \Vor ks for chorus and
orc hestr a, especially th ose of a religious characte r, frequ entl y incl ude
the or gan ( H onegger- Le R oi f).1i:id ) , Chur ch and cathedra l scenes in
operas seldom fail to call for th e obvious realism of org:m music (Go unod-Faust). In the opening sto rm scene of V erdi 's O tello, the organ
supplies anothe r realistic effect by holdin g t he low pedal no tes C, C:,
and D through fifty-three pages of score. The or gan has been employed
in symphonic works of th e grandiose, colossal ty pe, in which an overpowering mass of sound is st riven for in the climaxes ( ~lahler-SY 1Jl
pbony no. 8) .
N ot all concert halls contain organs, and organs differ widely in
tone color and resources of registration. ~ lany organ stops are imita-

352

INS T R U xt E N T S

dons of orchestral instruments, and the dynamic and coloristic potentialities utilized in the combination of stops evoke a comparIson
with procedures in orchestration. The organ is too self-sufficient an
instrument to become a part of the symphony orchestra.

THE

HAR~IONIUM

The harmonium is a small reed organ that can be moved. It has usually two manuals (keyboards), stops and pedals. Ahhough its tone
will not be mistaken for that of a large organ, it is used as a substitute
for the latter when none is available. The harmonium has been employed in the small orchestra to compensate for the deficiency in volume of wind tone (Strauss-Ariadne aut Naxos).

TWO
ANALYSIS OF ORCHESTRATION

THE ONDES MARTENOT

The Ondes Marrenot is an electrical instrument invented in 1928 by
Maurice Marrenot, and subsequently written for by many French
composers. The tone originates in the pulsations made by combining
two currents whose frequencies differ slightly. The resultant air waves
are amplified and sounded through a loud-speaker system. A keyboard
enables the player to obtain different notes by altering the frequencies
by the exact amount necessary. A ribbon attached by a ring to the finger is also used for the same purpose, but with the added possibility of
sounding all gradations of pitch between the notes. The range as now
constructed is practically that of the piano keyboard.
By the interposition of electrical circuits overtones can be absorbed,
so that the formant of the tone can be changed in infinite variety. The
Ondes Martenct is still in an early experimental stage, especially as regards its usc as an orchestral instrument.
The following are some works employing the Ondes Marrenor:
Canteloube- Vercingetorix
Honegger-Jeanne d'Arc au Bucher
Jolivet-Concerto for Ondes Martenot and Orchestra
Messiaen-TurangaliJa

C!IAPT ER SI SE T E EN

TYP ES OF TEXTCRE-TYP E I,
OR CHE STRAL U :-: IS O :-:

knowledge of the instruments gained from the foregoing

chapters, the student is advised to read through entire parts
for individua l instruments in any score he intends to study .
For example. let him follow the first bassoon throughout the score of
the Eroica Sym phony, noting the kind of pan given the instrument ,
techni cal features such as range and difficulty, amount of playing time
in compar ison to the whole, and especially the relation of the pan to
the rest of the score at any given moment. It would afford a view of the
orchestration as seen from the standpoint of a single instrum ent , and ir
would serve to summarize the participation of the par ticular instru ment
in the orchestral web. Familiar works should be chosen at first, and the
student should make constant efforts to hear mentally what he sees on
the printed page, correcting his pitch, if necessary. with a pitch pipe or
the piano.
The obje ctive in analysis of orchestration is to discover how the
orchestr a is used as a medium to present musical thought. Its immediate
purpose is the simplification of the score so tha t order is seen in what
to the layman is a "sea of notes." It is a means of studying how instrument s are combined to achieve balance of sonority, unity and variet y
of tone color, clarity, brilliance, expressiveness, and oth er musical
values. Ultimately, the analytical process shows the differences in
orch estral style between various composers and perio ds.
The first step in analysis is the examination of the musical text ure.
apart from orchestration. to see what compo nent elements make up

ITH

Hi

356

ANALYSIS

the fabric of the music. As will be shown, these elements are usually
few in number. They are such features as melody, harmonic background or accompaniment, contrapuntal lines, chords, erc., and in most
music they are readily distinguishable.
As the second step, after the number and character of th e textural
elements is determined, the distribution of the instrum ents and sections
of the orchestra among the elements is to be not ed. Here a difficulty
will be encountered, owing to the fact that good orchestral music is
continually changing in the arrangement of the instruments, and often
in the type of texture as well. It is therefore nece ssary to apply the
analytical process to short sections of music at a time, sometimes to
only a few measures. Passages should be select ed that are most easily
comprehended in their texture and distribution, leaving the more problematical places until skill is acquired through practice.
In the third step, a comparison of the elements should be made. evaluating the result of the distribution as to balance and contrast. and remarking any other qualities that may become evident.
The fourth step is the close examination of each element taken
separately. This will take note of the choice and combination of tone
colors. doubling and spacing. reinforcing of accents, etc. It often happens that an element is further divisible into what may be called subelements.
The importance of judging the movement as a whole should not be
lost sight of. Proportions of tutti, unity and variety of textures and
orchestral procedures, erc., are larger consid erations to be weighed
in relation to the form and content of the movement, and are not to be
und erestimated. But the inexperienced student is counseled to be patient with the analysis of short sections as a means of gaining technical
facility.
A word of warning is sounded against a too pedantic and literal approach to the analysis. One seeks an answer to the question why certain procedures are followed, bur, orchestration being an art and not
a science, one must ever be prepared to find no good reason. Some
que stion s are never answ ered. Imperfections may exist even in the
works of the masters, and these arc worth discovering, but it must not
be forgotten that the unaccountable stroke of genius is also a reality.

ORCHESTRAL UNISON

357

TEXTURE OF ONE ELEMENT

EX. 374.

p. 40, ed. Durand

D'Indy-lstar

IN II

.~
~

,
"

/ ,

'"
/

,
"

., """"

...
""

'""

,
"
~.

'"
'" ,
"". ll

..
~

/
P(lm issi on granted by Dur an d el Cl( ., P u is, cop yr igbt owne rs ;

EJk an-Vo~l.

P b iladelph la , Pa " a gents.

\Vhen the texture is composed of bur one element. this is most frequently in the nature of a melodic phrase delivered by anywhere from
one to all the instruments of the orchestra. Example 374 is an actual

358

A NALYS IS

unison- that is, without octavcs-c-partici pared in by all th e legato instrument s within whose range the melody lies comfortably . T he instrumcnrs no t playing are piccolo, two flutes. two ob oes, three trumpets, tuba. tim pani. cy mbals, triangle. two har ps, and double-b asses (an
initial chor d for harp s and basses, wi th timpani roll, is omitted from
the example) .
The tr umpe ts could have play ed th e melody. bur the low notes lie
in the poor er parr of their range, and th e trumpet tone would tend to
emerge from the blend of tone color. The tro mbones are asked to join
"cry soft ly in what is a strong and full general sonority.
This unison provides a rich mixed timbre, somew hat dominated by
the powerful string tone, with violins on the G.string, and 'cellos on the
A. A kind of incandescence is co nt ributed by the tremolo of the violas.
Even th e four horns, playi ng legato, arc absorbe d in th e over-all sound.

O R CH E STRAL C;\i lS O :--'

EX.

359

p. 3, cd. Kalmus

375. Becthovcn-Sy mphol1y no. 9

~,

"

." . '
F
/

...
~

=
--=.-.

- ,

"

_.= .

Example 375 is an orc hest ral tu tti, all the instru ment s taking part in
a forceful statement of th e melodic line as it appears in th e first violins.
It is not, like th e preceding example, an actual unison, wit h all instruments on the same pit ch, instead. the orchestra is distributed ove r four

360

ANALYSIS

ORC HEST RA L UN ISON

octaves, so that each instrum ent may participate in its best range . Taking the A of measure I , the distribution is as follows:
.. It I
( I)
,~~.
~ vl1. l .. 11, s.n, 00. 1, d. I
( 5)
~
va.. 00. II, d . 11, hI\. 1, up. I (5 )

'rC .. bn,

I .. U. h.o.. II,

d-b.. timp.

Fig.

up. u

EX.

36 1

376. Stravinsky-SY11lpbony in Three MO'L'(?111cnts

P: 3, ed. Associated ;\l usic Publishers

..

(5)
(2 )

II J

It is evident that the balance is carefully arranged. T he single flute on

top is not more than a reinforcement of the upper partial from the
lower A's. ll orns III and IV cou ld not sound the A except as a sto pped
tone of inferior quality .
Each part should be studied, dep artures from the melodic pattern
nored, and reasons sought for these departures.
T he brass instruments of the classical orchestr a presented problems
for the composer because of their limitations in available not es. If the
student will write our the pans for horns in 0 and B:, basso, and trWTIpetS in D, as they should be if they are to follow the melodic line. he
will see th at Beeth oven had the choice of leaving our many not es, especially in the B:, horns and the trumpets, or substitu ting other notes
in preference to sacrificing the tone-weight of the brass. His soluti on
will repay careful study.
Changcs in the woodwind parts are made for reasons of range (oboe
II could not continue downward in measure 2), registers ( flute II
would be in a weak register if continued down in the same measure),
and balance (note the doubling arrangement of oboes and clarinets in
measure 4).

.J1T7Copyri gh t 1,..6 by

A!!Soci.!~d

M\lsic

P\l bHshe ~>

Inc... New Yor k. Used by pcrm iosion.

T he opening unison shown in Ex. 376 is not a tutti, although loud

and forceful. The trumpets and high woodwinds are reserv ed for the
consequent part of the ph rase, which follows. It is doubtful that they
could have added to the incisiveness attained by this placing of strings ,
horns. and pianoforte. To be remarked are the accent reinforcement
by the tr ombones, the bass clarinet and bassoons helping the upward

Al'> ALYSIS

362

OR C B E ST R A L U

ru sh of th e strings, w irh piano glissando, and th e disposition of th e

second violins so that they join the violas and the 'cellos on th e high

Ab
E X.

p. I. ed. Durand

377. Dcbussy-Le Marty re de Saint Sebastien

,',~

n.

Lent
II

pp

,
I"

IN Db

-~ -e

pp

"'

I~

,,

..

'"

<gro ma n" n ""PI"

IP

,~

pp

ON .

"

pp
d

.,--...

r.

;;

;;

~.

., ~

~~

/ ~

..

pj...

;;;.- "

.,

~ .

-v;r C",d.j

--

~- -

'"
... I

"

[r ~

,.
,.

r.r";"' 4
,

"

&

:, ~

'" ~

Copyri&ht for all countr ies ] . & W . Ch<'slcr Lid ., Londun

a:
l

Permission gran ted by Durand

ji...J:.9 I" . JO' #J"

IP

~ [--6

,.-

,~

,!

--

~ .
I

pp

BASS

p . 41 , ed. Chester

)78. Falla-EI A mor 1J1'lIj o

:,

~'"

,0

363

In Ex. 377, the princi ple is carried further, th e melody proceeding

in parallel mino r tri ads. Also the parallelism is emphasized by the fact
th at the soprano (flute II and clarinet I) and bass (bass clarinet ) are in
oc taves. The onl y unison doub ling is in the upper voice, and this rends
to gin the phr ase a pitch location in the soprano register. (This work
by D ebussy is orchestrated by A ndre Caplet.)
While the example can not be truly describe d as an orchest ral uni son ,
it is to be taken as an example of a texture composed of a single element.
EX.

I"

ra,

- o ..---.- a.

pp

I"

1::OG. HN

-:<:.

x I S ON

I ff

C1e., Pari s, cop yrigh t own cr$; E lkan .Vogel, Ph ilad elphia, Pa., ag ents.

As th ese example s illustr ate, octave redu plication is not to be conside red as addi ng a new textural eleme nt. It is a widen ing of th e vertical
plane of sound, and the two voices ar e in such agree ment of upper
partials that th e car often accepts th e interval of an oct ave as a unison.
T he habitu al octave doub ling of 'ce llos and basses is a goo d illustration
of this principle.
O th er intervals may ope rate in a similar way. The common pr actice
of doubling a melody consistently in thirds or sixths does not add 2 new
melodic voice so much as a harmonic thi ckening or un derlining of the
singl e voice.

The texture of one clement may present details of interest in the

co mbinat ion of tone colors. E xample 378 is extremely simp le in its
musical material but most instructive as orchestra tion. It furnishes an
excellent exercise in mental hearing. Let the stude nt concentrate on
hearin g th e separate instruments in his mind, and then att empt to imagine the com bined sounds.
The double-bass harmonic sounds in unison with the viola E. An
initi al acce nt is give n by the soft staccato ho rn and the ' cello pizzicato
(note the variety of dyn amic markings) . A t the peak of the crescendo
th e chalum eau clarinet trill is add ed, the 'cello pizzicato is marked
sf orzando, and th e horn's loud, accented stopped tone gins a cuiure
effect. In the last four measures the cla rinet's role is bot h colorist ic and
dynamic.

M ELO D Y A ND A C e O,\! P A NHIENT

CHAPTER

TWENT Y

........
TYPES OF TE XTURE -TYPE II,
MELODY AND ACCO Jvl PAN IMEN T

Here the melody is given to a single instrument, the clarinet, in

its middle registcr. The accompaniment is simp le, but interesting in
the choice of tone colors to combine with the clarinet in pianissimo .
The harp figure is doubled by muted violas and 'ce llos, divided so that
the initia l D is played by the violas on their C-srrin g, accented. The
portamenro for the 'cellos must be delicatel y made. The horn D is a
subtle aid to continuity and cohe sion, not only horizontally but also
vertically, being placed between the harp and the solo clarinet.

R efer to Ex.

simplest and most common forrn, the texture of two elements

is what :ve call homophonic texture, consisting of melody and accompamment.

)65

)80,

page )66.

N ITS

EX. )

79. Mahler-Symphony no. 4

Element A (melody ) '

ft. I, Db. I, Eng. hn., d . I and II
Element B (accompaniment ): vn. I and II, va., VC. , d-b., bn. I and II, hn.
II[ and IV

Sehr bchaglich

pp '

C01I

The elements are clearly differentiated in tone color, and as a precaution the parts of element Bare marked pianissimo, in contrast to
the expressive indications for the melod y . The accom panim ent could,
nevertheless, overwhelm the melody unless performed wit h understanding. It is not possible to supply by dynamic markings those prerequisites of musical intelligence and sensitivity without which no orchestration will sound well in performance.
The octaves in element A are unevenly balanced, giving the melody
a pitch location in the upper octave. The two clarinets doubled by oboe
and English horn make a perfect balance, except for differences in
registers, and the addirion of the flute make s the upper line stronger.
The flute has also the effect of tempering a slight hardness present in
th e oboe and clarin et unison in that register.
Element B is composed of the gently pulsating divided violins and
vio las (without mutes), the soft low chords for horns and bassoons in
measures 2 and 4, and the bass. The interlocking arrangement of the
upper strings, and also that of the wind chords, arc important details,
as is, too , the partial doubling of the basses by the 'cellos.

ford.

C01/

p. ISO, ed. Philhannonia

\ Ve shall find it convenient, in analysis, to designate the melod y and

the accompaniment as element A and clement B, respectively. In Ex.
380, the distribution of the orchestra between the two elements may be
summarized as follows:

f ord .

364

hi E L 0 D Y AND AC e 0

A:-;A L YS IS
EX, 380.

Dcuussy-L'A pres-1I1idi d'un Faune

p. t 5. ed. Kalmus

EX.

38 1. Bccthovcn-Sy mpbouy

110. 1

~l

PAN I hi EN T

367

p. 20, cd. Kalmus

.c

:
.--.-..
"

..

H ere element A is passed betw een flute and oboe in the uppe r octave,
and fr om clarinet to bassoon in the octave below (the st rings in measure
I are com pleting the pr eceding phr ase). In measure 4. the clarinet is
omitted, a possible reason being that its entry on D might sound like a
voice leadin g fr om th e oboe's C to D, carefully avoid ed by having oboe
and bassoon lead to B. \Vhen the passage is repeated a few measures
later, this lower octave is played by violins, their tone and position in
th e orch estr a offering mor e contrast to the oboe. Also to be noted is
th e subtle change from unison violins in measure 2 to thi rds in measure
4. T he light staccato accompaniment is througho ut in contrast to th e
legato woo dw inds.

..!

= - -._=
,

P(rm ;p iol'l g ranted by Editions J ean ] olxrt, Par i., co pyr illhl o wners; J:: lkan,\'ojl;d , Ph iladelphi a, Pa .,
" lI: ent~

"

ANALYSIS

36B

EX. 31:12 . Mozart-The Marriage of Figaro: Overture

MELODY AND ACCOMPANIMENT

P' 3. ed. Kalmus

Pre><"

,c . I~~~
'''''II

The two voices of element A are almost evenly matched, the first
players having an advantage of registers and position as top voice. The
first violins are the strongest, and attention is called to them by their
variation from the wo odwinds in measures 3 and 4. The preponderance
of tone-weight lies in the upper octave of element A, the clarinets alone
being placed below. This use of the clarinets in the middle register is
characteristic of classical scores, where they seem often to have been
given parts later assigned to trumpets when these acquired valves.
Element B, consisting of the one note D, can be subdivided into
three rhythmic patterns. With element A, th ese patterns compose th e
following four-parr rhythmic texture:
EJ.mm' A

m m

no ...

,,_,,10,,' :\. :\M

.......=.j

j j

J.nJ

J.DJ "

JJJJ JJJJ J\ J\ J\ J\ "

J\J\ J\JJ J\J\ J\J\ J\_
j j

J\ h J \ J\ JJ

Fig. 112
~

... ,

The first violins join element B in measures 5 and 6, makin g a texture

of part writing in the cadential chords.

..... "
EX.

.tr

r ,

It was noted in the previous chapter th at doubling a melodic line in

parallel intervals constituted a harmonic thickening of the melody
rather than the creatio n of an independent clement (see Ex. 377). The
intervals similarly used in Ex. 382 are not literally parallel, but the texture is clearly one of only two elements, distributed as follows:
Element A (m elody):

fl. I and II, ob. I and II, cl. I and II, vn. I
and II
.

Element B (accompaniment): bn. I and II, hn. I and II, rrp. I and II, timp.,
va., vc., d-b.

383. Brahms-SY 111phony no.

~,

"". "
IN '

"

"

P'

I,

ed. Kalmus

370

ME LD D Y A ND A CCDM PA N I ~l EN T

ANALY SIS

The texture of Ex. 383 may be analyzed thus:

Element A (melody), rncas. 2 to 5: hn. r and II, bn. l and II
meas.6 to 9: fl. I and II, d . I and II, bn. I and II
Element B (bass):
vc., d-b.

EX.

384' Schumann-Symphony no. 1

........

371

p. 76, ed. Philharm cnia

T he bass is thematically important , so that there is in this textu re a

suggestio n of the ty pe t o be described later as contrapuntal, combining
tvvo melodies. Element A, in measures 2 to 5, shows a harmonization
of the melody (horn I) in parts. T hese parts seem inseparable fro m
the melody even though they do not follow it in parallelism. The
variety in the number of voices, and the do ublings of horns and bassoons should be not iced. In measures 6 to 9, the woodwinds are evenly
balanced in a wide vertical plane. Since if is on top. th e first flute will
natura lly be heard as rhe most pro mine nt voice.

e sa e ee

Distribution in Ex. 384:

Element A (melody):
ob. I, hn. I, vn. I and II
Element B (accompaniment): d . I and II, bn. I and II, va., vc., d-b.
The violins play a decorative variation of the melody simultaneously
with its exposition by obo e and horn in octa ves. T his is a not uncommon orchestral pr ocedure. The violins are marked pianissimo, and the
figuration is carefully provided with rests to permit the solo instruments to come through. Subsequent measures in th e score contain many
int eresting dissonances like the Eq in the third beat of measure 3.
The accompaniment is composed of three subelemenrs : the sustained

ANALYSIS

MELODY A ND ACC O M PAN I MENT

tones of clarinets and bassoons; the animated harmony of the violas;

and the bass, the last being given a slight pulsation by the 'cellos.
The texture of this example may also be seen as an elaboration of
basic four-voiced part writing.

The composition of the accompaniment with several subelements is

illustrated in Ex. 385.
Distribution:

372

EX .

385. Debussy-La Mer

P' 65, ed. Durand

~,

"
""

n . ,
'-.... II

..
Permission granted by Durand et Cle., Pu is . eo pyright

Element A (melody):
fl. I and II
Element B (accompaniment): (a) Eng. hn., cl. I and II, bn. I and II
(b) hn. II and IV
(c) vn. I, (celesta, hp. I and II )
(d ) vn. II, va., vc., (d-b.)

The flutes are in a rather gentle register and, althoug h doub led, it
seems on first sight unli kely that th ey can be heard against rhe array
of accompanying instruments. As a matter of fact , perfor mances prove
that the flutes sound with extraordinary clarity.
All the instruments of element B are placed in registers that enable
them to playas softly as nece ssary . The strings play with \rery littl e
bow, and except for the single Ci , the basses arc omitted. T he low E
in second and fourth horns can be produced in ext reme piamssiruo, the
doubling being for the purpose of steadying the low tone. The three
componems of subclement (a) overlap one another by an eight h-note's
value, with diminuendo. It is an example of a very light and tr ansparent
accompaniment.
A touch of color is added to the termination of the ph rase by the
celesta and harps. The score is marked glocke nspiel (or celesta), but
the celesta is practically always used in this piece. On the r epetition of
the phrase, the flutes are replaced by the first oboe.

~"".

373

,
owne~;

,,
Elkan Vogel, Pbiladelphi.., P.... agentl

s r c o l' IJ A R Y
EX.

