Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Vermiculture in Egypt
Vermiculture in Egypt
Vermiculture in Egypt
Current Development
and
Future Potential
Vermiculture in Egypt:
Current Development
and
Future Potential
Written by:
Edited by:
April, 2011
ii
ISBN 978-92-5-106859-5
FAO 2011
Table of contents
Table of contents ...................................................................................................................... iv
List of Photos............................................................................................................................ vi
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... vi
List of tables ............................................................................................................................ vii
Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... viii
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. 2
1. Introduction to the use of compost worms in Egypt .............................................................. 3
List of Photos
Photo 1.1
Photo 2.1
Photo 2.2
Photo 2.3
Photo 2.4
Photo 2.5
Photo 2.6
Photo 2.7
Photo 2.8
Photo 2.9
Photo 2.10
Photo 2.11
Photo 2.12
Photo 2.13
Photo 2.14
Photo 3.1
Photo 3.2
Photo 3.3
Rich fertile soil of the Nile Delta enables wide variety of crops
to be grown.
Open pit vermicomposting - Kirungakottai.
Open heap vermicomposting.
Commercial vermicompost operation at KCDC Bangalore, India
Cement ring vermicomposting
Commercial vermicomposting unit
Earthworms used in Egypt
Trial vermicompost set up at Dokki.
Mixture of food wastes and shredded plant material ready to be
mixed in the rotating machine.
The locally manufactured shredding machine.
The shaded growing beds.
Harvesting of castings.
Harvested adult worms from the growing beds.
Couple of adult worms, with clear clitellum in both of them.
Worm eggs.
Earthworm plots showing plastic covers and support frame.
Windrows vermicomposting method: in Havana, Cuba .
Women self-help group involved in vermicomposting, to
promote micro-enterprises and generate income.
4
16
17
18
18
19
20
21
21
22
23
24
24
25
25
27
29
30
List of Figures
Figure 2.1
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
vi
19
47
48
68
69
70
List of tables
Table 1.1
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 3.1
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
Table 4.6
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 5.3
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
Table 6.3
Table 6.4
Table 6.5
Table 6.6
Table 6.7
Table 7.1
Table 7.2
Table 7.3
Table 9.1
vii
5
11
12
31
36
37
38
42
43
44
46
47
52
55
55
55
58
59
60
61
65
67
68
78
Abbreviations
AF
ARC
ARE
AS
CA
CDM
CER
CH4
CO
CO2
CO2e
COPx
DAP
EEAA
EU
FAO
GHG
GIS
GTZ
Africa
Agricultural Research Center of Egypt
Arab Republic of Egypt
Asia
Central America
Clean Development Mechanism
Certified Emissions Reductions
Methane
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Equivalent carbon dioxide
Conference of parties number x
Diammonium phosphate
Egypt Environmental Affairs Agency
Europe
Food and Agriculture Organization
Greenhouse gas
Geographic Information System
German Technical Cooperation Agency
GWP
ha
HFC
ICRISAT
IPCC
JA
MA
ME
MSW
MSW
Mt
N2O
NA
NH3
NOx
NSS
OC
PFC's
SA
viii
SF6
SWM
Tg
UNCED
UNDP
UNFCCC
USA
USA
VF
VOC
VSS
WWTP
Sulphur hexafluoride
Solid Waste Management
Teragrams
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
United Nations Development Program
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
The United States of America
Unites States of America
Vermifiltration: filtration utilizing earth worms
Volatile Organic Compound
Volatile suspendedsolids
Wastewater treatment plant
ix
Introduction
The total amount of solid waste generated yearly in Egypt is about 17 million tons
from municipal sources, 6 million tons from industrial sources and 30 million tons
from agricultural sources. Approximately 8% of municipal solid waste is composted,
2% recycled, 2% land-filled and 88% disposed of in uncontrolled dumpsites.
Agricultural wastes either burned in the fields or used in the production of organic
fertilizers, animal fodder and food or energy production. National efforts are being
exerted to minimize burning the agricultural wastes. There is a great opportunity for
maximizing the economical benefits of organic wastes by utilizing the earth worms as
"biological machines" utilizing the waste for valuable commodities.
Assessment of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions for Egypt revealed that the total
emissions in the year 2000 were about 193 MtCO2e, compared to about 117 MtCO2e
in 1990, representing an average increase of 5.1% annually. Estimated total
greenhouse gas emissions in 2008 are about 288 MtCO2e. Although waste sector
produces the least quantity of greenhouse gases in Egypt, without the organic residues
burned from the agriculture sector, which when added together can be in a higher
rank. Converting organic wastes, whether municipal or agricultural, into
vermicompost can substantially reduce the greenhouse gas emission that could be paid
back through the clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol.