386. ~l oza rr-SY lllpbony in

,I I E L OD Y

Eo, K. 54 3

375

P' 36, cd. Kalmus

Ando n

C HA PTER

T\\"EK TY-OKE

=
/

T Y PES OF TE XTURE- T Y PE III,

SECO:-': DARY MELODY

-;
/

.. p ~. ~

~-

-+--=

.....

...-,---..

=.~

of three elements usually con sists of a primary melody,

a secondary melody, and accompaniment. The secondary
melody may be a completely subordinate obb ligato (sometimes
called ccuntcrmelody} , or it may have thematic significance giving it
an importance equal to that of the primary melody. The decision as to
wh ich is pr imary and w hich secon dary is sometimes difficult and may
depend on persona l interpretation and taste. Th e conductor who deligh ts in "bringing out" voices intended by the com poser to remain in
the background is an all too -familiar figure.

T EXT C RE

N_ "

r
~...1.-."'_ '
_ '_

- "'=!'; ;?-=

The woodwind obbligato in Ex. 386 emerges after seven measures of

harmonic backgro und of held wind chords.
T he distribution of th e elements is as follows:
Element A (mel ody):

vn.l

Element B (seco ndary melody ) : fi., d . I and II, bn. I and II

Elem ent C (acc ompan iment ) :

vn. II, va., vc., d-b.

The two melodic elements arc cont rasted in timbre as well as in

melodi c outline and rhythm. The first violins easily dominate th e overall sonority, because of their register and energe tic bowing, and also for
the reason that th eir melody has been pre viously established to the ear
as the primary element. They stand out despite the ideal placing of the
five woodwinds in th eir best registers, with octave dou blings.
Element C contains three harmonic voices. In the first three measures,
two of these are played by the secon d violins as the on ly middle voices
to balance the bass. The latter is represented in the very resonant
174

376

ANALYSIS

SECONDARY MELODY

octave reduplication of violas, 'cellos, and basses. Note that four-string

basses must play the Eb an octave higher.
EX.

387. Beethoven-Sy111pbony no. 7

p. 71, ed. Kalmus

377

Distribution in Ex. 387:

fl. I and II, ob. I and II, cl. I and II, bn. I
and II, hn. I and II
Element B (secondary melody): vn.J
Element C (accompaniment):
(a) vn. II
(b) va., vc., d-b.
(e) trp. I and II, timp.

Element A (melody):

The rhythmic differentiation of the three elements is worthy of note.

This helps the secondary melody, sustained and legato, to detach itself
even though element A sounds both above and below it. The power of
the first violins should not be underestimated. however.
Doublings of the wind (element A) are as follows:
I. I
6..

n. ab. l, 00. II, d.

d. 11, bn. I, hn, 1

(.)
I

(4)
(J)

Fig. 113
Notwithstanding the larger number of instruments on the next-totop parr, the balance is in favor of the lowest octave. because of the
much greater tone-weight of the horns in fortissimo. The clarinets act
as a link between upper and lower tone colors. In measure 5. the horns
are placed both in the upper octave, uniting on the stopped note Eb
(sounding G), and avoiding a bad stopped D in the lower octave for
the second hom.
In subelement (h) ,of the accompaniment. the 'cellos are divided so
that they support both the bass and the viola part. Trumpets and timpani (subelement c) give tonic and dominant punctuation, in classic
style,

378
EX.

SE C 0 N [) A R Y .\ 1 E L 0 D Y

ANALYSIS
388. Berlioz-Overture: T he R oman Camiual

P: 7, ed. Philhar monia

of'

---=

T1lP.

II'D

II

379

H ere the melody and seco ndary melody form a canon at the octave,
wi th a rime interval of one bear. Since the melodies are identica l they
arc of equal importance to the car, a slight precedence being conceded
perhaps to the one that starts first, which we have called clement A.
A lso, it may have a little more tone-weight since all the instruments
playing it arc in actual unison, whereas those of element B are divided
in octaves (violins I and flute I on top, violins II, oboe and Engl ish
horn on the bottom). T he 'cellos are in a powerful position on the Astring, we ll supported by bassoons and violas. T he latter are not in a
compa rab le registe r, which would have placed them an octave highe r,
on their A-string. They serve here to add warmth and body rather th an
br illiance to the unison .
Element C could be called an accompaniment of (he percussive ty pe,
a kind of harmonic coloring of the figure made by the tam bourine and
triangle (the triangle sounds higher in pitch t han the tambourine).
Brass and percussion are marked piano, as against mezzo forte fo r the
rest of the orchestra. T he arrangement of the instruments on the alternating sixteent h note beats and afrcrbcats of element C is as follows :

c;:oo.NU I
'" A

II

Y""u .

Fig.

114

The tenure for the basses binds all together and prevents dryness in
the accompan imen t.

Di stribution of the elements in Ex. 388:

Element A (melodv}:
va. vc., bo. l and II
Element B (seco ndary melody): vn. I, vn. II, fl. I, ob. J, Eng. hn.
Element C (accompaniment): fl. II, d. I and II, hn. I, III and IV , rfp. I
and II, cornets I and II, timp., triangle.
t ambourine, d-b.

A N A L Y SIS

380
EX.

S EC O

389. l\lilhaud-'second Symphonic Suite

p . '4. ed. D ura nd

......

.-:-:-..

P um luion f;rUlt rd by Dllllnd el Ci t . P ub, copyr i!hl own ers ; Elkan -Vold, Ph illddph la.. P&.. Isentl.

Distr ibution of the elements in Ex. 389:

Element A (melody):
picc., Eng. hn.
Element B (seccndarv melody ) : vo. 1and II, va., vc.
Element C (accompajumenrf (0) fl: I and II, ob. I and II, cl. I and II
( b) um p.
(c) hn. I, II, and III, d-b.

x DA R Y

,\ 1 E L OD Y

381
In th is example, the secondary melody appears in the for m of parallel
six-fo ur chords instead of a sing le line. T he English horn carries the
p rimary element, doubl ed t wo octaves above by t he pic colo. marked at
a considerably lower dyn amic level. The various dynamic markings indicate different planes of orchest ral sound, and the effect is enhanced
by the presence also of different planes of harmony. Combined rhythmic pa tterns in element C co nt ri bute to th e interest of t he textu re. both
of th e accompaniment and of th e over-all rhy t hmic str uc t ure.

PART WRIT ING

C HAP T R

383

The phrase shown is based on a pattern of four-voiced parr writing.

The four parts are given below, and identi fied by letter ( Fig. (J 5) .
T hese fund amental parts are known as " real" parts, as di fferentiated
fr om parts wh ich originate as doublings or ocrave red uplications.

T Y - TWO

TYPES OF T EXTUR E -TYP E IV,

PART WR ITI:\ G
4

Fig.
390 . Franck-Sym phony

EX.

P'

10 0 ,

ed. Eulenburg

.~

, ---;-- I

M:!'

, .-- -

The four real parts, with their octave and unison dou blings, are allot ted to the thirteen wind instruments in the following manner:

r
1

: _

... . "

115

B 8

[fl.

II

Eng. hn., d. II, (ob. II)

8 [ b. I, cl. I
bn. I, hn. I.
C

bn. II, hn.II, (hn. Ill )

bass cI.

In measure 3, there are irr egularities to be noted. The English hom

leaves B to follow C, and oboe II enters to play the remainder of B.
Bassoon I and horn I leave A and cre ate a new voice, ending on C:: (this
makes five real parts in th e cadence). Bassoon II and horn II change
from C to B, while hom III plays the termination of C. These changes
enable some instruments to make a better diminuendo, and at th e same
time the cadenti al harmony is enriched.
T he violas add a decorative figure to th e cadence, finally joining

...

parr BIt will have been noticed that the numerical d istribution of the in-

,
Repr inted .-jt h t he Perm iss io n of the .ole &lII:ents fo r E ulenbW III: !.f in i. tu re Scor es: C. F. Peten Corpon. t ion . :" ew Yo rk.

l8l

struments is far from equable. The octave doublings do not add materially to th e tone-weight of a part, but th e unison doublings do. Part
A, the melody, is obviously planned as the strongest voice. Parr D, the
bass, appears alarmingly weak. In performance, how ever, the passage
is very successful in irs organlike sonority, if played with an ear to
balance.

ANALYSIS

384

PART WRITING

The part writing textu re is not to be confused wi th that of type II,

in which melod y and accompaniment are two quite distinct elements
H ere, the melod y is just one of several oth erwise equal voices.
EX.

391. J\ l ozart-Sy mphony in C major, K .

_"

'---'

"
B

200

385

ell:.

1-

. -'"

P: 16, ed. Philharmonia

Menuerro
, fl 1l 1gI" r

~~

Fig.

,-

Distribution:

TRP.
IN C

. .. !

q!' r
I

'"

\ '1<. I

"
. ~" ,,I~

""'>;:

VG.,

[YO.I, ob. I and II

EX. 392 . Beethovcn-Symphony no. )

B 8 [ va. vc.
d-b.

The horns and trumpets gi\'c an illu sion of playing no other parts
th an these, despite their not being able to play the notes C~. B, A, or
F~ (w ithout recourse to sto pped notes on the horn, apparently not
con sidered good enough to usc) . On th e second beat of measure 2,
they sound the only added note, G, the open fifth being a classical
formula in dominant harmony for horns and trumpets.

'"

vn. I I

"

"

,~

\ 'A .

,"

H ....
<N C

1 16

;;I

.~ I:E

. -----

The nu mber of real parts is most often th ree or four. In Ex. 39 1 there
are onl y two, as fo llows:

p.

50, ed . Kalmus

PAR T WRI TI N G

A NA L Y SIS

386

H ere the texture changes from three parts in the first measure to
four parts in the third.
,A

Ii..,

l:l
~

0==

'

F=i~

,.........,

..

, .c.b

n:

Fig.

393. Holst-The Planets

P: 66, cd. Boosey & Hawkes

Vi v>Ct

=~,.......,
1'-'

EX.

387

Iv

1 17

Distribut ion in Ex. 392:

meas.

A
8

and 2
vn . I

me as.q

L"

[fl.
8 [HI.I,
8

va., bn. I (meas. a )

meas. 4 and 5
vn. I

cI. I

bn. I

vn. I1

B
8

[ 72 va., bn. II (meas. 2)

vn.II

8 [ Ob. I

8 [ vn. II, d. II

r[y,

bn. II

8
8

U.ed by Ilermis.sion of ] . Cur"..en & Sons, Ltd.

va.
II
va.

%V3.
D 8

[ve.
d-b.

[ve.
d-b.

[ve.
d-b .

T he expressive power of the phrase is much heightened by the

variety and subtlety of this distribution. In measure 2 , the sounding of
the do uble appoggiatura in the violas, against the notes of resolution
in the bassoons, is an effect characteristically orchestral. The choice
of the oboe instead of flute II, to play th e second pan wi th flute I, is a
favorite procedure of Beeth oven.

On first sight, Ex. 393 looks to be a texture of seven parts . The effect
is, however, of but two basic melodic lines, top and botto m, mov ing
in contrary motion. Each voice is given harmonic "thickening," the
upper moving in parallel root position triads, the lower in parallel sixfour chords.
The part-writing texture, composed of r eal parts with or withou t
doubling, is of ten found in the accompaniment element of the texture
type II. Even the primary element may he constructed in part wri ting
(see Chapter Twenty, Ex. 383) . It is also present in the structure of
cho rd connections, such as cad ences, where the voice leading of the
pan s is felt to be important. As mentioned previously, the phrase from
Schuma nn's First Symphony, quoted in Ex. 384, may be interpreted
as an elaboration of a basic pattern of four-part writing.

CONTRAPUNTAL TEXTURE
CHAPTER

389

The simple texture of thi s example is very common in or chestral

music. There are but two lines, start ing as if in canon but contin uing
in predominantly consonant int ervals, without close imitation. It is not
very different from two-voiced part writing.
Distribution in Ex. 394:

T\VENTY-THREE

A 8 cn. I, fl. I and II, ob . I (o b. II, cl. I, at meas. 4)

TYPES OF TEXTUR E-TYPE V,

CONTR APUNTAL TEXT URE

vn. II, ob. II (e1. II, at meas. 4)

B

8 [~.a .,

vc., bn. I and II

d-b.
cont rapun tal texture consists en tirely of melodic elements.
The melod ic lines may be designed in imitative counterpoint ,
or the y may be quite independent as melodi es. The texture
may be fugal, or it may present a combina tion of melodies th ematically
significant, perh aps previously heard sing ly, and so not new to thc ear.

HE

EX. 394. Haydn-SY1l1phony in D (Glocken )

.. . - .

P: 4', ed. Eulenburg

Mmu<tt<>

~ --;;:---

-..

~.-

(II - II

<' ,

"' .. "

."

.,

"- '

-p~

r
""_ Il
~

.,
~

...
" Co,

,
388

The cadence, measures 7 and 8, is in four-voiced part wri ting.

EX .

395. Mo zart-Sy m pbollY ill G minor, K. 550

p. 41, ed. Philharmonia

C O NTR A PUNT A L TEXT UR E

ANALYSIS

390

The contrasting patterns of the melodic rhythms, and the harmonic

dissonances, make this an examp le of much stronger contrapuntal
effect.
Distribution in Ex. 395:
A

8
8

[fl.
[va.,
[ve.

( ob. t, cl. I, at meas. 3)

ob. I and II, d. I and II

EX.

396. W agner-Prelude to T ristan und Isolde

391

P' 4, ed. Kalmus

vn . I

8 L n. II (hn. I)
8 L n. I and II (hn. lI)

d-b.
In measure 3. for the second half of the phrase, the oboes and clar inets change to octaves, str engt hening the top pan and giving a brighter
sound than the continued unison would have made. Also the entry of
th e horns at that point strengthens line B where the bassoons are
weaker. The horns do not attempt to finish the melody, but repeat the
domi nant D as extra notes. The bassoons do not play with th e 'ce llos
and basses, as might be expected.
The vertical ranges of the two lines arc significant as orchestration .
Line A is th e bass, but with th e do ubling by the flute, and the strength
of the violas plus oboes and clarinets, it tends to sound in a pitch location ver y near to that of line B. This impression is helped by th e placing of [he double-basses in a fairly high register.

,,
This passage is composed of three princi pal lines, with three lessimportant entering voices, th e chief function of which is to add to the
sono rity in crescend o. These added parts are melodic, and the texture
is completely cont rapu nt al.

O'

392

ANALYSIS

r:

CONTRA PUNT A L TEXT U R E

Distribution in Ex. 396:

A 8

I, cl. I

EX.

8[VO. II

~:r~
E

bass d. (meas. a), hn. II (mC3S. 4)

8 [ hn. III (meas. 4)

hn. IV (mcas. 4)

va.

P: 98, ed. Heugel

bn . J an d II (meas. 2)

c1. II, hn. I

397. Milhaud-Symphony no.

393

En g. hn. (meas. 4)

d-b., bn . III

T he extra lines D, E, and F become much mor e significant from the

middle of measure 4, the clima x of the phrase. A t this point th e strings
cease p laying, and measure 5 is all win d tone in diminu endo. D, E, and
F may then be co nsidered as furnishing a continuation of lines Band

C.
Att ent ion is called to the rich tone color, and the predominance, of
line A, and the low pit ch of lines B and C. The few notes in measure I,
for En glish horn, first violins, and 'cellos, belong to the preceding
phrase.

R." prod uc~d

by permission of Heugel et Cie., Puis, o... ne" of the copyri ght.

The example given is a four-part texture, a fugal srrerro having two

parts in augm entation (the answ ering of the interval of a fourth by
a fifth is brought about through observance of tonal conventions of the
fugue).

CONTRAPUNTAL TEXTURE

A N A L YSI S

394

Distribution in Ex. 398:

Distribution in Ex. 397:

A

y, vn. I, fl. I and II

8 [y, vn. I, ob. I and II, trp. I

% vc., trb. I

C
f

vn. II, cl.I

[
S va., cl. II, hn. I and II

[ % ve . bass cl., bn . I and II, rrb. II

[ ruba

8 d-b., contrabn.

In the last two measures, the piccolo is added to the upper part in
time to play the F#. too high for the violins. Otherwise, the only departures from the established arrangement are the forced octave change
in the basses, and the omission of three notes, one unplayable, fo r the
contrabassoon.
The orchestra is well balanced, with the brass to the fo re. T he bass
is deep and ponderous, no doubt an intended effect. This is an excellent
example of a nearly fu ll tutti distributed among fou r melodic lines.
EX.

398. Bartok-Concerto for Orchestra

p. 56, ed. Boosey & H aw kes

-,
"

I~

..

395

Co p yr illht 1946 by Ha.wkes & Son (London) Ltd t:sed b)' p.enllios;Oll.

A vn . I, vn. II
B vc., basscl.
C hn. I and II

D va., Eng. hn.

Ed-b., bn. I and II

In this five-part counterpoint, it could we ll be advanced that the

violin melody is prominent enough to set it apart fr om the other lines.
One would then describe the texture as melody and accompaniment,
the accompaniment being a four-voiced contrapuntal texture. The
distinction is subtle, but accented by the imitative relationships existing
in the thematic content of the four subsidiary melodies.
The doublings are unison doublings, with rwo minor exceptions. The
four notes taken an octave lower by the English horn in measure 5 are
doubtless a sign that the composer did not like the sound of th e hig h
Bb on that instrument. In the same measure the first bassoon is moved
up an octave, perhaps to give clarity to the basses as they descend below the G-string. The omission of the first note, in thi s bassoon doubling of part E, avoids an overemphasis on the Db, which also sounds at
that moment in part B.

CHORDS
CHAPTER

397

TWENTY-FOUR

TYPES OF TEXTURE-TYPE VI,

In superposition, the two pairs are sit uate d one above the other with
no contact between them.

CHORDS
Fig.
chords-that is, ch ords affected littl e or none by voice
leadin g-are to be stu died for the c~o ice of to ne color, th e v~ rtica l
sequence of the instruments, spacmg, balan ce, and equality of
registers. All of th ese attributes should be con sidered in relation to the
dynamic level and musical int ent of the chor d. Each chord ought to
be seen in its setting in the score.
The tone color is determined primarily by the instruments selected,
but it is also in a large measure affected by the manner in which the
instruments are combined. The chord may be scored exclu sively for
woodwinds, for brass, or for strings, or it may be scored for mixtures
of these. Chords for the ful1 orchestra (tutti chords) are common.
Pure colors, without unison doublings, may be used, or the chord may
be made up of mixed timbres. The particular sono rity of low registers,
or high, may be chos en. Emphasis may be placed on double-reed tone,
or on muted sounds. It should not be overlooked th at the harmonic
structure of the chord, its intervals, has an essential influence on its
tone color, apart from the instrumental sound.
Vertical relationships between instrumental tones are important in
securing an even vertical plane of sound, without noticeable breaks
where one tone color adjoins another. It is customary to distinguish,
in addi tion to octa ve and unison doubling, four relationships that may
exist vertically between pairs of instruments. These are overlapping,
superposition , interlocking, and enclosing.
O verlapping occurs when the lower of one pair of instruments is in
unison with the upper of a second pair.

SOLAT E D

396

1 19

Int erlocking is achieved by placing th e low er not e of the upper pair

beneath th e upper nore of th e lower pair.

In enclosing, both nares of one pair lie between th e two notes of th e

other pair.
~ )'Q'

enclosing :

~ijlllll11]
Fig.

III

The spacing of the chord sho uld be observ ed ; that is, wh eth er open
or close spacing is used, and w het her or nor th ere have been left any
spaces in whi ch it wo uld have been possible to place notes of th e
har mon y.
Th e balance of a cho rd is jud ged by th e relative tone-weig ht, or
carryi ng power, of each note, assum ing that the int ent is to create a
vertical plane of sound in which no to ne emerges or prot rudes perce pt ibly tow ard th e hearer. An absolute judgment is rarely possible,
because of the many qu estions involved, but one shou ld form an
opinion for ref erence when the opportu nity comes to hear the chord
in an orchestra l perf orm ance. The largest contributing factors in
balance are the number of instrument s playing each note, and the rcla-

ANALY SI S

C H O R DS

rive dy namic power of the individual instruments in th eir particular

are the more widely spaced ones. From this standpoint, the E in the
second trombone seems less ideally placed than the other notes.
Vertical relationships: superposition-flutes, oboes; tr umpets, horns;
inrcrlocki ng-coboes, clarinets; overlapping-oboes, trumpets; trombone s, bassoons. The woodwinds are placed high, above the brass, except for the overl apping wit h the trumpets and the plac ing of the basSOOIts in the lowest octave. The brass being so mu ch more powerful
than the wo odwinds, the latt er serve principally as reinforcement of
upper partials.
The tremolo strings are very brilliant as placed, so that th e chord is
quite evenly balanced throughout. Instruments not having unison doubling arc oboe I, horn I, horn IV, trombone II, and bassoon II. Exc ept
for trombone II, these receive acoustic reinforcement from th e fundamental tone. Even the bassoon benefits by the strong difference to ne
from the octave C's.

398

registers.
The use of weak and strong registers is always to be taken into accounr where wind instruments are con cerned. bearing in mind that
discrepancies are often corrected by the performers in music with
which the y are familiar.
A chord may be delibe rately overweighted in a part of its range in
order to emphasize the pitch location as low, medium, or high.
Examples of isolated chords are giHn below, in condensed score to
save space. The student is urged to examin e the ch ords in the full scores.
In the examples, all notes sound at the pit ch wr itten.
EX.

399. Weber-e-Ocerrare to DeTFreiscburz P: z.t. ed . Philhannonia

....

~ ] 2 n..

EX . 400.

Brahms-Symphony no. 3

399

p. 65, ed. Kalmus

.. H N .

Z IS .

- ]vw. II

.IT (strings

:e:

QJVS.'

Vlol. I

V'" . II ~

Ol V.

tremolo)

Example 399: A clear and brilliant tutti chord, occurri ng in the mid dle of the overture. T he majo r triad in root position is naturally a most
resonant cho rd since its facto rs are identified with the overtones from
its lowest note. The structu re of the harmonic series is also sugge sted
by the observation that cho rds sound clearer when the lower intervals

vc,

- . 1>-1

Example 400: A soft closing chord of a slow movement. The to ne

color is a blend of the luminosity of the high violins and flutes, with the
dark tone of the minor thi rd, played on the C-string by the violas and
doubled by the closely spaced tr ombones.
The spacing of the chord aUOYlS the ear to separate these two colors,

ANALYS IS

CHORDS

th rough the omission of the G just above the horns. Such open spaces
arc often found in soft chords, and they permit the overtones of lower
instruments to sound. The result is less satisfactory in loud chords, as
then the overtones are not strong enough to compete with nearby instruments. I Jere the unison of double-basses wit h the open 'cello C
is particularly rich in upper partials in the neighborhoo d of t he horns
and clarinets.

amount of crescendo to th e capacity of th e woodwind or to sacrifice

balance to achieve th e dramatic effect want ed by th e composer.

400

EX . 4 01.

Berlioz-Romeo et Juliette

EX. 40l.

Strauss-Don Juan

401

p. If. ed. Kalmus

p. 53. ed. Eulcnburg

,"
It)

# J 11{N.

1'PP Joke

e-

D- B.

(omitted: harp ar~ggio;

glockenspiel tremolo on eve E)
Reprlnt ed ....lth th e permi ssion of th e

<0- D- B.

P-=;tT = -.1'
(su. and limp. tremolo)
Repr int ed with the permission of th e so le ag enu. for Eulen bu rg
lLon, N ew York.

~Ii niatu rc

Score s : C. F. Peters Co rpora-

Example 40r : This is a chor d of medium low register. N ote the

overlapp ing in flut es, obo es, and clarin ets, and the interlock ing of violin double-stops. The major thi rd overto ne is guarded against by the
stron g doubling, even tri pling, of th e uppe r C's. The only parts left
without do ubling are flute I, kettl edrum I. and th e basses. There are
no open spaces exccpt th e bottom oc tave.
The indicated crescendo from piano to fortissimo, th en returning
to piano, introduces a serious problem of balance. The trombones and
timpani can easily surpass the other winds and most str ing sections, in
power of cr escendo. H orns can do better than woodwinds in thi s
respect, especially when th e latt er are, as here, in th eir least powerful
rcgisters. T he con ducto r will have to decide whether to limit the

topyri~t

own e1'$ C. F. Peters Corporation. N ew Yo rk.

Example 402 : The dyn amic level marked is unusual in a com plete
tutti of a large or chestra. The effect is rich and sump tuous, and could
not be obtain ed with the thinner texture of a smaller group of instruments . Here the extreme softness of a triple piano is, of course, to be
tak en in a relative sense, as soft as possible. The instruments are not all
in weak registers, bur this is not unexpected in a chor d extending over
so wide a range. The two high flutes are not doubled.
This dominant major ninth is another of th ose chords that follow in
th eir structure the interval seq uence of the harm onic series. The root
appears only in the low est octave, except for th e high kettledrum's F~,
played very softly with soft sticks. From th e C~ in trombone III and
'cellos upwards, all spaccs are filled with chord tones. It is of interest
that the three upper appearances of G#, the ninth, are not doubled
(flute I, oboe I. tru mper I).

402

ANALYSIS

EX. 403. Stravinsky-Sy mphonies of lVind Instruments

p. 15. ed, Boosey & Hawkes

CH O RDS

403

p. 8 1, cd. G . Schirmer

EX, 404. \V. Schuman-Sympbony no. 3

oe.

,'=:::: 4

;".,

(X)!'n

8u

_'l_

.:. .:oe:

b.ss.

Hl< .

n :u.

n o.

Example 4 0 3: A soft wind chord, hannonically a combination of

tonic and dominant. The stopped horns, with muted tru mpets, trombones, and tuba, blend on fairly equal terms with the woodwind. The
woodwind doublings arc worth y of close study. \Vi th the high clarinet and oboes, the th ree flutes make a bright color, added [ 0 the high
first tru mpet. There are more open than close intervals, giving room
for the partials of both C and G [0 sound. The only close dissonance
is the minor second made by th e first horn against the mixed timbre of
seco nd trumpet, clarine t, and English hom.

II

:a:

0..1 .

= (AYJ

Cop )'ripl 1942 by G. Sc:hlnnu. Inc.

Ex. 404: H ere the triads of C majo r and Eb major are combined into
one chord. the fonner being situated in the lower registers and th e
lart er in the higher pitches. The tw o components may be distinguished
by the ear as two layers of sound, an effect further faci litated through
th e absence of the not e G between horns and trumpets. The upper
wood winds are massed in"superposition above the high trumpets, furnishing a sonority of force and brilliance for the E b part of the chord,
whereas the stri ngs and lower winds are given positions of less intensity and carrying power. The entire chord is dominated by the brass
tone, and if balance is to be achieved it will be necessary for trumpets
and trombones to play somew hat under the dynamic level indicated.

EX. 405. Hindemith-SY111phony : Mathis der Maler

P'

'j. ed. Schorr

CHAPTER

TWENTY-FIVE

TYPES OF T EXTURE-TYPE VII,

eo 1\ 1 P LEX

"

T EXT U R E

"" .,11
~

seen how elem ent s of a texture may be themselves

divisible into smaller un its or suhc lcmcnrs. In the texture of
Type I, the melodic line may be " th ickened" by one or more
parallel intervals, and eventually be more or less completely hannonized. TIle clement of accompaniment (Type II) may be quite complex, and consist of a number of separate det ails. In T ype III , more
than one secondary melody may be pr esented, th e combined melodic
elements approaching a contrapuntal texture. The number of real parts

,
'"

.,
""

"

"

HAVE

or melodic voices may be increased in Types IV and V.

By combining two or more of the textures we have described as

no..
n: '"

Types I to VI, a texture is created that is complex in \'arying degree.

Refer to Example 405 on facing page.

Copyr ight 19304 by B. Schott's Soehn e,

lola.in~. U~d

by permission.

Example 45 : The primary element in this passage is th e chorale-like

melody played by the first trumpet. Its thematic importance has been
previously establi shed in the piece . H ere, it is pre sented as the top
voice in a texture of part w riting for the brass, with the added support
of the clarinets. The secondary melod y ( piccolo, flutes, oboes) , in
contrasting rhythm, is likewise th ematic, w hile a third melodic element consists simply of a descending scale for the strings, varied by
the violins. The held pedal bass may be considered a fourth element.
405

ANALYSIS

406

The distribution of these elements may be shown in schematic form

as follows:
Element A (melody harmonized in part writing):

a (melody ): 8

P ' I, d . I and II

hn. I, trb. I
hn. II, III and IV, trp. II, trb. II

b (parts) :
Element B (secondary melody) :
8

Element C (descending scale):

[tr

r.

fl.
ob. I and II

8[vn. I
[vn.
8[va.
II

,.

~,

--- '

vc.

Element D (renuro bass):

' ~

8[ bn. I, rrb. III

8[

bn. II, ruba,

""

y, d-b.

'" m,.

Y, d-b.

"'"

The horn and trombone do not continue their octave doubling of

the melody all the way. The part writing is in fact quite free. giving the
impression of a weaving of six pacts. However, the pans arc not at all
times independent voices (compare trumpet II and horn III in measures
t

and a}.

Elements A, B, and C, are marked at different dynamic levels.

EX. 406. Strauss-Symphonia Domestics

..,

..

f facing 1

P' 24. ed. Associated Music Publishers

With au thori ution of the origi na.l pu blishers Ed. Bote &: G. Bock, Berlin , Wiesba den .

,',

"..

J,..,

.....

=-

~ T

"0

- - - - -- --- ' .J

."..

40R

COMPLEX TEXTURE

A NAL YS I S

Exam ple 406: T he t wo textu res making up this page of music arc
both of type II, and they nrc closely related in th ematic content. They
are, how ever, clearly differentiated in meter and rhythm. and also in
general musical character. The orc hestr ation carri es out the idea of
du ality by skillful usc of tone colors and pitch levels.
The distr ibution is as follow s:

409

EX. 407. Bartok-Concerto [or Orchestra

p. I 16, ed. Boosey

& Hawkes

T extu re I:

Element A (melody ) :
ob. d'am., Eng. hn. hn. I and II, vn. I, va.
Element B (accompaniment ): c1. I and II, hn. Ill , IV, V and VI. vn.lI
T extu re II :
Element A (melody) :

ob. I and II, D cl., A cl. (meas. I ) , fl. I and

II ( fr om rncas. 2)
Element B (accompaniment ) : bn . LIl , III, and IV, timp., vc., d-b.

In texture II, a secon dary melod y enters in measure 4 (flu te III, A

clarin et ) . The Bb clar inets join element A of texture I in measur e 5
The sonority of texture I is large and full, while texture II is heard as
thou gh in th e background. There is no octave doubling of either
melod y, excep t in measures 4 an d 5 (oboe II ) , where the two lines are
farther apart.

.. ~_ 1

,....

,
Copyright 1946 by H aw h s & Son (London) L td. Used by permission.

E xample 407: Two contrapuntal textures are combined here, both

composed of can onic entries at a time interval of one measure. They
are contrasted in rhythm and tone color. The over-all texture is spare.
In the first two measures, the oboes reinforce the first three notes
of the flute entries. The clarinets are doubled in measure 5, because of
their comparatively weak register, and because of th eir situ ation in the
midst of so many voices.
Another kind of comp lex texture is not th e p roduct of a synt hesis
of other textures, but is an ensemble of many elements, none of whi ch
emerges as a primary element . The ear is attrac ted momentar ily to
various derails, and almost at once diverted to oth ers. Someone has aptly

CO .\l P LEX TEXT U RE

411

called this effect of a woven musical fabric a "tapestry of sound ." Example 40 8 is a good illustration.
EX, 4 0 8.

...,.

Several groupings can be made, reducing the thirty-one instrumental

parts to a considerably smaller number of clements. The following is a
classification of the elements in a hy porherical order of importance.
Difference of opinion is not only welcome d but encouraged.

A: D el.
B: altern ating between ob. l and D trp.
C: e1. I

,.

D: Eng. hn.
E : pice. I and II, forming one line
F: ft. I, ob. 1l and Ill , e1 . Il, (later ft. in G)
G : bn. II and III, co ntrab n. Tand II, hn. III and IV, vc. I, d-b . VI
H : fl. II. c1. III, va., haying a similar fu nction
I: bass e1.
J: fl. in G, conneering later with solo vn.

K: vc. II, d-b, 1,Il,IIl,IV, and V (chord)

,.

.'l:~!!!!!!!i!!!~~;~;!;::~!~~!!

::c. -

[facing J
P' 9, ed . Russe

Example 408 : All of the motives and figures have been int roduced in
the preceding pages of the score, so that they are not unfamiliar to the
listener. Some pares are obviously subordinate, like the chord held by
the double-basses, and the figure for the bassoons might be regarded
as an accompaniment figure. But the separation into melodic and accom paniment elements does not seem properly descriptive of the effect
of this music.

...

Stravinsky-Le Sacre du Printempr

..

",

The complex textu re of this type is occasionally used for the evocation of a special atmosphere, or for the suggestion of extramusical ideas
( Honegger-Pacific 231) . It may be employed as a backgro und on
which to superimpose one or more melodies.

THREE
PROBLE,\IS IN ORCHESTRATION

CHAPTER

TWENTY-SIX

ORCHESTRA TION OF MELODY

study of harmony, counterpoint, and other technical aspects

of writing music, the results of practical exercises can be tested in
sound by singing, or by playing on the piano. It should be obvious
that these testing methods can have little or no value to the student of
orchestration. Nothing short of a well-rehearsed performance by a
good orchestra can show the student the one proof he needs to havenamely, how his orchestration sounds. Even a well-intentioned "reading" will very likely give him a wrong impression of the quality of his
work. Since the resources of a good orchestra arc rarely, if ever, available, the student is forced to rely upon the criticism of a more experienced person, his own store of information, and the judgment of his
work by analogy with similar passages in scores.
The orchestration of piano music, although providing convenient
material, is an exercise too advanced and specialized for early stages
in the study of orchestration. The action of the pianoforte pedal cannot, and should not, be ignored, and once the question is raised of
representing its effect in terms of the orchestra there is no end to the
vexing, not to say insoluble, problems for both teacher and student.
Exercises should be devised that present conditions similar to those
of ordinary problems that confront a composer or orchestrator. It is
also desirable that they involve contact with orchestral scores whenever that is feasible. Problems can be invented by the student or the
teacher. Some suggestions as to their nature will be made in these pages.

N THE

416

Problem

1.

PROBLEMS

ORe H ESTRA TI ON OF ,\ 1E L 0 D Y

MELODY FOR STRINGS

Other possibilities are the reduction in the number of instruments

in a section and the usc of solo players.

417

Melody to be scored for strings.

UNISO'S" DOUBLING

Fig.

122

To derive the most benefit from exercises, one should not be satisfied
to find but one or two solutions. These arc nearly always immediately
apparent and easy, which does nor mean they may not be the best. As
many solutions as possible should be found, and their relative merits
and individual qualities appraised. In this way a technique of orchestration may be built up and expanded.
The possible solutions to a given problem will faii into three overlapping categories: (a) normal or natural; (b) unusual or novel; and
(c) strange or grotesque. The first of these is of course the most important, and the most difficult. The second is perhaps more interesting,
and is an essential area of inquiry for the orchestrator. The third need
nor be explored, since it is the easiest; in fact, arrangements of this son
are more often than not the product of ineptitude.

SOLUTIO'S" WITHOUT DOUBLING

The melody should be listened to mentally as played by each of the

strings, first as it is written, then in octave transposition. Transposition
by other intervals is also to be considered. For instance. placing the part
a fifth lower would make quite a different effect on violas or 'cellos.
Other than octave transpositions will not usually be discussed in these
chapters, for reasons of space.
If the melody is assigned to double-basses, without transposition, it
would sound an octave lower, and although it is not impossible of
execution thus , the result would be most unusual, even strange. \Vrieren
down an octave, it is in a good range for the basses, but it would sound
better with octave doubling by the 'cellos. The melody as it stands is
entirely suitable for violins or violas.

Possibilities for unison doubling in the strings are : vn. I + vn. II,
vn. I
va., vn. I vc., vn. II
va., vn. II
\T., va.
vc., vn. I
vn. II
va., vn. I
vn. II
vc., vn. I
va.
VC., vn. II
va.
vc. The'cellos seem out of place in these doublings because the intensity of the high tones on the A-string contrasts with the tone quality
of the other instruments. The penetrating sound of the viola A-string
can be avoided by marking the last half of the melody sui D.
The unison of violin I and violin II, with or without violas, gives
breadth and power. It is often used to maintain predominance of a
melody against a full background. The violas add much warmth and
tone-weight to the combination.

+
+

+
+

OCTAVE

vn. I

[vn.II

+
+
+ +

DO{}BLI~G

s[vn.

s[va.

va.

vc.

[vc.
d-b.

These are the most common arrangements in octave doubling, the

first two requiring the placing of violin I an octave higher (Fig. 12 3a).
The combination of violas and 'cellos seems ideal for the present
melody (Fig. 12 3b). Combining violas and basses this way is not practical here because of the high pitch of the bass part. If the violas are
replaced by 'cellos, the part can be put in the lower octave (Fig. 123')'

Fig.

123

PROBLEMS

ORCHESTRAT ION OF MELODY

Inversion of the natural order of pitch of the instruments (p lacing

violas above violins, 'cellos above violas) is to be considered an unusual

violin II to preserve balance is shown in Fig. I2 5 (a) , unison doubling

to emphasize the lower voice (b), and accenting the upper voice by the
same means (c) .

41S

arrangement, used for special effect. This principle applies even

placing violin II above violin I.

to

b. VN.

VN. I

419

I DIV.

TWO-OCTAVE DOUBLING

sen ,
S[vn.II
va.

[vn.,

s[""'

se

8 vn. II

sL

vc.

Stva.
vc.

VN. II DIV.

d-b.

The first of the above schemes carries the first violins into the extreme high range, and it is of ethereal effect. \Videning the sonority
over two octaves enriches the tone, and at the same time renders it
more impersonal in expression. T his quality is enhanced, and an impression of aloofness imparted by omitting the middle voice (Fig. 12+2).
Octave doublings may exte nd over three and fou r octaves, Fig. 114.
(b)
(e).

nc.
VN.1l

Fig. 12 5

and

MELODY FOR WOODW INDS

\'N. I

Problem

2.

Melody to be scored for woodwinds.

\'N. II

nc.

ttc.

c.

nc.
v

Fig.

1 24

These resources of variety are en large d by the use of divided strings,

and by combining unison doubling with octave doubling. Di vision of

T he instruments available in all problems are, unless otherwise stated,

those of the standard symphony orchestra with woodwind by threes,
four horns, three trumpets, three trombones, tuba, harp, percussion,
and strings. In the woodwind section, the third family members are
presumed to be the auxiliary instruments-piccolo, English horn, bass
clarinet, and contrabassoon. Needless to say, it is not expected that all
the available instruments will be used in each problem. The acquisition
of an instinctive feeling for the orchestra as an instrument is furt hered,
however, by a continued awareness of the presence of those instruments that do not happen to be playing.

PROBLEMS

ORCHESTRATION OF MELODY

SOl.UT IOS WITHOUT DOCBUSG

UXISOS" DOUBLISG

To one experie nced in orchestral wr iting J melody will at once suggest certain instruments, or perhaps one particular instrument most
suited for its performance. A composer usually creates melodies with
the instruments in mind. alt hough he is conscious of the fact th at a
melody written for one instrument can perfectly well be assigned to
anoth er, with or wit ho ut mino r changes or tr ansposition.
:\s for th e stu dent. he should conside r each instrument in tu rn, observe its suitability to the melody in respect to range and other technical
points. never omitting the effort to hear mentally the sound of each
instrument. Following arc some ty pical observations rele vant to problem 2.
Piccolo-sounds an octave higher; the melody is good as it stands; if
written an octave highe r, th e soun d might be too shrill, un less in large
combinations.
Flurc-c-compararively gende in th is range; proba bly better an octave
higher.
O boe-c-sraccaro and accents better th an those of the flute; excellent
range and sty le; also suitable an octave lower. rather rough.
English horn- parr ro be written a fifth highcr. hence too high in
th e pitch given ; better an octave low er ; less in charac ter than th e oboe.
Clarinet-in good range and style. especially th e sixteenth note
figure; staccato a little heavier than on t he oboe. also good an octave
below, but q uieter; pan written a major second higher.
Bass clarinet-write our in both French and G erman notation (see
Chapter Nine) ; ginn pitch too high. possible an ocrav e lower but best
range two octaves down ; good style, staccato a little slow .
Basscon -c-exccllcnr one octave lower; sharp, dry staccato, appropriate ch aracte r; two octa ves lower playable but subdued in quality;
three octa ves lower possible bur sluggish.
Co nt rabassoon-part to be w ritten t wo octaves lowe r, sounds still
another oc tave down; speaks slowly in this ty pe of music; better omit
some no tes; perha ps give it only the accents and slurs oc curring in
measures 2, 3, and 4.

Unison doubling involves the creation of mixed timbres. T his was of

less importance in dea ling w ith strings, which are far more alike in tone
color th an arc th e woodwind inst ruments. Furthermore, th e greater
disparity in th e different registers of each woodwind instrument rende rs th e matt er of th eir com bination more complex.
Two instruments playing in unison reinforce each ot her, but at th e
same time each ten ds to cancel some of th e int ensity of the ot her's tone.
The un ison of two instruments of the same kind possesses somewhat
Jess th an twice th e tone-weight and carrying power of one. A lso, the
subtle fluct uati ons of expressive playing are bound to be in large part
destr oyed when two play in unison.
Unison doublings are used for dy namic reinf orcement and to obtain ne w (One colors. T he stud ent should sto re up in his memory as
many of th ese mixed timbres as he can by hearing orchestras, with
knowledge of the scores. T hey cannot be described in words. When
two instr uments of different tone colors play a melody in unison, th e
predominance of one or th e other color will vary throughout the
phrase. as the rel ative int ensities vary .
It will be useful to the stu dent to consider the possibilities of unison
doubling in the following list,

420

pice. + ft.
pice. + ob.
pice. + cI.
ft. + ob.
ft. + Eng. hn.
ft. + cI.
ft.
bass cI.

ft. + bn.
ob. + Eng. hn.
ob. + cI.
ob. + bass cI.
ob . + bn.
Eng. hn. + cI.
Eng. hn.
bass cI.

421

Eng. hn. + bn.

bass cI.
bn .
bass cl.
bn.
bass d . conrrabn.
conrrabn.
bn.

cI.
cI.

+
+

+
+

As far as problem 2 is concerned, oboe and clarinet cannot play high

enough to double the piccolo, unless the clarinet is asked to ascend to
high C; and because of the first Bb, the flute cannot play an octave
lower to double the English horn, bass clarinet. or bassoon . The combinations with contrabassoon are not satisfacto ry for this melody.
The best rhythmic stacc ato will be obt ained with oboe plus clarinet;

PROBLEMS

422

ORCHESTRATION OF MELODY

423

in the octave below with clarinet plus bassoon; and in the high
octave with flute plus piccolo.
Further possibilities are the unison doublings of three or more instruments.