From another perspective, proper handling of wastes, especially organic, in mega
cities such as Cairo, will reduce the environmental impact on both public and
government. Any effort lead to cleaner streets is highly appreciated. The availability
of organic compost from various sources will have a direct positive impact on
agriculture in Egypt, as most soils of modern agriculture have poor organic matter
contents. The benefits of converting organic wastes into compost to be added to the
soil apply also to similar countries in the Middle East and North Africa.
As general information regarding the utilization of earthworm in composting:
- One thousand adult worms weigh approximately one kilogram.
- One kilogram of adults can convert up to 5 kilograms of waste per day.
- Approximately ten kilograms of adults can convert one ton waste per month.
- Two thousand adults can be accommodated in one square meter.
- One thousand earthworms and their descendants, under ideal conditions, could
convert approximately one ton of organic waste into high yield fertilizer in one
year.
The purpose of this work is to investigating current development of vermiculture
under the Egyptian conditions, and to discuss its potential as an effective means of
converting the carbon and nitrogen in domestic and agricultural organic wastes into
bio-available nutrients for food production, and the potential of vermiculture as means
of reduction the greenhouse gas emissions that have negative impacts on the
environment.
Executive Summary
Vermiculture in Egypt dates since Cleopatra. However, the Green Revolution, with its
dependence on fossil fuelled large scale machinery and operations, together with the
damming of the Nile, has in recent times all but removed the environment in which
compost worms, most commonly Eisenia Foetida, can thrive.
The total quantity of solid wastes generated in Egypt is 118.6 million tons/year in
2007/2008, including municipal solid waste (garbage) and agricultural wastes.
Household waste constitutes about 60% of the total municipal waste quantities, with
the remaining 40% being generated by commercial establishments, service
institutions, streets and gardens, hotels and other entertainment sector entities. Per
capita generation rates in Egyptian cities, villages and towns vary from lower than 0.3
kg for low socio-economic groups and rural areas, to more than 1 kg for higher living
standards in urban centers. On a nationwide average, the composition is about 50-60%
food wastes, 10-20% paper, and 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, and plastics, and
the remainder is basically inorganic matter and others.
Currently, solid waste quantities handled by waste management systems are estimated
at about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day being produced in cities, and
the rest generated from the pre-urban and rural areas. Final destinations of municipal
solid waste entail about 8% of the waste being composted, 2% recycled, 2%
landfilled, and 88% dumped in uncontrolled open dumps.
The organic wastes in cities can be as large as 10-15 thousand tons per day. After the
swine flu and the government decision to get rid of all swine used to live on the
organic wastes in the garbage collection sites near the cities, earth worms could be the
alternate biological machines that could handle the wastes with greater revenues and
cleaner production. There is a great opportunity for all municipal waste systems to
adapt the vermicompost in their operation.
Egypt produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons
per day). Some of this waste is used in the production of organic fertilizers, animal
fodder, food production, energy production, or other useful purposes. Vermiculture is
also a valuable system for converting most of the organic waste into vermicompost.
With rural awareness and training, vermicompost could be produced in all villages.
The target groups of this book are all growers, including organic agriculture growers,
as well as all organic waste producers from as small scale as households to the large
scale urban solid waste operations. The very rich and valuable organic vermicompost
produce will assist in enriching the soil, especially sandy and newly reclaimed soil,
with organic matter and fertilizers in the form of proteins, enzymes, hormones, humus
substances, vitamins, sugars, and synergistic compounds, which makes it as
productive as good soil.
For three millennia (3,000 years), the thriving civilization of ancient Egypt was
strikingly successful for two reasons: 1) The Nile River, which brought abundant
water to the otherwise parched lands of the region; and 2) the billions of earthworms
that converted the annual deposit of silt and organic matter, brought down by the
annual floods into the richest food-producing soil anywhere. Those Egyptian worms
are thought to be the founding stock of the night crawlers that slowly spread
throughout Europe and eventually came to the Western Hemisphere with the early
settlers (Burton and Burton, 2002).
Photo 1.1.
Rich fertile soil of
the
Nile
Delta
enables wide variety
of crops to be
grown.
Source: Author
enclosure could not be ascribed with certainty to either of the latter two species and
are therefore recorded separately.
1.6. Vermiculture and vermicomposting
Vermiculture is the process of breeding worms. Growers usually pay for their
feedstock, and the worm castings are often considered a waste product. Vermiculture
is the culture of earthworms. The goal is to continually increase the number of worms
in order to obtain a sustainable harvest. The worms are either used to expand a
vermicomposting operation or sold to customers who use them for the same or other
purposes.