OCTAVE DOUBLIXG

Octave doubling involves the equalizing of registers to preserve

balance. Ordinarily, two instruments of the same kind, as two oboes,
do not balance an octave apart because of the difference in registers.
This is not a rule, but rather a caution to serve as a guide in considering
individual cases. It is perhaps oftener true than not, but the peculiarities
of the instrument in question, the pitch of the octave, and the dynamic
level, affect the validity of this as a principle.
(Ion..

I!

!>

b.
FL. PI Ce.

0 .
I

r~

OB.e.

;;
ENG. HN.

Fig. "7

ln Fig. 127 (a), the octave C for two flutes will be in uneven balance,
whereas the octave B is quite good. The high E is much more brilliant
than the lower E. The usefulness of the auxiliary instruments is shown
by the combination of flute and piccolo, the piccolo sounding the
octave above from a fingering identical with that of the flute . In (b)
the octave C, in contrast to that for two flutes, has the lower note the
stronger of the two. The octave A is in good balance. The octave C
is much better balanced if the English horn replaces the second oboe ,
playing a written G on the instrument.
A melody such as we are considering in problem 2, covering a range
of an octave, needs careful attention to the matter of registers when
assigned to woodwind in octaves. Following are some workable solunons.

Fig. 128

Another often stated rule is that instruments must be kept in the

natural order of pitch; namely, flute above oboe, oboe above clarinet,
clarinet above bassoon. Inspection of almost any score will reveal violations of this rule, inevitable considering the extent to which the ranges
overlap. There is nevertheless the prestige of usag~ to support the principle, and those combinations we classify as normal or natural will
usually conform in a general way. Inversions of the order, when they
prove successful in balance, come under the heading of unusual or
novel arrangements (Fig. 129).

Fig. 129

Doublings embracing two or more octaves may be used (Fig. 130a),

and for special effect two instruments may play at a distance of two or
more octaves apart (Fig. I 30b).
b.

Plcc.~

,,,.
B1'I.

Fig. 130
p.

ORCHESTRATION OF ,\ I E L O O Y

PROBLE,\IS

424

Unison doublings are combined with octave doublings for added

strength, to emphasize a particular pitch location, or to correct balance
that may be faulty because of disparity in registers. For example, in
Fig. 130 (a). the balan ce would be improved by doubling both clarinet
and bassoon with other instruments, the bassoon being especially at a
disadvantage.
MELODY FOR BRASS

Problem 3. Melody to be scored for brass.

Maesrosc

:>

~IJJir.i~ Ei~
f

OCTAVE IX>UBLlNG

T1lP . II

TRB . III

HN. II

Fig. 132
These combinations have each a slight unevenness due to differences
in registers, but they do not show the audible differences in attack exhibited by the combinations in Fig. 133 (the entire melody should be
taken into consideration).
NN.

-=~u ;

Fig.

425

131

Fig. 133

SOLUTIOS WITHOUT DOUBLISG

Trumpet-good range as written; playable an octave lower, bur first

two measures too low for good effect.
Horn-too high as written; good an octave lower; [,VO octaves lower
possible, but too low to sound well alone .
T rombonc-c-good an octave lower; also good two octaves lower but
less appropriate.
T uba-one octave lower suitable only for the euphonium; for the
bass tuba in F, good two octaves lower; also three octaves lower if
combined with heavy sonorities.

H ere the difference in articulation between the action of slides and

that of valves is quite noticeable; also the slowness of the horn to speak.
The horn also lacks tone-weight, compared with its companions in the
brass section. These discrepancies are to a large extent mitigated, or
covered, by the use of unison doubling and mixed timbres (Fig. '34) '
Ifl'l . 1, III

, II 1lU'. I. II

fiT

-T1 <i.

,.

T1lP. III

etc.

1UNISOS" OOCBLlS"G

The unison of two or three trumpets is excellent, and in general

preferable to octave doubling in which the third trumpet is placed low.
Horns may play two, three, or four on the same part. If pitched two
ocraves below the melody as given, the second and fourth horns would
play in unison . One octave below the given pitch is a good range for
the unison of three trombones. The unison of horns and trombones is
effective and normal. The fourth horn might double the tuba, two
octaves bcloc.. the melody as given.

T1lJl. III

,"'.
HN. I. Ill.. TJUl. l, II

rv, T1UI.

I-"
etc.

~.,

~.,

HN. II.,

Hl'I. II, IV

etc.

III

ct

Fig. '34

I-"

PROBLEMS

426

ORCHESTRAT ION OF MELODY

THE GROUPS COM BIS ED

Problem 4. Melod y to be scored fo r strings , ssood-uin d , and bran.

Fig. 135

STRI:'\GS ASD W OOOW ISD

A woodwind instrument may dou ble a string sect ion at the octave
abov e or below, e.g., flute above violin I, bassoon below. T his usually
sounds well in soft nuanc es, bur when loud it is necessary to dou ble th e
woodwind part [0 balanc e the strings. The un ison doub ling of strings
by woo dwi nd is comm on. All combinations arc good. wh erever th e
ranges coin cide. Co nsidering the extent of the string ranges, th ere are
few doublings that do not offer at least a restricted possibility. The
student may compare the ranges to see what th ese are. Some unisons
of strings and woodwind seem especially congenial and colorful, although it should be emphasized th at the kind of music being play ed is
of para mount importance in this respect. Also th e different intensities
will create different tone colors in different parts of the range . As illustration, let the following combinations be con sidered thro ughout
fl., va.
Eng. hn., vc.
bass
the range of the wind instrument: vn.
cl., d-b. contrabn.
In general, when a single woodwind is added to a string part it
serves to strengthen th e str ing to ne, and if the dy namic level is fairly
loud its own color will be mor e or less absorbed . If the woodwind is
doubled by another woodwind , th e wind tone begins noticeably to
assert itself.

BRASS AND W OODWI ND

Associating with brass, th e woodwind finds itself again in compa ny

with sonorities more powerful than its own. The horns are more capable than the heavy brass of blending with woodwind, their tone being

427

much less un yielding. T hey are therefore a helpfu l link between the
two groups. In piano, octave doublings are of good effect betwee n
trumpet and flute, horn and flute, oboe , or clarinet . In forte, the woodwinds act as reinforcement of uppe r partials of the brass, and th ey require as much doubling as may be available, if a balance is to be approximated . The low-pit ch ed bassoons and bass clarinet cannot perfonn this fun cti on, so th ey are usually engaged in doubling the bass,
with the tuba, th ird trombon e, and fourth horn.
Unison doubling of tru mpet s by wood wind (cla rinets and oboes)
adds a certain amou nt of tone-weight, but it reduces the characteristic
br illiance o f the trumpet ton e. H orns make effectiv e unisons with clarinets and bassoons. \\'ood wind unisons with tro mbon es are not often
useful. The tuba combines quite well with bass clarinet and contrabassoon .

STRISGS, W OODWISD, ASD BRASS

Sin ce prob lem 4 does not specify a full tutti, th e melody may be
scored for only part of th e three instrumental groups, even thinly. Far
from disco uraging this type of solut ion to the problem, let us say th at
the use of pure colors, that is without much unison doubling, leads to
a more interesting, clear, and transparent orc hestral sono rity, gr eatly
to be desired. On th e oth er hand, considering the orchestr a as a wh ole
as an instrument, it is necessary to acquire some early familiarity with
th e rather commonplace process of handling large groups of instruments in a norma l way.
Am ong th e many alternatives existing, two different approaches arc
suggested below. In Fig. 136(a) , the sound is con centrated in a narrow
range, one octave, and, since the effect intended is that of an orchestral
forrissimo, nearly all the instruments are used. This makes a very thick
tone, wit h much unison doubling. The instrument s of th e lowest
octave, double-basses and contrabassoon, have been omitted in the
interest of concentration in-the single octave. The tuba is omitted, and
also the seco nd and third trumpets, to save the over -all tone fr om being
comp letely that of the brass, especially in measure + The piccolo is
not used lest the rang e be widened by anoth er octave.

PR 0 B LE~1 S

428

OR CHESTR ATIO :-: O F

~ IE L O D Y

429

In Fig. 136 ( b ) , the range is widene d to fo ur octaves, giving a mor e

brilliant result. A ll the instru ment s arc included (all shown at actual

pitch) .
a.
I

en. rSG.
6

J I N ., BASS

r
/ .1h '

11"' _. 1 ra,

P IC C ., l FL.

ci,

TRP . I, HN . I, m,TIlB. I

--

I"
I TIlB . , H:<;. II, IV

~ TlU'. m

H S . I , III

tic.
H S . 11

rv

~~ '

\ 'N . I, II, VA.

I~

..

I ~

e-a.

The follo win g melodies are co be sco red in vario us ways , for different combinations of strings, woodwind, and brass.

-,. ..
e:

--

etc.

-"'-

~~ e-

VA.

,C

Fig. ' 37

"'-

J TRP.

ru"
/A

. . .I
0 8. <NC.
n, !IN.

c-as.

l.-I'l

~ fC

&

....

Fig. ' 38
Problem 6.

. "'-

Fig. 136

In th e suggested solutions to the foregoing pr oblems, the arrang ements given arc int ended to con tinue throughout the phrase. Actually,
both un ison and octave doublings may be int ro du ced for only part of
a melo dy, for reasons of inte nsity or volume, changing color, or sudden
accent. Doub lings will usually acc um ulate in the course of a gr adua l
crescendo. A melodic line extending over a very wid e range will necessitate joining one cone co lor to another . If possible, the joining is made
w here there is not a marked contrast of registe rs, and the pares arc
overl apped by at least one note (Fig. 137) .

Fig. ' 39
Problem 7.

Fig. 140.

430

PROBLEMS

Problem 8.
CHAPTER

TWENTY-SEVEN

BACKGROUND AND
Fig.

ACCOMPANIMENT

141

arrangement of the accompaniment to a melody is more a

matter of composition than of applying orchestral procedures.
The rhythmic style and the texture of the background is just
as much a part of the composer's thought as the melody itself. Harmonically, the accompaniment supplies tonal orientation for the melody, harmonic color through the choice of chord structures, and the
motion of harmonic rhythm through the pattern of root changes. It
also supplies rhythmic designs and pulsation that establish the underlying rate of motion of the music, a function that can affect vitally the
musical meaning of the melody itself. The background is important in
setting an over-all mood or atmosphere.
Orchestration must confirm and enhance these musical qualities, and
it should not distort them by ostentatious display of orchestral "effects"
irrelevant to the musical meaning. The accompaniment mayor may
not be contrasted in tone color with the melody, although such contrast is one means of securing detachment of the melody from the background. A melody with accompaniment is very often played exclusively by strings, less often by woodwinds or brass. It is valuable practice to try scoring phrases for the three groups separately.
It goes without saying that a melody should not be overwhelmed in
sound by its accompaniment. Skillfully managed, however, the accompaniment may be quite elaborate and still permit a melody played
softly by one or two instruments to be perfectly heard. This is what
is meant by transparency in orchestral texture. The sonority is heard as

HE

431

432

P RO B L E .\I S

th e total effect of a number of details. A good example may be seen in

Chapter Twenty, Fig. 385, from Debussy 's La ,\fer.
The alternatives in the arrangement of an accompaniment arc so
many that copi ous perusal and analysis of orchestr al scores of all sty les
and periods becomes of prim e importa nce in a study of the sub ject . An
essential point to rem ember is th at orchestral figu ration and idiomatic
''''ri ring originate in the techniques of the instruments. another reason
for avoiding as much as possible th e usc of piano music in the study of
or ch estra tion . The best exerc ises are th ose which bring about closer
con tact with scor es.
Four types of exercise are suggested :
I 'I ake a redu cti on of a passage in a sco re, cont aining a melody
with accomp animent. Do not sho w the names of instr uments. R escor e
th e passage and compare the result with th e original. This is more
p rofitable when a second person makes the reducti on, bur one per<;on
can derive mu ch fr om the practice.
2. Supply an original melod y and harmonic backgr ound, the latter
in simp le harmonic skeleto n form, to be orchestrated fo r various instrumental gr oupings.
3 Similar to type 2 , bur with the kind of figuration and other details
of the accompaniment prescribed. Certain instruments may also be
stipulated.
4 Select a passage fr om orchestral literature, having a melody and
accornpanimenr. Reorchestr ate the passage in different ways, radi cally
changing the distribution of the two element s, e.g., melody in woodwind instead of strings, erc., but preserving as far as possible the ori gina l
musical sty le. T his is a real composer 's problem. one that often presents
itself in the working our of a composition . Vari ants in the condit ions
of the problem will at once come to mind. such as changing the dynamic level from piano to fortissimo, or transposing the passage up a
fifth, operations requiring no little readjustm ent in th e scoring. A most
valuable by -product of this exerci se will be the acquired intimate
knowledge of th e original orchestration.

B A C K GR O U ND AN D A C CO .\I PAN t,\l E NT 433

Problem 9.
Allq:ro grv.lOSO
elt melll A. ( melody)

elt~nl

B ( humonic backgroend)

"-

Fig. I .p
T his texture of t~.;. o elements is to be orchestrated in the [oliou..'i JlI{ ~'jlYS:
( 0 ) For strings Duly (it is understo od tbat elem ent 11 as given is th e
barnronic skeleton for an acconrp-mintent to be devis ed'[.
( b ) With the m elody in the -uioodwind, accompaniment in th e strings.
(c) W ith the melody ill the strings, accompanim ent in the woodwi nd.
(d) W ith th e groups mixed, and ,. .atb the addition of horns.

PROBL EMS

434

BA CK G RO U ND A ND A C COM PA NI M ENT 435

Solution (.1). Strings a/one.

.,
\IN . I

AUtgro grazioso

-------

l'

!,
VN . II

~ .

. ~ .

l'

-----------.

Doubtless the first sol ution that suggests itself will be th e obvious one
of assigning the given par ts as they stan d to t he string sections in norm al
ord er, oa., soprano, vn . I; alto , vn. II; ten or, va.; bass, ve ., w it h or w ithout double-b asses. As a ma tte r of fact, th is is an excellent arra nge ment,
and it would sound very well indeed.
The solut ion given in Fig. 143 is lighter in texture, and has the advantage of imparting a sense of motion at the beginning.

Solution (b ). M elody ill the woo dwind.

"----" .

3:

~ .,

pin.
e-a.
l'

,
I I ~"
,

---

~.

~ .

'-..'

--

,.

.-

l!o

Fig. 143

Fig. 144
This accompaniment is designed for transparency and lightness. It
can be divided into two subclements: (a) vn. I and II; ( b ) va., VC.,
having rests at different points. Double -basses arc often omitted in a
musical situation of this kind. The partial doubling by the flute is for
variety.

436

PROBLEMS

Solut ion (c) . M elody in strings.

BACKGROUND AND

ACCO~IPANIMENT

437

Solution (d). The groups mixed.

n .

."
""

I ~CCI. ,

',!I~~!~~~i1
I

,
'"

'"""

Fig. 145

~ ,,~

In the solution shown, the intention was to create somewhat more intere sting tone colors. The melody is played by divided first violins in
octaves, and a solo 'c ello in the octave below, the tone thus obtained
being thinner, and at th e same time more intense and personal, than if
all the first and second violins, with the fu ll 'cello section, had been

used. The bass line is ginn to the bass clarinet, partially doubled by

.,

the English horn and bassoon. Clarinets and flutes contribute motion
and the remaining factors of the harmony. ' The cadential measures
show a four -voiced texture of part writing.
A warmer and more ample sonority was sought in this version. The
hn ., stronger in the
melody, start ing with the octaves, fl. I, vn. I, vc.
horn and 'cello register, is given varied treatment from measure 4. The
quarter-note motive is passed over to the high flute, ob. I ent ering an
E ng. hn.,
octave below . In measure 5 the combination is fl., vn. I, vc.
the latt er rep lacing hn. I, and the oboe changing to a harmo nic part.
ob. II,
For the last three measures the melody is in one octave, vn. I.

BACKGROUND AND ACCO ,\\PANIMENT 439

PROBLEMS

43S-

vc:
Eng. hn., the flutes calling momentary attention to a secondary
vorce.
The accompaniment consists of the syncopated motive, d. I and II
vn. II div., based on notes of the harmony and arranged to have a
melodic curve of its own. It is joined by the horns at the cadence. This
is supplemented by the motive in the violas marking the second beats.

Typical solution.

The bass is possibly a little

heavy because of the low pitch of the

double-basses. Their tone is clarified by the doubling in the bassoons,
[00

also needed on account of the distance of the bass from the other parts.
Putting the basses in the upper octave would change the over-all sound
by increasing their melodic intensity, especially at measures 5 and 6.
Problem

10.

Allegro non Uoppo

--,.

HS . I

IN D

m .
" Jtmprr

Fig. '48

H .

Jlsmrtw r
~

,c
I'srmprr

psrmprr

Fig. 147. Brahms-Symphony no. 2

p. '9. ed. Kalmus

The passage is to be reorchestrated, changing the instrumentation assigned

to the two elements, melody and accompaniment.

Since, in the original scoring, the horn is in a rather high register, it

was decided to give the melody to 'cellos high on the A-string, modifying the intensity by the unison of violas, who would not be playing on
their A-string. In the accompaniment, the held tones of the strings are
replaced by a full horn quartet. It did not seem advisable to double
the initial A of the melody, as in the original, because in the new
situation the first horn would certainly be too prominent, as compared
to the first violins. The pedal A of the double-basses is well suited to
the octave of fourth horn and contrabassoon. For the arpeggio figure,
a single instrument would be less appropriate in style than the more
impersonal ensemble of bassoons, clarinets, and flute, considering the
use of both violas and 'cellos for the melody.

PROBLEMS

440
Problem

II .

dement A

B A CK GROUND AND A C C O M P A N L\ I E N T
Problem

12 .

Fig.

Mo zart-Sy m phony in D, K. 504

441

Fig. ' 49
R escore the given passage in more tban one "~'ay, then compare the results
-uitb the original score, M end clssobn-c-Sy rnpbony no. 3 (Scottish), p. 11 2 ,
ed. Eulenburg.
150 .

p. 14. ed. Philhar monia

S core the phrase in three different versions for "..sood-uiind only, adding

t'U,o hornsin one version.

PROBLEMS

442

BA CK GRO UND A ND AC COMPANIM ENT 443

Problem 13.

Problem 14.

'-c--::-~_
n. :,

, .. ,* "

,.

ok""", a

....- 11

Fig.

1 52

T his phrase is to be orchestrated in tv,,'o v ersions , th e m elod y to be given

t o the flute in the first v ersion, to a solo violin in the second.

.,

Fig. 151. Tc haikovsky-Symphony no. 4

P' 5. ed. Kalmus

R escore the passage abov e in the [oliouiing ways:

(a) Element A in the strings, element B in the woodwind, mezzo forte.

(b) For woodwind only, in close position, not over tw o octaves in

t otal spread, piano.
(c) For -uiood-unnd and boms, forte.
(d ) Elem ent A in strings and woodwind, element B in tbe brass, fortissimo.

S CORING OF CHORDS

445

on each note of th e cho rd. In fact, the chord in Fig. ' 53 (a), with one
instrument to each note, is nevertheless quit e badly balanced .
CHAPTER

TWE S'TY-EI GIIT

SCORI:-:G OF CHORDS

composer or orchestrator wh o sco res cho rds with consistent

success from the stan dpoint of balance of tone, smoo th blend
of instrumental color, and appropriate dy namic effect, does
so because of a reliable memory of the sound made by each inst rument
at any gi ven pit ch and dyn amic level. H e does not do so because of
formulas and devic es learned from books. Cho rds for orchestr a cannot be constructed by rule except in a very element ary sense, imitating
wh at oth ers have done before . Imitation has some value for stu dy purposes, but it sho uld not be concluded tha t what sounds well in one
musical situa tion will necessarily be appropriate in another.
Especially in the combination of instru mental sounds, any stated
principle is immediately subj ect to qualification fro m so many angles
that its usefulness is brought into question. It is the aim of the pre sent
stu dy to make clear the nature of the se qualifying aspects in the scoring
of chords.

HE

NUMERICAL BALANCE

When we say a chord is balanced we seem to imply that it forms a

flat verti cal plane of sound, with no individual voices protruding or
sounding mor e prominent than the others. It is possible to doubt that
such a chord can be written, given the assortment of instruments we
are committed to employ, and more than that, given the ch ord tones
and int er vals predetermined by our musical language. This equilibrium
of ton e is not assured simply by having th e same nu mber of instruments

.....