Vermicomposting, is a simple biotechnological process of composting, "Vermi" is a
Latin word meaning "worm" and thus, vermicomposting is composting with the aid of
worms, in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of
waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicomposting differs from
composting in several ways. It is a mesophilic process, utilizing microorganisms and
earthworms that are active at 1032C (not ambient temperature but temperature
within the pile of moist organic material). The process is faster than composting;
because the material passes through the earthworm gut, a significant but not yet fully
understood transformation takes place, whereby the resulting earthworm castings
(worm manure) are rich in microbial activity and plant growth regulators, and fortified
with pest repellence attributes as well (Munroe, 2007). In short, earthworms, through
a type of biological alchemy, are capable of transforming garbage into valuable
material (Nagavallemma et al., 2004). The ultimate goal of vermicomposting is to
produce vermicompost as quickly and efficiently as possible. If the goal is to produce
vermicompost, maximum worm population density needs to be maintained all of the
time. If the goal is to produce worms, population density needs to be kept low enough
that reproductive rates are optimized.
It is known that many extracellular enzymes can become bound to humic matter
during a composting or a vermicomposting process, regardless of the type of organic
matter used, but knowledge of the chemical and biochemical properties of such
extracellular enzymes is very scanty (Bentez et al., 2000).
Vermitechnology has been promoted as an eco-biotechnological tool to manage
organic wastes generated from different sources (Suthar, 2010).
Vermicast, similarly known as worm castings, worm humus or worm manure, is
the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by a species of earthworm.
Vermicast is very important to the fertility of the soil. The castings contain high
amounts of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. Castings
contain: 5 times the available nitrogen, 7 times the available potash, and 1 times
more calcium than found in good topsoil. It has excellent aeration, porosity, structure,
drainage, and moisture-holding capacity. Vermicast can hold close to nine times their
weight in water. It is a very good fertilizer, growth promoter and helps inducing
flowering and fruit-bearing in higher plants. This can even help plants to get rid of
pests and diseases (Venkatesh and Eevera, 2008 ).
10
Absorbency
Medium-Good
Good
Medium-Good
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Medium-Good
Good
Poor
Poor
Good
Poor
Medium-Good
Good
Poor-Medium
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor-Medium
Poor
Poor-Medium
Bulking Pot.
Good
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium-Good
Medium
Medium-Good
Medium
Medium
Good
Good
Medium
Good
Medium
Medium
Poor-Medium
Good
Good
Good
Poor-Medium
Good
Good
C:N Ratio
22 - 56
58
38 - 43
15 - 32
48 - 150
48 - 98
100 - 150
127 - 178
170
116 - 436
131 - 1285
563
170
250
54
142 - 750
53
451 - 819
212 - 1313
40 - 80
60 - 73
56 - 123
11
12
Food
Bio-solids
(human
waste)
Advantages
Excellent nutrition
and excellent product;
can be activated or
non-activated sludge,
septic sludge;
possibility of waste
management revenues
Seaweed
Legume hays
Grains (e.g.,
feed mixtures
for
animals, such
as chicken
mash)
Corrugated
cardboard
(including
Waxed)
Fish, poultry
offal; blood
wastes; animal
mortalities
Excellent, balanced
nutrition, easy to
handle, no odor, can
use organic grains for
certified organic
product.
Excellent nutrition
(due to high protein
glue used to hold
layers together);
worms like this
material; possible
revenue source from
WM fees
High N content
provides good
nutrition; opportunity
to turn problematic
wastes into highquality product
Disadvantages
Heavy metal and/or
chemical
contamination (if
from municipal
sources); odor during
application to beds
(worms control fairly
quickly); possibility
of pathogen survival
if process not
complete
Salt must be rinsed
off, as it is
detrimental to worms;
availability
varies by region
Moisture levels not as
high as other feeds,
requires more input
and monitoring
Higher value than
most feeds, therefore
expensive to use; low
moisture content;
some larger seeds
hard to digest and
slow to break down
Notes
Vermitech Pty Ltd. in
Australia has been very
successful with this
process, but they use
automated systems; EPAfunded tests in Florida
demonstrated that worms
destroy human pathogens
as well as does
thermophillic composting
(Eastman et al., 2001).
Beef farmer in Antigonish,
Nova Scotia, Canada, are
producing certified organic
vermicompost from cattle
manure, bark, and seaweed
Probably best to mix this
feed with others, such as
manures
Danger: Worms consume
grains but cannot digest
larger, tougher kernels;
these are passed in castings
and build up in bedding,
resulting in sudden
overheating.