It will be hardly necessary to point out, in chord ("'), the overpowering tone of th e high notes for the three brass instruments, the comparative weakness of the low-pitched flutes, and the striking co ntrast
of the oboe C with th e second flute and the soft bassoon A.
A rearrangement of the same instruments is made in cho rd (b), resulting in co nsiderabl e imp rovement -in the balance. T he brass are now
muc h less strident , the flutes are in bet ter position to be heard, and the
oc tave C of oboe and bassoon is a more even sound . H owever, the
ch ord remains in unsatisfacto ry balance, du e to th e di fference in
strength of woodwind and brass in fo rte. It sho uld be noted, inc identally, that the rou gh, strident qu ality of chord (a) has been sacrificed.
In (c) three more woodwinds have been add ed, making unison
doubliogs to tr y to match th e tone-weight of the brass. At th is point,
menti on must be made of the inadequacy of the horn to equ al the forte
of trumpet and trombone. T wo horns would be better th an one, but
this only helps the brass the more to overpower the woodwind.
The same cho rd is arranged for strings at (d ). In count ing the number of instruments assign ed to a part, it is th e custom to count a seerion
of strings (v iolin I, violin II, erc. } as one instrument . This is a convenient principle and is strongly support ed by the practi ce of com posers, although it admits a wide margin of error. To begin with, the
number of players to a section varies between orchestra s. Then there
is the matter of divided strings, whereby a half or a third of a section is
to be reg arded as a single instrument, as ind eed it can be, except by
com parison with another string section which happens not to be divided. Finally, wh en we realize that a solo violin is entirely wort hy to
be co unt ed a single instrument (sec Chapter Two, page 63) , we see
that the computation of numerical balances is far from simp le.
These remarks are not meant to convey a sense of hopelessness or

SCORING OF CHORDS

PROBLEMS

446

futility in the effort to achi eve a balance in scoring. The fact that an
ide al ill:l)" be bey ond attainment sho uld not be a deterrent to the will
to approach it as nearly as possible. Two imp ortant points are to be
stressed here. First, a trained musical ear and musical memory are
indispensable. so that one hears mentally, and more and more accu rately. w hat one writes. These are acquired by un ceasing efforts and
a lifetime's experience. Second, the cooperation of conduct or and perfann ers plays an enormous part in the balance of sonorities. In a good

orchestra each player tries, instinctively or consciously, to make his

part sound in balance with the ochers . The better the scoring, the more
successful his endeavors will he.

BALANCE OF REGISTERS

In comparison with the winds, the string section is homogeneous in

tone throughout, although, as we know, each stringed instrument has
portions of its range that are less brilliant than others-the D-string in
all of them, for example . But in the combining of wind instruments. the
equalizing of registers is an ever-present preoccupation. In general. an
unevenness result s from the association, in a chord, of a weak with 1
strong register of the same instrument (Fig. 154'1). Likewise, combining tones of the weak register of one instrument with tones of the
strong register of another instrument will probably result in poor

447

TO~A LlTY

T here are sometimes reasons for havinz some ton es of a chord

st roncc r tha n ot hers. O ne of these conce rn; the tonal function of the
chord. In orchestration. just as in conventional harmonic theory. the
tonal deg rees of the kev ( to nic. dominant. and subdominanr}, being
structurally more impo rtant to the tonality. may be dOllhle~ more than
the modal degrees {mediant and sub rncdiant}. In (07) of Fig. I ; ; . the
single F of the first trombone is sufficient to give major identificat ion
to the harmony against ten other instrumen ts on th e r~ot and. fift h. and
the cho rd suggests the keys of A b. G o. and D o. The rm nor t.n ad at (b) ,
ha\'ing extra weight on G , migh t be cons~rued as sup~ nonJc harm ony
of the key of D major. If the extra doublmg were shifte d to ~he n,. as
in ( e) , the chord would no longer sugge st D. but rather a key In whi ch
B is a tonal degree, e.g., E min or or II minor. In a c hord like (d), pr esuming the int ent to be th e avoidan ce of tonality, care is ta ken not to
suggest tonality by a similar emphasis on certain c ho rd mem bers.

b.

,.

d.

balance (Fig. 'Hb).

MJ..,

,.

b.
an

..,

: G;.

..,

n.
BI

d.

no

00-

..,

Fig. '55

Fig. '54
It cannot be too strongly emphasized that examples of chords for
instrumental combinations have validity only for the pitch at which
they are given. If a chord is transposed, the relationship of registers

changes. In Fig. 'H (C), flute and oboe will be found to be nicely
balanced, while in ( d ) the flute has a distinct advantage over the ob oe.
One may say the situation is different with each half-tone transposition .
Unison doubling can be used to strengthen the weaker voice.

SPACI~G

Overtones from the lower notes are sometimes disturbing in a chord,

and may need to be canceled by upper tones. This may be one reason
for loud chords being almost in variably in clo se po sition, with chord
tones pr esent wherever possible. If spaces were left to permit the overtones to sound, as in a major triad , the partials w ould hardly be stro ng
en ough for an even balance. On th e other hand , soft c ho rds in w ood wi nds are often att ract ively color ed by the sound of ove rto nes in open
spaces. These effects arc more oflen than not unpredictabl e, and th eir
success th e result of experiment.
Q

PROBLEMS

448

SCORING OF CHORDS

The conflict of upper partials created by close spacing in low

registers is usually avoided . It is easy to see what would be the product
in middle register overtones of the diminished seventh chord in Fig.
Is6(a). The sound is a synthesis of C major, Eb major, F~ major. and
A major.
c.

4 HN.

H.

o-.

UU lASS

TVIA

a..

Bb; "

Fig. 156

Such a chord might be used in a percussive effect. If the chord is put

up an octave, or better still two octaves, the overtones become very
much thinner and less noticeable. Below a -foot C, intervals smaller
than a fifth or fourth are generally avoided if clarity is desired. The
ideal spacing following the outline of the harmonic series (Fig. IS6b)
is possible only in root position major chords.
Harmonic principles of doubling are sometimes responsible for the
appearance of spaces as large as a fifth in upper parts. Figure 156( C)
observes the usage of omitting reduplication of the bass in upper voices.

449

TUTTI CHORDS

A tutti chord, employing the full orchestra, occurs most often in

forte or fortissim o, at moments of climax or in a brilliant ending. It
is inevitable that such a chord will be dominated by the brass. Consequently, the first step in its construction is to make certain that the
brass as a unit will sound well. The brass section, within itself, is in
turn dominated by trumpets and trombones. Placing of the less powerful horns is sometimes problematical in arranging a brass chord.
Two principal methods of approach to the use of horns in a tutti
chord can be broadly discerned : (a) the four horns may be doubled
two by two and employed as two voices on an equal footing with
trumpets and trombones ( Fig. 15la ); (b) the trumpets and trombones
may first be scored as a satisfactory unit , adding the tuba on the bass. A
natural octave relationship is often to be found between trumpets and
trombones (Fig. 157b) . The horns may then be arranged in a four -part
grouping and placed alongside the heavy brass (Fig. 15)C).

..

b.

J n&

,.

l~

VN5., VA., vc, DIV.

Q

n;BA

BLESD OF

TO~E

COLORS

Factors in the smooth blending of tone colors have been described

in Chapter Twenty-four, P' 396 and following. One need bur add
here that every imaginable association of tone colors can be found useful in the scoring of chords. The student should experiment with the
arrangement of chords, applying the devices of unison doubling, overlapping, superposition, interlocking, and enclosing, and try to judge
their effect . A general stat ement as to the relative value of these devices
in achieving an even blend of timbres ca -mot and should not be made.

Fig. 157
The woodwinds cannot be planned to sound satisfactorily by themselves, since the presen ce of the brass renders them useless in the middle
register. The high-pitched woodwind are better situated above the
brass, where they will add brilliance by reinforcing upper partials. The
low woodwind, bassoons and bass clarinet, contribute the most in their
low registers, so they are placed with the bass (Fig. 157d). The English
horn is often at a loss to find a good location, since it is not strohg in
the high register. It is given almost any doubling in preference to omitting it from the tutti.
The strings are free to be placed where they will best sound as a

PROBLEMS

SCORING OF CHORDS

section. They may be divided to make a richer sonority (Fig. IS7e).

Let it be said at once that the chief value of this recipe for a tutti
chord lies in irs utility as a commonplace from which to survey other
and more interesting possibilities.

be written out in score, with a time value assigned and correctly notated.
Except in problem 18, the pitch range is optional.

450

DYXA:\IIC LEVEL

The temptation to mark different dynamic levels for brass and woodwind must be resisted. If this system is used for the purpose of correcting the inherent inequalities in the orchestral groups it will be
meaningless when called into play for legitimate special effect. Dynamic indications arc admittedly far from logical or accurate, and the
fact must be acknowledged that a forte or a mezzo forte is not a measurable quantity but a comparative over-all designation of a dynamic
level to which all are bidden to adapt themselves.
Muted brass and stopped horns arc more comparable to woodwind
in both color and tone-weight, but the capacity of the brass to play
softly, muted or not, is not to be overlooked.
Thin and thick sonorities arc not to be regarded as synonymous with
soft and loud, respectively.

RANGE

A~D

Problem 15'. Score the tonic triad of A major in root position, forte, for
th ese three groups, separately:
(a) Full strings.
(b) Full -uiood-uiind by threes.
(c) Full brass (; trp. , 4 bn., 3 trb.; tuba) .
Problem 16, Score a dominant seventh chord , built on C as a root, having
its third, E, in the bass, pianissimo, for 2 fl., 2 ob., Eng. Im. 2 cl. bass cl.,
and 2 bn.
Problem 17, Score a minor triad, -untb root H, forte, for strings, woodwind by threes, and four horns,
Problem 18. Score the cho rds in Fig. 158, keeping the pitches given,
according to the listed specifications:
. A

I"

##
p

Hi

iI'~

d.

-e-

"

R
ii
.t!
-e-

Fig. 158

PITCH LOCATION

Orchestral chords may vary in range from the total spread in pitch
of the whole orchestra to a concentration within a small interval, in
loud and soft nuances. The entire chord may be located in a high,
medium, or low register. A chord of wide pitch range may be given
emphasis in the high. medium, or low register, by manipulating the
.
balance of tone-weight.
We have been considering chords in an abstract sense as far as time
values are concerned, as though they were to be held long enough for
the balance and other qualities to be plainly heard. In a staccato chord,
the finely calculated blend of tone color is less important than the
placing of each instrument so that it is able to give its best staccato or
accent. In working out the problems that follow, a condensed plan of
the chord should first be made, like those shown. Then the chord should

451

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

For 2 fl., 2 ob., :z ct., :z bn., showing interlocking.

For wood-uiind by tbrees and four horns.
For three different combinations selected from isood-xmd and horns,
For full tutti.

VOICE LEADING, COUNTER

CHAPTER

TWENTY-NINE

OINT

453

Solution (a). The three real parts should first be :witten out in ~oTTect
harmonic progression, as played by three of the instruments designated
(Fig. '594).

..

..

s.
~

,.

d.

e.

VOICE LEADIl':G AND

CO Ul':TERPO I l':T
Fig. 159

interplay between the horizontal onward movement of

melodic forces and the v~rticJl s~<ltic sono.rity made by resonance and the superposmg of intervals IS an cver-prescnt
basic.fact of the art of music. Counterpoint, the combination of melodies, creates harmony through the coincidence of melodic tones. Harmony creates melodic movement by the effect of progression from one
vertical sonority to another. The art of orchestration is concerned at
all times with the interpretation of these two opposing yet complementary forces.
In the preceding chapter, those elementary considerations that affect
the vertical arrangement of chords were outlined. It is not too much to
say that any of these considerations may be overruled or superseded by
the consequences of melodic progression. The orchestra is composed
almost entirely of singing instrumental voices. The listener may not be
able to follow them all, on first hearing an unfamiliar work, but the
melodic conduct of each and every voice is of paramount importance
in musical coherence and meaning.
The distinction was made in Chapter Twenty-two between real
parts and reduplications of these parts brought about by octave doubling. Orchestration of a texture of parr writing will illustrate the application of this concept.

HE

Problem 19. Score the harmonic progression I, V , Vl, in C major, piano.

for (a) strings; (b) 'Woodwind; and (c) brass. Employ a basic texture of
three real parts.
452

Since there remain two more string sections, the octave doubling of
the two outside parts at once suggests itself (b). Needless to add, t~ese
arc not the "consecutive octaves" of harmonic theory, but reduplications of correct real parts. It is also to be remarked that the balance of
tone is not upset by the octave doublings.
Anyone or all the parts may be doubled, either at the octave or at
the unison, the latter having the effect of increasing the tone-weight of
the part doubled. Generally. care is taken to preserve the integrity of t.he
bass part, avoiding doubling it above lest it become confused With
the upper voices (c), or doubling another part so low as to sound ~e
low the bass (d). An arrangement like that in (e), having the VOIce
just above the bass in octaves with the highest part, is not considered
the best arrangement, since the upper voices arc too definitely separated from the bass by being thus circumscribed. Other settings can be
made, including those with divided strings and with unison doubling.
Solution (b).

..

'L

a.. n
1 Bioi.

>N.

Fig. 160

PROBLEMS

VOICE LEADIJ-;G , COUJ-;TERPOINT

In Fig. 1 60 ar e show n w oodwi nd arrangements . increasing th e number of pa rts to as many as eig ht in (c.), by redup licatio n and w it hout
depart ing fr om th e original three real parts. Th e final chord of (c)
would not be th ought good in either spacing or balance if it were an
isolated chord, but as the result of voice leading it is perfectly acceptable.

part A , violin I, B, violin II; C, viola; D, violoncello, and the doublebasses also on part D, sounding an octave lower .
The arrangement of the brass is facilitated by doubling the melody
in the tenor register:

454

Solution (c).

, ..
IV
J

b.

c.

f'

TRB.

HHJ ./

J ..J

r,
~"

Fig.

"

..J
I

Fig. 163

161

In Fig. 1 61 (c), un ison doublings arc emp loyed on t he original th ree

pa rts, leaving un doubled t he two octave reduplications above an d t he
octave belo w in th e tu ba.
CHORALE STYLE

Problem 20. Orchestrate the following phrase, using th e full tutti of strings,
woodwind, and bmss.

Fig.

162

455

Bach- Chorale: Ein' t este Burg

no.

20,

On the fifth beat the shift of trombones II and III was felt to be necessary for two reasons. The third trombone needed moving to the upper
octave as the bass line was getting too low for good quality of tone .
The introduction at thi s point of part B for the second trombone avoids
the effect of division described above (see Fig. 15ge).
The woodwinds will be divided between th e bass and the octave and
the unison doubling of violins and trumpets. The piccolo will be written in its lowest octave so that it will sound no higher than the flures.

cd. Breitkopf & H artel

Th e chora le style is co mm on in orche st ral m usic, employing eithe r

small gro ups of instru ments or t he massive effec t of th e whole orch estra. The latter seems appropriat e for the exce rpt given, with th e mass
of tone ce nte red chiefly in th e midd le or voca l register.
The strings fall quite naturally into the most obvious distribution:

Fig. 164
The complete score is as follows:

456

PR OB L E~I S

VOI CE LEADING , C O U N T E R P O I N T
CO :"TR .\ PL'S TA L

Problem

21.

457

SCOR ISG

O rchestrate th e following fragment of four-part counterpoint :

o
Fig. 166. Bach-The A rt of the Fugue: Contmpunctus X

It would be possible to score this phrase in a manner similar to that

I~~

Fig. 65

used for the chorale, allotting all four pans to strings. woodwinds, or
brass, and combining the groups or not. The sound would be satisfactory. provided the instruments were assigned pans suitable to th eir
ranges . H owever, w hen the texture is more truly contrapuntal, the
voices having been given melodic and rhythmic independence and individuality, an orchestr ation itself more contrapuntal in sty le is called
for . This is accomplished by treating each voice individually, creating
in this instance four different tone colors, each suited to the character
of its melody, and all participating in an evenly balanced sonority.
The possibilities should be exhaustively studied, each voice being
regarded as a problem in the orchestration of melody. Unison and
octave doublings as well as pure instrumental colors should be tried.
T he final selection will demand the exercise of taste, ingenuity, and
imagination .
The solution offer ed shows the following distribution:
A

8 [ PICC.

hn. II, va.

ob . I

8 [ Eng. hn. (from meas. J)

B

fl. I

8 [ cl. I

D 8 [ bn. I and II
d-b.

458

PROBLEMS

VOICE L EADIN G , C OU N T E R P O IN T

T y pical solution:

459

Problem 23. O rchestrate the following phrase in tuo v ersions, one piano,
for strings and wood-uiind, the other forte, using the full tutti of strings,
woodwind, and brass.

r~( "
'"

,
I

.J J

U'

.J 'lid

'"

.J n~ ~

Fig. 169. Bach-Chorale: Es ist genug

.1

'"

no. 216, ed . Brcitk opf & Han el

Problem 24. Score the f ollow ing fragment for brass and -uioodwind .

.. ,

M"' .II

"

.,

...
...
"
...

-~

Fig. 16]
Problem

22.

..

b.

,.

Fig.

rF
Fig. 168
Score
(a) For
(b ) For
( c) F OT

th e three given harmonic prog ressions in th e following w ay s:

full woodw ind plus two horns.
brass and woodwind.
strings, 'Woodwind, and fou r horns.

'I

1 70.

Bach-Well-Tem pered Clav ier, Book ll, Fugue no . 5

460

PR OBL E~IS

2!:

PTo~~e111
ReS.:~Te th.r: folJO'U;;~lg passage so that the element 110'"... play ed
by .1L OOd'U'111d 'U,;1!J be 111 the rtrmgs, and tbat now played by strings '".l:ilJ
be In th e ""ui:oodwind. T he complete sect ion of isood..sind by threes is to
be co nsidered euailable.

........

_-

CONCLUSION

perhaps useful co repeat that no pan of this book pretends to

exhaustive tre at ment of its subject matter. The intention has been
to present the first stages of stu dy in each chapter, in th e anticipation that th e student will in each instance continue investigations of his
own. Some suggestions may be offered as to th e nat ure of fu rther
studies.

T IS

The importance of a thorough knowledge of the instru ments can-

~==Fig.

171 .

Brahms-Variations 071 ' Theme by H aydn. p. 24. ed. Eulenburg

not be too strongly emph asized . Good writing for th e instr ume nts is
indisputably the largest single factor in good orchestration. One might
with considerable reason declare that if the parts arc well written for
the separate instruments th e ensemble is bound to sound well, and that
if the parts are poorl y suit ed to the instruments the to tal effect is bound
to be unsatisfactor y. Insufficient acquaintance wi th th e instr uments is
by far th e most outstanding defect to be noted in th e scores of inexpe rienced composers. The composer or specialist in orchestration must constantly and perpetually keep adding to his sto re of information in this
department of his technique, gath ering data fr om every conceivable
source.
Analysis of scores is next in importance, and it should become a daily
habit. Sect ions taken for analy sis will be progressively lon ger compared with the short fragments used in the first stages, th us affording
the opportunity of observing t he perpetual changes in texture and distribution, and the expansion and contraction of the instrumental forces
for dynamic purposes. Event ually, a whole movement will be studied
especially for the applicati on of principles of unity and variety through
or chestration. The student is advised to exercise patience, and to select
for his early analyses only th ose passages th at are clea r in th eir texture,
461

462

ORCHESTRAT ION

unless he has the help and advice of a more experienced person. Above
all, he must g uard against being satisfied with a hasty and superfi cial
analysi s.
For practice in orchestratio n, th e inventi on of additional problems
similar to those offered is again recomm end ed. parti cularly the kind
that involve contact with standa rd scores. \Vhole pieces will evenru allv
be orc hestrated for practice in the organization of unit y and variety of
textu re and ton e color, and in securing appr opri ateness and unity of
sty le. These pieces may be piano redu ctions of orchestr al works. either
published or made by the stude nt himself. If piano pieces arc used. they
should be caref ully chosen to han as little as possible of purely pianistic. idiomatic w riting, and pedal effects.
Those gifte d for composition will wish to try their hand at origin al
pieces for orchestra. A good plan is to com pose a sketch in the form of
textural clements and then orchestrate it. H owever, it is nor suggested
that one method is better than another in the personal matter of composition .
Qualities to seek in orchestration are clarity, naturalness, beauty of
sound, fidelity to the original musical thought, and an imaginative scoring of renewing interest without fussiness. The orchestration should
have its origin in the musical material. It should not be composed of
admired sound comb inations copied from the works of others. Formulas and "devices" are the death of creative orchestration.
The aut hor's intention will have been realized if this book is found
to provide a workable basis for the expansion of knowledge of the an
of or chestration, leading in the direction of a mastery attainable, in the
final analy sis, only through self-reliant individual initiative and effort.

I~D EX

.lbdi m pfm . H 5
accents, s.r inged instrumen t. 19-10
acccmpanimem :
2fungem~nf of , ..) 1-44'
as tex tu re, )74 -)81 . )87. ]95
A clarinet, 16"-165, 171- 173
Aflu clanner, 16.}
AiJ". V erdi. 141
.i J" poinu. It
"U. 7

,"plJ, JJ ]
art ific ial harmonics, 59> 60, 7... 86-87. 10J-

<OJ
arnficial tones. JJ7

"U~. 7
A/so Sp r"ch Z,"atbust,,,, Strauss, #. 1)6.
Q9.

107. J87. H7

at t"Jlon~.

IJ

A lt tfbu . 144
.lto.65
alto cbrin~f.

164

161. ]J9
Bach, IS J, 161, J" 7, J/4, 454, 457. 459

am Grj flb,~tt. ac
Amo, Brujo, u, F:all:a, 154. ] 6J
am Steg, JI

Bach trum pets, J64

baguettes d ';p ong~, J99
bagu~ttes en bois, J99

anacrusis, bowing, 9
an de, Spitu, IJ

sntie en Zimbeln, ]17

ant ique cy mbals, ] 17
Antojn~ et CUopat'~' Schmitt. 88, 2ii
anvils, ]19
s perro, J]6

Apolton MUJageu, Stuvinskv, 45

Appalachian Sprin ,fl, Copland. ] 18, HI

A pp, emiSo, cier, L', Dubs. J6

A prh -midi d'un Fsune, L'. Debussy, p,
169, ]17. ]66
a puma d'erco, IJ

erco,

at the point, I J
au che'::"/~t , J I
au 1"lon, I J
automobile horns, ]19
4"~'ec sourdmes, H
becch ette di Jegno . J99
beccbeu e di SpUgno1, J99
Baccbus et Ari.m~. Suomi Snire, Roussel,

:altO flute, 114, 144- 145

aho saxophone, /85- 187
alto tro mbone. J69'-J70
.rm Frosch, I J

,I

A rt of th~ Fugue, Bac h, 457

A- stri ng :
'cello, 92-(}]. 95
viola, 68--69. 75
violin. jJ-H
ar th e heel. I J

J)

b :al:a nc c:
in chords, 444-446
of regi sters, ..46
bands, military, JOS, :64
baritone saxophone, 185
baritone tuba, J84
Bar to k, 12 , :8.48,54.60,69. 90, '54, 159,
JOI, J 57. J69, J7S. ]OJ, l0 4, ] 05, 330.
)33, 339, 345, H O, ]94 , 409
bass. see double-bass
bass c lar inet, 114- 115. 164. 'ii-181
orchestral uses, 4 t"...... )0. 4] 6-44 1
scoring for, 'J7

bass drum, )08-]09

A,ilJdne /lut NlJ%os, Strauss, HJ

Aris ne er BIJT be .B/~u e, Dukas, p8
A,lh iennc, L'. Bizet . ]04
arma nici, ]0

basset horn, 114, , 64, 18] - 18..

Bau kllJrin ett e, l 77

bassoo n. ""-11 5. 116, 14 1, 188- JOI
au xilia ry instruments, ~0 1 -J 05

<OJ

ORCHESTRATION

464
bassoo n (continued )

br eath ing, 197

embo uchu re. 119. ' 97
fingering. 18cr-1 9%
orc hestral use of. '99-:0 1, .p o-.no, -B8-

reg s rers, 191-196

scoring for. 11 7
solo. 195
tongu ing. 113. 1Z4. 197-198
tr ills and tremolos. 19S- 1C}9
bass tro mbone, 169-171
bus t ru mpet. 161, :6J
bass tuba, 107. 108, 18"-185. 186,
B.21n ub4, 184
bass viol, 98
barter head, 304
Bavreueh tubas. 193
"b(.ak" mouthpiece. 16J

:!l?

Bec k en , 309
Beet hoven, vii, 10, II , 15. 53. 56. 70-1 1. 94.
10l}, n6, 170, 18J. 195. 197. Hg. 137.
141. 148, 150, 15'. H9'"""360. 36,. 376.
385. ]86

piano concertos. 140, H I

bell. hom. z: 5
bell-raising :

hom .

1 40

oboe.

I S]

bel ls [chimes}, }16

bells (g lockenspiel) , j I4-J1 5

Ber g, 51, 75-76. I l j. ).11. 177. 196,158. 177.

JJ'

Berl io z. 18, 14. Ill , Ill , 159. 171, 100, la7 .

zz6, 119. l JO, 151, 30}. ]1 7. H I, J7S.
i oo
a fla t clari net . 164- 177

B-flat hom, l }l-lH

B-flat t rum ~t. 1B -164
B-flat tub a. 18h 191
Bj/ly tbe Kid , Copland, }47
bird calls. }19

stacc ato , 14- 19

violin. 43-51
Brahms. 33. 41. 49, B . 61. 67. 68. 90, 97,
111. lB. 194, 199. J!6. 1J!. 178, 369,
399. 438

Brandm burg Conceno no. " Bach , 15Z

brass instruments, 106-Z14, 360
breath ing. 111- 111
corne t, 107. 164- 166
counterpoint and, 451-460
crooks. 111
embouchu re. 115-116
finge r ing. 1 14-1 15
horn . 115- 145
instruments included amon g. 114
mou thpieces, 109
muting. 113
orch estral usn. 111-113
overblowing, 1OQ-110
pitch. 116. 113-114
range, 110. 11z-113
scoring fo r, 113-1 14. 414-4 3, +I 5- .H I
slides, 111
tone production. 108-Z09
tongu ing, 116-1 11
tro mbone, 167-z81
trumpet, 146-1 64
tuba. 181-195
vahC'S. 111-1I4
voi..e lead ing and , 451-4 60
Wagner's plan for . Z93
U~ alro separate instruments
br alS" 136
Brsucbe, 65
break. the, 170
breaking of glass, 319
breath ing:
for brass instruments. 111-111 . 174, z86
for woodwinds. 115-11 6, IS0, 197
Britten. 11, 85. 187. 161. 336. 146
Bruckner, 17. l B . 194- 195
Bufftr bassoons, ISQ

birbiglj,mdo, 336
Bizet. }04
Boehm, Theob ald, 119
Boehm system. 119, 166- 167
Botero, Ra vel, 161, 186
bo r nbardon , 184
Boston Symphon y Orchestra, 178

caine, 30]
caint claire, 304
caine roulmn , J04
Cilmpana in aria, :40
Cilmpane, J 16
campanelli, 314

bouchi, 1}6
bouchi -cun..,.i , 1}6

Ca nteloube, 351
Caplet, A nd re, 363

bowe d tremolo. B
bowing. 7-8. 9-1}

Capriccio Espsgnol, Rimsky- Korsa kofi,

bangor, }19

'cello, 88

do uble-bass, 15- 106

planning the . 10

16, S8

Capriccio It.tlim, Tehaikcvsky, 165

uri/lon, ] 14
Casella. 35. 87. 171, : 61,]17

IN DEX
calSa, 303, 308
casla ru lllZ1l tt' , )04
caltiJ"ntttt's, 3 11
castanets. 311-3 13
cawniuelas, 311
C clarinet. 164. 165
celesta, 148-150

violin, 55-58

Cbout, Pr okofieff, 67. l SI, 180

cimbalom, 338-339

cimbalo ongsrrse, 338

cindli, }09

'cello, 8<>-97
accompaniment figures, 93-95
bass parts , 90. 93
bowing. 88
cho rds, 89--91
clefs, 84
C-string of. 115
divided. 95"""96
double-stops. 8lr9o
finger ing'. 80-8 4
harm onic s. 85-87
octave doub ling. loB
o rchestral uses, 91"'ilJ. 435-441
pizzicato, ~1
positions., 81-84
range. 84-85
solo. 97. 160
tuning. 4
ambalo, HO
chains. J I9
chalumeau rcs isttr. 167- 169
cha mbe r munc sty le. 6J-64
Charpentie r. 91
Ch ausson, 153
chimes. J I6
Chi nese blocks. 311. po
Ch inese cymbals. 309
C hinese gong, 310
C hinese tom-tom, po

c1.,iuro, 136
cho ke, J 10
c ho rale, 457
Chorale: j,,' [este

Bur~,

Bach, 454

Chorale: Es itt gt nug, Bach . 459

chords. 6, 387
balance in. 397, 444-446
'cello, 89-9 1
double-bass, 1040 11l - IIJ
dy namic level, 450
harp, 331
melodi c pro$rcssion and, 451 -4(00
ran~e and pitch location. 450-4 5 I
r t glsten. 446
sco ring, 4+4-451
spaci ng, 447-448
as textur e, 3-403. 404-411
tonal ity , 447
tone color. 448
turri, J'jI6, 449-4 So
viola. 13- 74

465

clarinet. 114- 116, 141. 163- 177

auxiliary instru mems, 177- 187
break, the, 170
embouchure. 119
fingering, 165- 167
grouping. 184
harmonics, 119
kinds of. 164
orchestral uses of, 171-113, 176-177. 410430. 4}6-44 1

ove rblowing , 165- 166

registers. 167-1 7:
scorin g fo r. I z7
tones, 167. 160;1
tonguing. 113. 114, 173- 17-4
tr ansposinon, 165
tr ills and tremolos. 173
virtuosity, 1;'4- 175
Jee slsa woodw ind instru ments

d.lTillette, 16}
clsrinei re b.Jsu, 177
clarineno, 16J
cls rineuo bauo, 177
clsrone, 177
clevecin, 350

cl,r,:es, J 19
cl n ncembsla, 350
cloches, ] 16
co i legno, 11- Zj. 106

col legno b.umra,

21

cot legno staccato. 106

col tegn o trarto, 11
color. ton to Itt' tone co lor
com plex tex ture, 405-411
co mposition . 1: 6-11 7, 144. 18J. 4 15-4}O,
445-45 1, 462

contrapuntal sco ring, 457-4 60

notation, 178- 179, 268, 194, 35, 309. J IO,
316, 334
score markings, ser notation
sn afro or chestration and texture

Concert Champitre for Harpsichord and

Or chestra. Poul enc, H I
Concerto en Re, Stravinsky , 10"
Concerto for Har psichord and Fiv e Inurn ,
menu, Falla. 351
Concerto for O nder Marunot and O rchestra, Jol ivet, H I
Concerto for Or chestra, Bart 6k, 11. 54,

69.

154, 101, 257, 304. J05, 3940 409

Concerto for O rchestra, Hi ndemith, 194.

,,6

ORCHESTRAT ION

4M

Concerto for Pisnoiorte and OrCheftrd ,

Copland. 1117. 279

c o nsecu tiv e oc taves. 453

co n sordins cor, 35
contrabass. 911
co m r aba clar-incr, 164. 18 4
cont rabasso o n. 1 14 - 11 5. ll i . :0 1-25
o rc hest ral U SN , -t1q--.B o. 4 )9-44 1
contrabass t ro mbone, :!'lo---:R I

conrrahass tubas. :11 :, :85. : 86

cont rsbbeno, 911

contr aiegotro, 20 1
cont rapuntal sco rin g. 457- 460
com rapun ral tex t ure, ,88-395. 44 -," :
C01/l rd"'l1C. 911

cons rebuson, :0 1
coperro, ,07
Copland. ~9. 187. :.p . : 60, 279. }l B. H I,
JB H 7
cor, : 25
co r Imglair. 158
cor .i pinons, 12 5
cor cbromsriqne, l l5
co r de dalu. H5
Coriole nus O ';:errure, Beet hoven, 10
co me t. :0;-:08. : 64-:66
corne t a piston s, :6 4
cornet/a, :6 4

como,
como
corno
como
C01no

l l5

d.1 caccia, HS

ingleu , 158
natu rale, lJ5
rube, z9 J
como ve ntile, 12S
cor sim ple, 125

Cosi Fsn T utu , Mou n . 198

counter po int , 451- 460
in tex tu re: see contra pun tal texture
co w bel ls, 319
crecelle, 319
C reston, Paul , 318
crooks. 11/, 116, :19
c-oates, 317

Ccsrring:
'ce llo, 93, "5
do ubl e -bass, 100
viola . 69
C trumpet, 146, :47 , 153- 164-

cuit"e, :36
cy m ba/es, 309
cy m b~lt1 ant iques, ]17
cy m bals, 309- ]10, ] 1'

d"IegKij, t
d.nn p, 335

D.nllp fer ~'eg, 35

D"nce Su it e, Ba rt ok, 48, 60, 169, 145

Dom er Su ire "f fer COllperin, Strauss, ]5 1

Deptm is er Chloe, Rani, JS. 47. 7], 134.
1) 7, 144, 145, 151, III : , J60, 317, 319,
P I

D clar-iner, 114. 164, 181- 18:

D ebu ssy. 10. 13, p , ]4,69,77.88,91. Il l .
qfi, I JR, IS6. 160- 161. 161, 169, 174.
JOI. J 19, JJO, : .p , 1.\"9,' :61. J7S. J8o,
3 1, J I4, ] 17, 318, P7, P 9 330, 33S,
146, )6 :. J6] , 366, J7: . 4P
d h ~ch i. 11, 14

d ie H iil f u , 7
diffe rence tone, l oS
D'I ndy, 74. J35, J6), 30:, H I. 346, 357
J it'., 6
div. a J, 7
Drcerrmrenro: Le Bs iser J e la f ee, Srr avin~k\". 168, J44
d i" ided ~tri n p, 6-7
d ivid ing by desks , ,
dit" in j , 7

Ji ::ises, 6
divisi, 6, 7~7), 117
Don [uon, St ra uss. 106. Jl8, 401
Don Quixote, Strauss, 11 - 1). 35, 79. UI,
J )9. :81)
Doppe/gri ff , 6
do ub le- bas' , 35. 98-1 1)
acc o m paniment scoring for, 43(-.H I
bo w ing, 8. IOS-I06
cl efs. 10J
divided basses, I I :-11)
d o u ble -stops and c ho rds, 104
fingering, 10 1- 10:
five-strin g. 99-100, I I )
harm o nics, 10:-104. 108
melodic uses, 109-111
m ut es, 10 7- 108
octave di fference, 98-99
o rchestral uses, 4 16- 'P 9, 435- HI
p izzic ato, 107
nnge, 99- 100, 10:
solo, I I )
tuning, 4
see also stringe d instrum ents
d ouble B-flat bass tuba, :86
do uble C tuba, :8S
d o u ble ho rn , : 33- J45
doub le reed , 149
doub le-stops, 6
'c ello, 89-90
d ou ble-bass, 104
vi ob.. 73-74
violi n, 55- 58
doubl e-tonguing, I JJ
ba ssoon, 197-1 98
brass instrument, : 19

IND E X
clarinet, 174
Hute, I J6
hom, :)9
oboe, ISO
ruh a, 190
d o uhling, in sco ring fo r melody, 416-4 30
d o wn-beat . bowing. 9
dow n- bow, 8- 10, til:!
dre g, 306

d reif Jch gettilr, 7

dru ms:
bass. Jo8- J09
exot ic, 3' 9- P O
kettledrums. J97-3 0 )
sn are. JOj - 307
ICe al so perc ussio n inseru rnems
dru mstick s, %98- JW> 305, JoS
O -su ing :
bass, Q8
'c ello, 9 J ""9)
viola, 68-<M;l
viohn, 51- 55
"0 trum pet , 16J
dr" bra-s mstrument, : 16
du, woodwind, 1JO
D u b s. : 6, 94, 318
D vorak, I I ). Jl 7
echo tone, 17:
E-R al cla rinet, "4. 164. 18 1- 18:
E-Rat trum pet, :6:
eighe-foo e C, l iS
eig hth harrnon jc, H 6
Elektra , Srr auss, 135, 161, 183, ISol-, J05,
14). J80, : 94
e mbouc hu re :
bassoon, 197
brass insrru menr, JI S-116
oboe, 149-IS 1
tuba, JIl6
woodwind . 119-1:0
enclosing . )96, 448
Fnesco, 7S
En ianr et Ies S ortjUges, L', Ravel, :7, II 3

engiisch H orn, IS8

English horn, 11 4-1 IS, 158-1 6 1, 161
orchestral uses, 419-4 30, 4)7- ,+4 '
sco ring fo r, I z7
enharmonics, harp. p6-318
Entiuhrung, Vi e, Mozarr, 183

eoliiono, 119
eoUphone, 3'9
Erwartung, Sc hoe nbe rg, z90
E-string :
double-b ass, 99
viol in, 51-55
itouffez, 33S

467

euphonium, J07, 18) , z84, z9:

see a/so tenor tuba
Eur vantbe O verture , Webe r, 19
e vol ~ t l~lll a ry process, in inst ru ments, 65
exo tic Instruments, J97, J I9-PO
facti tiou s to nes, 117
Falla, ' 504. HI , H I. 36)
Falst.lfJ , V erd i, J81
Fanr~_f tic

S )111pbony, Be eho z, I R, Ill, IJJ .

)0). B I
"F artac hmenr," tro mbone, Z 7~ : i l
Faun . G ou nod , H I
Fsu sr OUt'ertllre, Eine, \ \'agn cr . J87
Faun Symphony, A , Liszt , 6 J
F horn, H 7, J ]J - 1 j5
field d ru m, ) Cl.f
fift h har mo nic , 19
fing e ring :
bassoon, 11l9--191
brass inst ru ment,
4-: IS
'cell o, 80- 84
clarinet , 16S- 167
dou ble-bass, 101- 10:
flut e, 119-1) 1, 137
harp, 33()--BJ
hom, zH - J H
oboe. 146- r., 8
pluck ing , J )- : 8
st ringed instrument, 4-ti
trum pet, l H-JH
tu ba, z8)
vio la. 66-67
violin , 37- 40, 43- P
wood w ind inst rument. 116- 118
first har mo n ic, J9
First R b.zpsod y for Violin and O rche str.z,
Bar to k, 3)9
first v iohns, 60-63
Fiv e Orchestral Pieces, Sch oenberg, Z7J
five-string bass, 99- 100
Flegealenon e, 10
!lam, 306
Fleuerz unge, IJ 4
!lauto, I JS
!lauto cont ralto, 144
!laura grande, n 8
l i1. 1Oi.

l'

!lau fo pi cc ol o , 14 1

flicorno basso, 184

Fliitt, ' J8
flut e, 114- I IS, 116. ' : 8-1 45
agilitY. IH- 136
embouc hure, 11 9
fing ering , u Q-131, 137
grou ping of, 141
harm onics, 11 8, IB , 1)6- 137
orchestral uses. 4J ~4 J O, 436-441

468

OR CHE STR A TION

flute (continued)

overblowing, 131
scoring for, 117
second, 1, 8- 1.1.0
solo, 133- 134
to ne, 131- 134
to ng uin g. 123-124
trills and tremolos, 137- 1,8
see also woodwind instruments
(lute en 50/, ' 44
flutter-tonguing, 124. no
flute, 138

oboe, 1 51
trombone, 17:-%73
tuba, H)O
f ly ing Dntcbman, T he, " 'agner. ~F
Fontme di R onta, R cspig hi, 168,2<)1
fork fingering, 11 7- 11 8
[ouer, 319
" 4baSJi," 113

Four Sea Interludes from Peter Grilllcs,

Britt en, 85. :6:, 336
Fourth Concerto, Beethoven, 14'
fourt h finge r extension, 45
fou rth har mo nic, 19
Franck, 9. 1 10 , ,8:
Frau obne Scbanrn, Die, Strauss. 18,
Frewcbiaz , Der, W eb er , 398
F renc h bassoons, ISg, u)6
French bow, 10j
french Conscrvaroir e system, 1-l8
French hom, 215
French ( notation) svstcm, 178
fruita, 319
'
F tru mpe t. 146. 151-1P
F tuba. 191, 193
fugue. 393
fu ndam en tal to ne , 29
Ga lanta Dmco, Kod aly, 104
gediimpft, H
G er man bassoo ns, 189. I
G erm an bow . 105, 107
German hom. 225
G erman (nota tion) sys tem, 178- 179
gesohlagen , 22
gestopft, 236
gestopft-stark anb lasen, 236
gestricben, 22
geteilt, 6
G iglles, D eb ussy , 77. 161. 318
glass, break ing of. 319
gl issando :
harp. 318-330
hom, 239
kettledrum, 301-302
in natural harmonics. 59

t ro m bo ne, 274- 275

vio lin. 47- 49
Gtoc e en , 316

glockenspiel, 314-3 15
gong, 310
G on erdenmu mng, Die, \ Vag ner, 207. 172,
lJ8
G o uno d, HI
gourds. ~ 19
gran cassa, 30R
grande fllite, 11f!
greloss, 319
Gri flhr ett , 76
grosse caissc, ]08
grosse Flote, 128
grosse Tronnnel, ]08
30
G-string:
bass. 98, 101, 102. 103
'cello, 93
viola, 6S--6<)
violin. 51-55
guiro, 3' 9
guitar, QI---()l
G urrelieder, Schoen be rg, 184, 208, 2S0,
lJ8

a-ss;

half, 7
half position :
'cello. 8 1
do ubl e-bass, 101
vio la. 67
viol in. 45
half-ru be instrum ents, 211
H andel, 164
hand ho rn . 225
hard rticks, HJ9
Harfe, 323
"harmonic fingering," 137
har mo nics :
brass instrument, 2OQ-2 10. Hoi, 116
'ce llo, 85-87. 9 1
doub le-b ass, 1 0 2 ~ 1 04
flute, 133. 136- 137
h arp , 333-33 4
hom, 227, 240
ob oe, 14Q
string ed instrumen t. 29- 31, 9 1
trom bo ne, 168-27 1
trump et , 246--249, 254
vibratio n d iagram, 29
viol a, 74- 75
viol in. 58--60
w oodwind instrum ent, 136- 137. see also
o verblowing
harmoni um , 351
harmony. 451

INDEX
Ha rold in Italy , Berli o z, 14
har p, pJ-n9
ch ords, 3P
damping of st rings, 335
enharrnonics, p6-]18
finge ring, 330--33 1
g lissan do. 318-no
harmo nics. 333-33 4
not ation fo r. 326
o rc hestral uses, 337-H8, 419
ped al mech an ism. 324-326
pian o an d. 346--347
pluc king, 9 1
special effects , 338
harpe, 323
har psich ord. 350
H ary J,inos Suite, Koddly , 339
H ayd n, vii, 200, 226. 3tl8
H eck el. \\'illiam, 162. 201
H ec kel bassoons. 189
hcckelphonc, 114, 162
H eiden/eben, Ein, Strau~s.63, III, 135, 160,
180. 16 3
H eure Espagnole, L', R avel, 60
Hind cmirh, 51 , 194. 156, 274, 179, 2~8. p2 ,

'"

Histoire d u So ldat, L', St ravins ky , 30~

Holst, 50, 145, .1 08, 241, 30 1. 38]
H oizschliigel, 299
ho mopho nes, 326--318
ho moph onic te xtu re, 364
Honegg er , H I. H2
horn, 2 7- 108, 215-2~5
bass clef notation, u S
crooks, 129
finger ing, 213, 1 34~235
gli ssand os. 239
grou pi ngs of. 140--245
muting. 236
orchest ral uses , 240--245, 419, 4lO, 4 24 ~
43,437-44 1
ran ge , U 7, 233- 234
st opped notes. u8-1l9, 235-1 37
to nguing. 118. no. 238-139
trills, 237-2 38
valve. 225, 231- 232
v irtuo sity of. : .P - 143
see also brass inst ru me nts
btu , wood wind, IlO
Hun~arian gypsy o rch est ra s, 338
hunting horn, 225
Iberia, Debussy, 91. zor, 280
idiophones. cce
Impressions of Italy, Charpentier , 92
Indian d r um , j ao
"in one bow," 9

469

int erloc king, 30. 448

/star, D'In dy, 135, 357
Ita/ian SympIJony, M endelssohn, 39. 139,

'74
lagd lJorn , 225
l eanne d' A rc au BliclJer, H o negger , 352
jete, 15
l eu de Cartes, Stravinsky. 291
ieu de timbres, 314
[eux , D eb ussy , 219
jingles, 3". 319
j oliver, 3iZ
f our d' lte a [a M ontagne, D'Ind y, 3 1, H 6

Kastagn ett eTl, 312

kcrrled rums, 297-30,
keyboard instru ments:
celesta, 348-350
har mo nium. 352
ha r psicho rd, Ho
Ondes M arte not, 352
orga n, 35[-351
piano . Ho--H8
see also separate inst ru ments
Klarinette, 163
K la1.ier. 340
Heine Flore, 141

kleine Tronnnel,

30 ~

klin gen lassen. 309

K liip pel, 308
Kodal y, 104. 173, 339
K on t rabass, 98
K ontrsbasstuba , 185
K omraf.zgott , 201
K ornett , 264k-t-k, n o
ku ru ku, 113
iaisser vibrer, 309

/01 meta,], 113

la ntoit ie, 7
lasciare vibrere, 309
Latin-A mer ic an exo tic instru me nts, 319
legato:
bo w ing , 8- 11. 13-14
trombone, 273
let ring , 309
L ied co n der rde, D ,H, M ahl er , 100,237
lion's roar , 319
Liszt, 62-63
L ohengrin, w agner, 124,231 , lJl
long drum, 304

lour ; , 13-14
Lulu, Berg, I
L yric Suire, Berg, Sf

I ND EX

ORCHESTRAT ION

470

;\fagie Flute, Th e, Mozarr, 70, 18]

Mahler, Ii . 22, 36. 48-49. 50, 54. 6}. 1l6,
95, 100, roo, I ll, '40, '5 7. IRl, 193>
24. 1}7. 238, 140, 241, 278, 290.
32.315.319. 351, 364

2OZ,

maillocbe, ]08
mallets, 314. 318
Ma ,Here L'Oye, Ravel. 132 .202
maracas, 319
Marche au Stlpp!ice (Sym phonie Fa71tastique }, Berlioz. 1[2
marimba, JIB
Marriage of Figaro, The: Ot"erture, Mo-

zan, 123. }68

marrele,

16

mmeuuo, 16
.\ h rtcnot, Maurice, 352
.' ta n io, 351
'\lartinu, 342
Martyre de Saint Sebastien, Le, Debussy,
317. ]62
mazze, J08
'\hzzeo, Rosario, 178
measured tremolo, 31, 33
.Meistersinger, Die, Wagner, 289
melodic ph rase, as texture of one element.
357-3 63
melody:
and accompaniment, as texture, 364-373.
395. 404 -4 1 2
arrangement of the accompaniment to,
43 1 -44 '
harmonic bass, 109- 111
problems in "Orchestration of, 415-

muring:
bassoon, 19 3
brass instrument, 223
double-bass, 17-108
horn, 236
kettledrum, 302
oboe, [57
stringed instrument, 35
trombone, 277
trumpet, 257-258
tuba, 287

naturale, 21
natu ral horn, 225-13
nicht gestopft, 236
nicbs geteilt, 6
Nights in the Garden> of Spain. Falla, 341
Noces, Les, Srravinskv, 317, H7
Nocturnes: Nnsges, bebu~}.. 69
non arpeggiato, 332
non div ., 6
nonlegato, bowing, 11- 14
ncranon:
bass clarinet, 178- 179
bass drum, 309
cvmbal, 310
harp, 326, 334
percussion instrument, 305
sco ring fo r brass, 2Z3-2Z~, 228, 268,

' 94
see also composition and orchestration
Notte A lta, A, Casella, 327
Nuages, D eb ussy, 69, 302, 335
Nutcracker Suite no. I, Tchaikovsky, 136

4)0

scoring for, 416-430

secondary, as texture, 374-381, 4044"
mernbranophones, 2
Mendelssohn, 39, 139, 174, 295, 440
Mer, La, D ebussy , 34, 88, lIZ, 136, 156,
160-161, 220, 241, 259, 261, 275, 314,
BO . 371, 432
Mess iaen, 352
Meyerbeer, 295
"lilhaud, 52, 59, 144, 180, 193, 318, 3'9.
380 , 393
military drum, 304
mit D.!impfer, 35
mojo ordinaria, 21
Moussorgsky-Ravcl. 100, 1 9~, 238, 292
Mozarr, vii, 34, 70, 72, 123,10.183, 198,
249,34,368,375, 3ll4, 389. 44 1
Music, t h ree attitudes of performers
toward, 63-64

Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta,

Bartok, 302, 350
J f.usic for the Theater, Coplan d, 260, 347

o (abbrev., open). 136

oboe, 114- 115, 116, 141, 146- 157
auxiliary instruments, 151:1-161
bell-raising, 157
breathing, 125- 126, IS0
embouchure, 119, 14l}-151
fingering syslem, 146-148
groupings, 155-156
harmonics, 11 8, 149
muting, 157
o rchestral uses, 155-158, 420--430, 437-

44'

overblowing, 148--149
reeds, 149
scoring for, 117
solo, lp- ln
to ne. 151-154
tonguing, 123, 124, 150--151
trills and t remolos, 155
see also woodwind inst ru ments
oboe d'amore, 114, 16 1- 162
octave d o ubling, 108, 362, 3, 451
in part writing, 383

in scoring for melody, 417-430

octave key, 118
offen, 236'
orf -th e -string sta ccato, 14-16, 11
obne Dsmoier, 35
Oi seeu de Feu, L' , Stravinsky, 60, 76, 85,
135,258,274, 2Si, B8, WS
Ondcs Marrcnot. 3P
"one desk only:' 113
on the rim, 307
on-the-srring staccato, 14, 16-[9
open, 236
open strings, violin, 40--41 , 57
ophictcidc, l8l , 295
orchestra :
brass section, 206- 208
harp in, B8
keyboard instruments in, 340--343, 348-

35'

make-up of, 3
percussIOn section, Hfi--297
pia no and the, 340--348
string sect ion, .;
usc of instruments in, see separate instruments
woodwind section, 60-63, 1[4-115
orchestral style, 6 3
orchestral tuba in F, 28~-285. 293
orchestral unison, as texture, 355-363 , 40~-

4"

orchestration:
background and accompaniment, 431-

44'

counterpoint and, 451-460

mea ning of, vii
of melody, problems, 415-430
objective in anal ys is of, 355-356
practice in, 461-462
qualities to seek in, ~62
scientific approach to. viii
scoring of chords. 44~-451
t ext ure, see texture
voice leading and, 452-460
see a/so composition and notation
organ, HI -352
Orpheus, Stravinsky, 18, 138, H7
Otello , Verdi. 351
Otez les sourdines, H

ottavino,14 1
oUtlert, 236
Ouverture Solenneile, 1812, Tchaikovsky,
97, 192
overblowing :
brass instrument. 209-210
woodwind, 118-119, 131, 148-149, 165,66
overlapping, 396, 448
overtones, 29

471

Overture: The Roman Carnival, Berlioz,

160. 378
Overture to Der Freischiirz, W eber , 398
O,,'erture to Wiltum Tell, Rossini, 15,97
parade d ru m, 304
paradiddle, 306
par pl/pitres, 7

Parsifal, W ag ner, 71, 202

partials. 29
Partita for Piano and Or chest ra, Casella,
35, 261
pan writing:
orchestration of, 452
as texture. 369, 38: -,87, 38'). 4o~-412
Passacaglia from Peter Grimes, Britten,

"

Pauls en, 297

pa't'illon en I'air, 240

pedals, harp. 324-326
pedal tones, 2 I I
PeJ/las et M elis.:mde, Dcbussv, 23, 112
percussion instruments, :</>--322
aux iliarv instruments, 297
bass drum, 308-309
bells, 3'6
castanets, 3 I 2-3 13
cvmbafs, 30l}-310, 317
drum strokes. 305-307 , 308
ensemble, 310-312
exotic instruments, 31Q-320
glockempicl.3 14-3 15
kettledr ums, 297- 303
notation for, 305, 309, Jlo
o rchestral uses, 2<;6-297, 419
snare drum, 303-307
sound effects, 319
tambourine, 311-312
tam-tam. 3[0--311
triangle, 313
vib raphone, 315
wood block, 312
xy lophone, 317-J18
Peri, La, Dukes, 94
Persephone, Stravinsky, 335
Peter Grimes, Britten, 22, 85, 262,336
petite flute, 14'
Petite SY7llphonie Concerunse, Ma rtin,
ll'
Petroucbka, Stravinsky, J58, 176, 258, 266,

344

phonograph re c o rds, viii

phrasing, woodwind, 125-n6
piano, 296, 340--348
compositions fo r orchestra and, 340--341,

4'5

concertos fo r, 340
doub ling use, 341

IN DEX

ORCHESTRATIO;-';

472

p iano (cominllcd)
harp and. 146-147
orchest ra l uses, Ho-,4J
pe rcussion effects, 3.U-H6
~()ring

for. 347

solo passages, 343-145

un usual uses, H6-H7
Piano Con certo, R avel. 86

Pim o Concerto in D, op, If, Bn.hms. un

Pimo Co ncerto no. r. Bra h m s, 97
" ;.1110 Concerto no. 4. Beet ho ven . 53
1';:11I0 Concerto ' 10. f . Beet ho ven , l!9
pia'loforu, 3010
pianoforte pedal. 4' S
pim i. j09
p iccolo, 114-II S. 14 1-1 44
o rchestral U~ . 4 ' 9"",P4- ,P 6-.B O, 455
scori ng for. 117
Pictures at en Esbibinon .\Ioussorgsky Ravel. 100, 19+0 : ,8. 19:
Pierro: Lunsire, Schoenberg. '75
pi fton, 164
piston valve, In. 153
piech :
air co lumn length and. 115-1 16. I zo
brass inst ru me nt. ' 57. Z1 j -1I4. 16: . 169
harp. JZ S

natural order, in scoring. .P l

pe rcuss ion instrument classi fication by.

'

reed import ance in. I 41}-1 50

in scoring for chords. 450-451
sna re dru m. )04
u ringed instru ment. 4- 5. 4)
rim pan i, 29S
woodwind. 142, 146

ph:., 1)
pizu c<2to, IJ- 2S. 75- 76. 9O-9 Z. 107
Plan ers, T he, H olst. 50. 145, zoB, 141. )01,

l8,
plu cki ng , o f st r inge d insrrumenrs, IJ -ZS
ponrictllo. viola . 76-77
portamento, 47-49
POI4/0'lt, 167
post hom, 264
Pou lenc, )5 1

poul1e. S
Pretude to Die M eistersi17gtT, wagne r, 1119
Prtlude to Parsifal, 'Vag ner, 71
Prelude to Tristan II1ld Isolde, Wagner,
19 '
Prnll;rre Rh<2psod ;e, D ebu ssy, IJ8, 174
prh de 14 table. BO, H 6
Primn np s, Debussy, 10, JZ9, }46
Prokofieff, 67,110-111, 151,197.280, 291.
J01. }46
Prometbeus, Beethoven, 18)

Pia/m ill H un gsricus, Kodalv,

pult'uxile, 1
'
" lIpa: u tt i, Case lla, 117, 171

17)

qu adrur l.c -stops. 6

q ll"l1 gm tarol , 11

R oum anian R bapsoJ y "0 " 2, E nesco, 78

R o ussel, 540 75. 16 /. JZ9

ruff.

)06

Rub nronnnel, )04

.,.

Sscre dn Primenrps, Le, St ravin sky,

I),

75.95, loW. 145, 151. 184-0 1)9. 26) . JO),

radi o. mu sic broadcasts, viii-ax

r"g,m cU" , JI9
R.~g . Time, SIC3\"insk\', :8. J39
ripe .!tun o, ) 19
'
RoIpsoJ ie Esp"gllo fe, Ravel, 87. 94. 107,
'7S, I J9. 2SS. )0 7
Ra tsche. )19
rattle, ) 19
Ravel. 25. 27, 47. 4c)' 60. 7), 86, 87. 94,
100,103.17. loS , II I. II) . 114. I ) : ,
1) 40 1J7. 145. 151. IH, 162. 175. 18: ,
186. '94. 201. 101, 1)8. 1)9, :55. 260,
2RH. 29:, )07. )17, )19. ) 21. H I, 334
real pans, J8J -J87. 452
recordings, viii-ix
reeds:
clarinet . 16) - 164
o boe. 149
Reger, 50
reg ~rer key, 11 8
reg lsl e rs:
balance in c ho rds, 446
use o f weak an d st ro ng, J9S
woodwind. uti. IJI-IH, 167-1 72. '92 11)6. 201
R enard , Srr avm sky , J39
R rq uirm, Be rlio z, )0 )
Requiem .\ t o un. 18)
Resp ig hi, 168, 192
Reublo d e .\l .:lelt Pedro, Falla. HO
Rie ggcr, 1 10
Rienzi, " 'ag ner. 1)1. 195
rim shot , J07
Rimsk v-Korsakoff, 16. 58. 106, 178, HO.
264, 176
R ing des Nlbelungen, w agner, 180, 194
R oi D,J1.';d , t, Honegg er. HI
ro ll :
cymbal. JIO
drum, 305-)07, )08
rarnbou rine, ) II
R oman Carnh'al, The, Berlioz, 160, }7S
Roman numerals, to de signate smngs, 30
R omantic Su ite. A , Reger. S 0
R omeo et Juli ette, Berlioz, 200. H 6. 1)0,
) 17. 400
Ronda de Primemps, Debussy. 10
ROlt11lu1val;tT , DtT. Strauss, 41. 71. 348
Rossini, IS. 97. 150

rotary valve,

211 .

In

Sainr-Saens. JSI

Sslome, St ra uss. 162

sett enda, 14- 15
lalu fO. 15
Salzedo, Ca rlos. B8
sandpaper blocks. J19
1"171 sourdines, JS
sarrusophone, l0S
lal1ofono. 185
Sax, A do lphe, 185
I11%0f on o, 185
S,uop bon. 185
sa xo pho ne. ItiS-1 1I7
SClJla di Scr", 1,,,; Sinioni s, Rossin i, ' 50
S cballt riclnrr .1/11.', 15i , 140
Schebcr,,:,.,Je, Rims kv-Korsa korf, 106,
119, 176
.
Scbellen , }19
Scbcllentrommcl, J I I
schmetternd, l}6
Schmitt, 88. 177
Schotnbug.74- 175. 1114. l oS, 2n. 180. 290
Sch ube er, C), 11. 58, 2: 11, 2i6
Sc human. 181. 40)
Sch um a nn, J9, I B, l B . 17h 295. H I, ,Sl
Scb-u".nmll1c1:Ligd, 299
sco rdsro , J04
scords sure, H-)6
sco ring. Stt co mposition and notation
secco, JoS. H 5
seconda ry melody, as te xture, J74-JS I,
404 -4 U
sec o nd fluee. 1)8-140
sec o nd har mo nic, 29
S econd Rhapl0d y for Vi olin and GrebertTa, Bartok, go, 159
Second S ymphoni c Su ite, ,\ 1ilha ud , 51, 19J ,
319. J80
sec o nd violi ns, 61

sems corde,

)04

sema sordini, H
scnza vibrsso, 7
Se renade, ,"'t on rt , 18)
S eTt1I"de, Schoenbe rg. 74
seve nt h harmo nic , J 10
sbak en. )11
Shc srako vich, 68, 90. 101, 14). 179, ' 40,
2SS. 288. }41. H 9
Sibel ics, 14. 156. 157. 170, 175

473

side dru m, )03, 304

Sieg fried Id)'ll, " '.agner , 9)

sno iono, )17
Sin fonia da R equiem . Britt en, 187, H 6
sirens. )19
sizzle cymbal , ) 09
sk i~, wi de. violin, 49-5 1
sleIgh be lls, )19
slides:
b rass instrument. 21I
ho m . 226
t ro mbone, 211. 181
viol in, 46-4 7
slide trombon e. 26i
slu rred stacc ato, 17
slurring :
bow ing for. 9
bnss insrru mcnt, 216
trombone, : 1}
woodwind. 1: 5- 126
snare drum, JOJ-)Oi
drum strokes, )05-)07
muffling, )07
snare head, J04
soft sticks, 299
solo style. 64
1000"gll, J 19
sons itoufTis , JH
sons bsrmoniqnes, 30
sordmi, H
so und effects, percussion instrument. 19 7.

l '9
spacing. c ho rds, -H7-44 8
Spanish castane ts, ) Il
speaker key, liS
spi ccao, 14
stacc ato, 21
bassoo n. 19 7
bo w ing , 14-1 9
brass instr ument. 218
clarinet, 173
co nt rabassoon, 10)
do uble -bass, 106
oboe, 150-1 51
pizzicato :IS. 24
slu rred. 17
woodwind, 122

Steg , 76
stopped nc res, horn. 128-2 29, 2H -l )7
Strauss, Ri chard, Il- I), 21, H. 44, 47. 63,
77. 79, 89. 1}6, 99,106,1 7. III, lB.
' 35. 156, 160, 161. 162. 180, 182. 18J.
18.., 203, 105. 118. 121, J )9, 2430 15' .
26J. 279. 2Bo, 287, 289. 194. 31C), 348.
351, )51. 4 1, 400-407
St ravin sky , I). 18. 17. 28. 45, 60. 7S, 76.
85,95, 14,1 11. 1)2. 135, 1)8. 145. 151

ORCHEST RAT IO ~

474

Srra vinsk v (co m inud)

158. i 68. "I . 176. IS... !J 9- z,", 156.
158. 16 }, :66. l i 4. 187. 191, 30 3. 304)1 7. 335. 317. 339. HI , 344-347. )61,
4 02, 4 10

stri ng bass, 98
accents, IQ-10
bo w ing. 7 ~8. 9- 13
'cello. 8<H;!,

characteristics of the strin gs.

p-ss

cimbalom, HS-H9
cou nt erpoi nt an d , -1-51-4 60

divided st rings.

S ym phon y in B-liat, Chausse n. 153

Sy m phon y in B-li.1r, D'Ind y, :63
Sy m pho ny in C, Srravmsky, :7, 73. 19 S,

SympbollY no. i. Bruckner, l B . 1Q4-. : 95

S ymphon y no. 7. Schu be rt, :: 8. 1; 6
Sympbony no. 7. Sh ostakovich , I ..B . 179,

Symphony in C Major, M o zarr, 7:, 149,

Sy71lpbony no. 8, Beetho ven. 9~

Sympb Qny no. r, M ahler , IN4. :90, H I
Symphony no. B, Schub ert, II
Sympbony no. 9, Beethoven. IOQ. 195, ::9.
q 8. 359--360
S ymphony no . 9, Bruc kner . 17. :94
Sy m phony no. 9, M ahler. 50. 106. :0,.,

".
3"

str inged instruments , )- )6

6-]

do uble-bu s, 98- 11:1

fing ering. 4-6
harrn onicsv ec- j r
harp . }lJ- B9
intonat ion , 4 )
1~:.I[o. S-- I I

mutes, H
ope n string tones, 41
sco rdsrure, }5 - ) 6
scori ng for. 4 [6-.119. 'P6-4JO, 431-441 ,
445- 45 1
string des igna tion. 30
string lengt h and resonance, 75

tr emolo, P -H
trills. J I
vihraro, 7
viola. 65- 79
violin, 37-6 4
voice leading and. 4P -460
let aho se pua tc instruments
string vibrations d iagram, 19
subrone, 171
Suire en FIJ , Rou ssel, 7S
S uiu fo r S m.lll Orche str.J, Stra vinsky, H I
suI G, 30. 54
sulle tolltier.J. 10- 21
sui ponticeuo , 1 1, 77, 106
sui t.lsto, 10. 106
Summer D<2Y on the M ount<2in, D'In dy.
3 0 ~ , 346
superpo sit ion, 396, 448
sur /a tou che, 10, 88
sw ish cym bal. 309
Sy mphoni.J Domestics, St rauss, 21, 89.
l B. 161, ,.06-,.07
S ymphonic .\fet.Jmorphosis, H indemith,
:79. :88, pl
Symphonie F.Jnt.JJtique, Berlioz, 18, I I:.
I ~I. 17:, 107. J0 3, H I
Symphonies o f JV ind Instrum ent s, Stravinsky, 40:
Sy mplJo7ly, Fra nck. 9, [[ 0, 38:
Symphony ( K. H3) , .\ tozan, 34

Il"DEX

Sympbony in D (Glocken) , H ayd n. 3k8

Sympbony in D , .\ tOl.:l rt. +p
S) mphony in -fi.Jt , H indernirh. SI
Symphony in E-fi<2 t, .\ tozart , 161}, J75
Sy m phony in G (PofUkenfChJ.Jg), H ayd n.
'00
Sy m phony in G ,\f inor, .\ loza n, 70, )8c}
Symphony in G .uinor, Ro ussel, 54
Sy m phon y in T hree M cn'em enzr, Stravinsky. 171. 343, 361
S ymphon y: M<2 thiJ der Jla /er , H indemit h,
274> 4 4
S ymphony no. I, Beetho ven, 15. lS I, 367
Sy mphony no. I , Bra hms. 3) , ::6
Symphon y no. I , Copland, HJ
Symphony no. I , ,\ hhler, 86, :,p
Symphony no. I , Schumann. l B . J71. 387
Symphony no. I , 5ibeliu s, 175
Symp hon y no. 2, Bra hm s, 67, 90, 1}3, 361},

",

Symphony
Symphony
Symphony
Symp hon y

no. 2, ~hl h:lu d , 59, 144. 180. 393

no. 1 , Schumann, 39. 1}3
no. 2 , Sibehus, 14
no. J tEroics ), Beethoven, 56,

116,~ 37

S ymphony no. J. Bra hms, 49. 53. 68, 19-10

l p , 399
Symphony no . J, Copland, 59. 141
S ymphr.n y n o. ;. M ahler, 54, 178
Sym phony n o. J, Mendelsso hn, 440
Symphony no , J , Riegger, 110
Symphony no. ; , Saint-Saer rs, H I
Sym pbony no.;, Sc human, 181. 4 3
Sy mphony no. J, Schumann. 173
S ymphony no. J , Sibel ics. 1; 0
Sy m phony no. f , Beethoven, I I . 197
Symphony no. 4, Brahms. 4 1, 61. : 78
S ympbony no. 4, Mahler, 17. 36. 48-4 9,
9S, 140, 140, 30~, 3[5,3 '9,364
n o. 4, Ma rt inu, H l
no . 4, Sibelius, 156, 157
no. f . Tchajk o vsk y. 3 1, +P
no. $ Beeth o ven, 150. 385
no. 1. Dvofak. II ), :17
no. r , Prokofieff, 197, ~9 1, 307.

SymplJony
Symphony
S ymphony
Sym pbon y
S ymphony
S ymphony

Symphon y no. r , Schubert, 9, 58

Symp bony no. 5, Shostakovich, 68, 90, 1 0 ~ ,
140, ~H, 34: , 349
Symphon y 1/0,6, Beethoven, :50
Symphony no, 7, Beethoven , 17, 147, 376

,"

'3'
Symphony of PlollmJ, St ravin sky, I p

346-

H7

S )'mpboll y o n a French .l1rl/lnt olin Air,

D't ndy, 74. HI
symphony o r chestra, see o rc he st r a
tol, : 16
T02 hle.Jux d'une Exp osition , .\ lo uloSOrgskyRani, 100. 194. 138, : 9:
tabor, 30-1
tsmbaur, ; 03, 30"
tambour d e Basque , 3' I
tamb our de Prove nce, 3-1, 305
tarubourme, 3 11 ~ 31:
tam bour (o ) m ilirJirc, 304
T olm bllrin (0 ), 3 1 1
tamburo, 303
tzmburo b.JJCo, 311
tsmbur o piccolo, 304
ram-tam. 310
T annh.Jliur, \\"agner , 41. 195, 131
"tapest ry of sound." ~II
Tch aikovs kv, 97, [ 36. 191, : 65, 301, 441
te mpera ture, effec[ un w ind instruments,
"'0
temple blocks. 310
tenor-bass trombo ne. 1;0
rencr d rum , 30~. 305
t enor saxophone, IllS. 186
t eno r trolnOOne. : I I. : 67, :60;1
tenor tuba, :0; , :,,~, : 8Q
T cno rtuba, 18-1
textu re;
chords :IS. 39(,- 43, 4 4-4 11
complex. ~0 5 -41 1
co nt ra punt al, 3118--395, 4-1-4 ':
melody and accompa nim e nt as. 364-)73 ,
38 7. 395, 404 -4 11
o rchest ral unison :IS, 355-363 . 404- 4 11
part w riting as. 369, 381- 387. 389, 404,.1 : , 451
seco nda ry meludy as, 374- 311 1, 404-411
tr;llISpare llcy in , 431
t hird harmon ic, : 9
t hroat ronc s. l 6<,rl i o

thumb tr ill, 311

thunder, 319
ticking of docks. 319
Till lIlnupiegd , Strauss. 156. 18: , %0 3,
: 79, 319
tim bJle5, 19i , 319

mnbre, 19
tim p.Jlli. lQ?
mupsno piccolo, 30 J
tire, Il
r- k -I. 2I 9

'0

1'0 .1 nn.i V erkJ.irtut1{, Straw-so

Tomhesn Je COllpc't'in, L e. R:IHI. 103.
331
rom-rome , 3[9, 3:0
tone ;

Sj' ,

hassoon, 193 - 196

c ho rd s, +f i
d :Itinel . 16, . I ' M,). [7Q-181
tlu te, 1, 1-1 H. 14_
harmonics. ~ Q- 31
uuncd string'. H
obne. IS I- 154
piccolo, 141- [45
saxophone, [86
shape of a, : 0
tro mbo ne. :7 5- 177
[ru mp['r. : ;';:-1 51)
ruba, :87. 19--1
vemcal rd :n ion~ h i ps. ,--;9Q
vio la, 6;~
in wind inst rumcn rs, 115-11 6. 118- 110.
~oH-~OQ

[o ne color, : 0- : 3, %9
chnrds in, 396. 4-111
scordamrs fo r, l6
in tex ture o f o ne ele me nt.

~61

tongU ll1g :

brass inwr umenr, 216-1: 1. :;8--:39. %58: 59 :il-:i4, :(,10

woodwind. 1: 0-1:4. ISO-l SI. 173- 174197- 198
IOUJ. 7
tra nspa renc y. in o rc hes tral te xt ure. -I' [
T restu e on l nstrnmentsuon, Berlioz
(St rauss rcvisiou} , 152

tremotm -lo, F
tr emolos:
brass instrument, ~ : o
har p. 336
kett ledrum, 30:
stringed instrument. P- 34. 88
woodwind, 106. z:~. 137- 138, 155. 173,
' '19

Tr;.J III{ ~'I, 313

triangle, 3' 3
tris ngola, J [3

ORCHESTR A TIOi\:

476

trilk
bra ss instrument. 237- 138. 159. 174. 189
harp . ,V')
!>r r in ~{"tl inst ru ment,
wHHdwi nd. '37-1 3". ' 55. 173. 11)8--- 199

,I

triple' Sl"ps, 6
mplc-ronguing. u;
1>.I"on, 11)8
bra" iustr'umcnt ,
clarmct, 174
flute. 1; 6
horn. 119
obo e , IS O

chords. 55-58
chromatic prog rc~si lln. 4z- ."
d iagrams o f. 5, 7, 55
douhlc-srops, 55-58
fingering . }7- 40, 45, 51-51
fi~t and seco nd sec t io ns. 6o-6J
fourth finge r extensiun, 45
gl issando. 47-49
half po-...mon, 45
ha rmonics, 58-6>
int o narjo n, 43
open su ings. 4!>-4 1
orchestral usn. 4 16--419. 4J5-441
pcrtamenro, 47- 49
~ ltlon techn ique n -5 1
scordawr.,l, J6
solo. 36. 6J-6.f
rr dls, J I
roning, 4
wide sl1ips. +9-51
IU .rllo slringcd instruments
Violin Conc erto, BJ n M.:, 28. 275, HO,
lB
Vi olin Concer to, Br1111\-en. 7 r
V io/ill Concerto, Berg. 75-76, uS. 177.
196. 258. 277. B 8
Violin Concerto no . z, P roko fieff, II I

rnn guing, : 18. : 20. 290

valve svstcm, 211 3-2H4. 294
\\'ag ner, 19 , - 294
1<'.' ::110 brass inst ru me nts
t u b:: b.HS::( ~), 2H4

mb, ordimure, :84

1ltrZZO

tUba . 190

m utes, : 07

o rchcsrra l uSC'S, 177-180 .pl}. 410, 41"4) 0, "H

rangc.1M-zi l
slide , : I I. 11 J. :68-169
tOllc.1 75- :77
to ng uing. 118, no, 171- 174
tr ills, I j..f
trum pet in Efbt as. 16)
valve, :81

Ue stso brass mserumenrs

Tr onrmel, ,03
T rampere, 146
trampcnr, 146
t ru mpe t. Wi - loS. 146-164
auxiliary instruments, :61-166
fi:ngcrin~. 154- 155
harmomcs, 146-149, 154
mode rn , 153-164
muted, 157-158, 179
orchest ral uses, 14l}--251, 260-261, 411),
.po. 424- 430
rangc. 247-2 49, 255-2 57
to ne , 255-256
tonguing. 120, 258-259
trills. 259
va lve, 25' -253
see also brass inst ru me nts
' -I-k, 219
Ill, 1l0-1l3, 216
tu ba, 207-2oS, 271l, 280, 282-295
agi lity. :88-:!\l;l
em bouchure, :1l6
length and range, :84-:86
muted. : 87
norarion fo r, 294
o rchestra l uses. 290-29" 419, .po, 424-

"0

tone, :S7. 294

tubula r hells. ; 16

T risrs n WId Isolde. \\ag ne r. 105. 391

tr omba, 146
trUII/h" comrsl rs; :64
t rombone, ~07-1 cl. : 67- : 8,
gli" J'hJ o, 17-f-175

IN DEX

lU tm ru ( til leu m ku ), 123

'Tursngslila, .\ Icssiaen. 351
Turkish gong. JI O

rutri, ;
t utt i c ho rds, 396, +49'"'"45

III
z cym., llo

t u tu /ru,

Ilnis_, 6, 127
unison d ou bling. J96. 448, 454
in part writing. J8J
in sco ring for melody, 4' 7-4 JO
umsom, 6
up-bear, bowing. J
up-ho w, 8- 10. 118
Va1J ~, La, Ravel . 4Q. 108, 124. 20~ . 288
V.rlus N ob /es et S entimemsles, RaH I. H 4
val ves, 112- 214, 2H. 28J- 2f4. 294
V ariaTions on .r Theme by H ay J n, Brahms.

'"

vent, 118.'1 9

Vennlborn, 225
Va cnTf!, h nrix, Canteloube, H l
V er d i. 141. 2110. 181, 295. H I
vi ,l sardini, J5
\"ibr Ol pho lle. J I5
vihrarinn v, st ring, d iagram o f, 19
vibr-ato, ~tr inged instrument, 7
" io ta. ;j . 65- 79
as b'I"'s, 7 J
bo w ing. R
charact eristics o f st r ings. 67-70
c hords. 73-74
clefs, 67
dou ble notes, 7G-7J
do uble-stops, 73- 74
fingeri ns , 66-67
har monics, 74-75
orc hest ra l use of, 7, 71-73 , 416-'P9
pizzicato, 75-76
pomicelto , ?6-77
so lo, ;7-79
tuning, 4
I CC slso stringed inst r um ents
violin, 37-6 4. 77-79, 110
ac cidenta l.., 4 1
bowing. H. 4J-P
ch aracrcri srics o f t he st rings, 51-55

Viotine,

1:iolino , J7
"v ioli n sty le:' 4Z

vioton, n

Vi% ll a ll, 80
80

dolo nall~,

viuluucelln, su 'c ello

voice leading, orchestration an d. 452- 460

141 41, 58, 6J. 71. 9J. 10; . 124, 19J,

202, 207. ZJI, IJ 1. 26J, 27:, :80,
:89. 295, J 9~
ruha, :07, 285, 193-29 4
IVolld bONl, uS
W aldbornmben, Z93
\ Vag ner,
195,
28 7.
W ag ner

W a/h ire.

Die:

Sieg1l1l1nds

LiebesJied,

\\'ag ner. 58
W eber, 19. J98

477

whole- tube instruments. 2 I I

W illiam T ell, Rossi ni, 15.97
wind instrtnucms, see brass instruments
anJ wo..dwmd inst ru ments
w ind mac hine, JI9
If"illJ1II.,Iscbine, J I9
witho ut snar es. 304
with t he t humb , JII
wood block. J U
w oodwind instruments, 114- 12?
ba.....oon. 188-w l
bre ;Hhi ng. 125- 126
clarinet. 16 J-IRI
contrabassoon, : 01-1 5
c ou nterpoint and. 45: -4 60
embo uc hure, I r9-l2o
F.ngli.sh hum, 158-1 6 r
finge ring, 116-118
flut e. 1l 8-14 5
hamlOnic ; .136--I J7
hc ck clphone, 161
ken. 118
oboe. 146-1 57
oboe d'amore, 161- 162
o verblowing, IIR- 119
phn.sing, 125- 126
piccolo. 1-1 1-144
p itch . qz
reaisrers. 1: 6
urrusophone. 205
saxophone, 185- 18?
scoring for, 126-127. 419'"'" 424. 4=6-+4 1.
445- 45 1
shorten ing -ho le sys tem. 116- 117
standard and auxiliary instruments. 114.
141

tone in. " 5- 116. l18- n o

tonguing. 120-124
vo ic e leading and, 451- 460
see also separate irrsrrumenrs
woodwinds by fours, 115
woodwinds by t h rees , 115, 141
wood winds by twos, 114-1 15
' V Qz .:eck , Berg, 141

W ell-Tempered Clavier, Bach , 459

xyl o phone, J17- J 18

w hip, J I9
w histl es, 319

Z auberffiite, Di e, Mozart, 70, 18J

"

ORC HESTRA T IO :'<

TWO

ANALYSIS OF ORCH ESTRATION

19

TYPES OF TEXTURE-TY PE I, ORCHESTRAL US ISO S-

:0.

TYPES OF TEXTt:RE-TYPE

II ,

:\lE LODY AXD ACCO :\ l -

PASI.\IEST
SECO~DARY

TYPES OF TEXTURE-TYPE III ,

22.

TYPES OF TEXTURE-TYPE IV, PART W RIT ING

J.

T YPES OF TEXTURE-TYPE

v,

l\ IELODY

COXTRAPUSTAL TEXTURE

J7+
J82
J88

2 ...

T YPES OF TEXTt:R[-TYPE VI, CHORDS

J9 6

25

TYPES OF TEXTl,"RE-TYPE VII , CO.\ lVLEX TEXTt:RE

4 5

THREE PROBLL\\S IN ORCH ESTRATION

26.

ORCHESTRA.T IDS OF :\ IELODY

4 15

'.L

BACKGROUSD AXO ACCO.\IPASL\IEST

"J I

28.

SCOR IXG OF CHOR DS

4++

29

VOICE L EADI X G AXD COUXTERPOIN T

45 2
461

COSCLtiS IOS
I S DEX

F O RE W O R D

36..

21 .

355

4 6J

true art of orchestration is inseparable fr om the creative act

of composing music. T he sounds made by the orchestra are
the ult imate extern al manifestation of musical ideas germinated in the mind of th e co mposer. One skilled in the techni que of orchestr ati on may practi ce a somewhat lesser art of tr anscribing for
orchestra music origi nally writt en for another medium. This can be a
fine th ough difficult art, provided the orchestrator is able to put himself momentarily in the composer's place, and, so to speak , to think
the composer's th oughts. Failing this, th e result is unlikely to amount
to more th an a display of skill and craft, often of a superficial and
artificial nature.
Orchestr ation, in the sense here employed, refers to the process of
writing music fo r the orchestr a, using principles of instrumental combination essent ially th ose observed operating in the scores of H ay dn,
Mozart, and Beetho ven . It is a common tech nique , employed in
present-day sy mp hon ic music as well as in that o f the classical and
romanti c periods. For the present purposes it will not be considered
to embrace earlier processes based on imp rovisation, fort uito us instrumental balance , and the stabilizing influence of a keyboard instrument ,
with basso cont inuo .
The technical equipme nt of both composer and orchestrato r must
include a th orough knowledge of the indivi dua l instruments, their
ca pabilit ies and characteristics, and a mental conception of the sound
of each . Then th e effects and resources of instrumental combination
must be learned, invoking such matters as balanc e of ton e, mixed tone
colors, clarity in textu re, and th e like. Finally, the orches tra is to be
sensed as itself an individua l instrument, flexibly employed to present
th e music, in for m and content, with fidelity and effectiveness.

HE

vil

OR C HESTRAT ION

F O RE W OR D

A multitude of obstacles and unsolved prob lems has prevented the

establishment of a science of orchestration. The imperfection and
ngueness of our musical notation makes it impossible to indicate with
accuracy dyn amic and rhythmic quantities as well as pitch, to say
not hing of shades of tone color, warmth and intensity. One consequence of this is the prepo nderance of the role played by the performers and the conductor in the translation of written notes into
sound. It is a well-known fact that no two performances of a work
sound alike, and we find pleasure and satisfact ion in th is versatility of
music as written. But for the student anxious to know the effect in
sound of what he has put on paper, the unknown quantity of the
performe r's understanding has to be acknow ledged in his calculations.
T here are also mechanical and physical influences that cause variants in the sound of an orchestral score. N o tw o orchestras sound
alike. They may differ in the number of strings, in the quality and
make of the instruments, and quite naturally in the capabilities of
the players. A wide difference exists in the acoustic properties of the
various audito riums in which the individual orchestras habitu ally play,
and the same orchestra will sound different in a different place.
Because of this variety in the sounds produced from the same given
notes, and also because the student of orchestra tion seldom has an opportunity to hear those notes played at all, the stu dent works under
severe handicaps in striving to cultivate a capacity for the mental
hearing of orch estral scores.
In the event that his opportunities are limited to hearing phonograph records and radio broadcasts, he must be cautioned th at these
resources often have serious and misleading deficiencies. It is possible
to doubt that the usual commercial recording of a sym phonic work
can stand the test of comparison with the printed score. At least in this
writer's experience, almost every recording produces some sounds that
do not exist in the score, and fails to produ ce some of the notes primed
therein, besides showing numerous ot her discrepancies. The phonograph record is valuable as a means of conveying the over-all effect
of a composition, but it is an insecure medium thr ough which to
store up instrum ent al sounds in the memory, or to ascertain the sound
effect of a pri nted page of orchestration.
The shortcom ings of radio broadcasting of music are too well

kn own to need description here. T he complex vicissitudes suffered by

a musical tone fro m the time it leaves the o rchest ra unti l it is perceived
by the ear of the listener all have their effect upon the q uality of the
ton e. \ Vhen recordi ngs arc broad cast, the efficiency of the initial " pick
up" is improved, but ofte n the records arc worn, and freque ntly the
pitch is clearly not the same as the pitch of the perf.o r~nan~e from
which the recording was made. T his means that a variation 10 speed
has been introduced at some stage of the recording or reproducing
process. This, in rum , means a loss of fidelity not only in pitch, bu t
also in tempo and in the tone color of each instrument .
Th rough a realization of these existing conditions, a philosophy of
musical expe rience can be for med, so that concl usions arc drawn ~ot
from one or two examples of actua l sound. but from the cumulative
evidence of many experiences, and even then held subjec t to subse-

\'111

IX

q uent revtsron.
.
T he thr ee essential aspects of the study of orchestration arc treated
in the thre e divisions of this book In Parr O ne. the instru ments and
th eir playing tec hniques are stu died in derail. In Parr .Two, an appr oach to the analysis of orchestration is suggested. and In Part T hree,
typ ical problems in orchestration are gi\'en wtih some examples of
th eir solution.
_
Through out the book emphasis is placed on the method of stu dy,
the orientati on of the student's program of action . to help him in continuing furrher stu dies along the paths suggested. T he material covered is designed for a vear's course in o rchestration at the college
level. but it is the aurh~r's conviction that the subject matter is tOO
flexible to be presented as a course of graduated steps and exercises.
A present ation is called for th at will be adaptab le to varied Illusi.cal
backgrounds, although it will always be diffi cult for persons lackin g
a knowledge of harmony and counterpoint to wor k out problems in
orchestra tion. T he student should be stimulated to make acquaintance
with scores. and to develop self-reliance and initiative in seeking a
deep knowledge of the instruments and how they arc combined. Such
a pr esentation will be found . it is hoped, in this int rodu ction to the
art of orch estr ation .

ORCHESTRATION
by
Books by IValter PiSIOII
HAR~10:SY

WALTER PISTON

COUXTERPOIST

PR OFES SOR Of !-t U SI C. H A RV ..... RD U~ IVERS ITY

I
LOKDOX
VICTOR GO LLANCZ LTD
1969

First published No vem ber 1955

Second impression J un e 1958
T hird imp ression Ma y 1!f) 1
Fourth impression September 1965
Fifth impression M a y 1969

CO:\'TE:\'T S

575 0036 1 8

Music

HT

70
.P5 6
1965E<

O~E

Ccf3>'O>.

THE
UNIVERSITY
OF TASMANIA
LIBRARY

"
ULL

RESQUt:.Ci;.

t:

STR IS GE D ISSTRUM ESTS

2-

Til E VIOLIS

3
37

3
4
5
6.

THE n OLA

6,

80
98

THE VJQLOSCE lLO

THE oounU:-BASS

"4
,, 8

W OODWI ND ISSTR Ul\IESTS

TH E FLUT E

9
10.

TilE CLARINE T
THE BASSOON

146
16 3
188

II .

BRASS INSTRUM ENTS

'06

r z

THE HORN

13

THE TRUMPET

14
15
16.

THE TRO!\.IDONE

" 5
'4 6
,67
, 8,

17
18.

THE HA RP

THE OBOE

'...J

E.... '" -,ON

M~rl

. THE I:\,STRU,\IE:\,TS OF THE ORCHESTRA

I.

7
8.
A_

V11

FOR EWORD

n AI s CENTRS

'J

P IU NT E D IN GREAT BRITAIN B Y
LOW E AN D BRYDONE ( P R I N T E RS) LIM IT ED, LONDO N, S . W . I O

THE TUBA

'9 6
3' 3
340

PERCU SSlOS IS ST RU 1\l E:s"TS

KE YBOARD IN STR UM ESTS