Must be shredded
(waxed variety)
and/or soaked (nonwaxed) prior to
feeding
Must be
precomposted until
past Thermophillic
stage
13
2.1.3. Moisture
The bedding used must be able to hold sufficient moisture if the worms are to have a
livable environment. Earthworms do not have specialized breathing devices. They
breathe through their skin, which needs to remain moist to facilitate respiration. Like
their aquatic ancestors, earthworms can live for months completely submerged in
water, and they will die if they dry out (Sherman, 2003). The ideal moisture-content
range for materials in conventional composting systems is 45-60%. In contrast, the
ideal moisture-content range for vermicomposting or vermiculture processes is 7090%. Within this broad range, researchers have found slightly different optimums:
Dominguez and Edwards (1997) found that there is a direct relationship between the
moisture content and the growth rate of earthworms. E. andrei cultured in pig manure
grew and matured between 65 and 90% moisture content, the optimum being 85%.
Until 85% moisture, the higher moisture conditions clearly facilitated growth, as
measured by the increase in biomass. Increased moisture up to 90% clearly
accelerated the development of sexual maturity, whereas not all the worms at 65-75%
developed a clitellum even after 44 days. Additionally, earthworms at sexual maturity
had greater biomass at higher moisture contents compared to worms grown at lower
moisture contents. Canadian researchers in Nova Scotia tested moisture contents with
different bedding materials, i.e. organic materials included shredded corrugated
cardboard, waxed corrugated cardboard, immature municipal solid waste compost,
biosolids (sewage sludge), chicken manure and dairy cow manure in a variety of
combinations. They found that 75-80% moisture contents produced the best growth
and reproductive response (GEORG, 2004).
The moisture content preferences of juvenile and clitellate cocoon-producing (adult)
E. fetida in separated cow manure have been investigated. It ranged from 50% to 80%
for adults, but juvenile earthworms had a narrower range of suitable moisture levels
from 65% to 70%. Clitellum development occurred in earthworms at a moisture
content from 60% to 70% but occurred later at a moisture content from 55% to 60%.
The tolerance limit for low moisture conditions on the growth of E. fetida was
reported to be below 50% for up to 1 month (Reinecke and Venter, 1987). While
Gunadi et al. (2003) found that the earthworm growth rate was fastest in the separated
cattle manure solids with a moisture content of 90% with a maximum mean weight of
earthworms of 600 mg after 12 weeks. The slowest growth rate of E. fetida was in the
separated cattle manure solids at a moisture content of 70%.
2.1.4. Aeration
Worms require oxygen and cannot survive anaerobic conditions (very low or absence
of oxygen). When factors such as high levels of grease in the feedstock or excessive
moisture combined with poor aeration conspire to cut off oxygen supplies, areas of
the worm bed, or even the entire system, can become anaerobic. This will kill the
worms very quickly. Not only are the worms deprived of oxygen, they are also killed
by toxic substances (e.g., ammonia) created by different sets of microbes that bloom
under these conditions. This is one of the main reasons for not including meat or other
greasy wastes in worm feedstock unless they have been pre-composted to break down
the oils and fats.
14
15
Photo 2.1.
Open Pit Vermicomposting
Source: Kirungakottai
(http://www.icasaweb.google.com)
16
Photo 2.2.
Open heap vermicomposting
Source: Department of Agriculture,
Andaman & Nicobar:
(http://agri.and.nic.in/vermi_culture.htm)
17
Photo 2.3.
Commercial vermicompost operation
at KCDC Bangalore, India.
Source: Basavaiah (2006)
Photo 2.4.
Cement ring
vermicomposting.
Source: Nagavallemma et al.
(2004)
18
Photo 2.5.
Commercial vermicomposting unit
Source: Ecoscience
Research Foundation:
(http://www.erfindia.org)
Vermicomposting based on the use of worms results in high quality compost. The
process does not require physical turning of the material. To maintain aerobic
conditions and limit the temperature rise, the bed or pile of materials needs to be of
limited size. Temperatures should be regulated so as to favour growth and activity of
worms. Composting period is longer as compared to other rapid methods and varies
between six to twelve weeks.
Figure 2.1.
Commercial model of
vermicomposting
developed by
ICRISAT.
Source: Twomlow,
2004.
19
Photo 2.6.
Earthworms used in
Egypt
Source: Auther
2.3.2. Bedding
Two types of vermiculture were used. The first was aiming at increasing the
population and known as breeding vermiculture. The other type is the growing system
aiming at converting organic matter into vermicompost.
Commercially available perforated plastic containers, generally used for harvesting
fruits and vegetables, each has the dimensions of 30cm wide, 50cm long and 20cm
height were used for the breeding system. The first 5cm from the bottom was lined by
a mixture of 2/3 shredded cardboard and 1/3 shredded newspaper, as bedding
material. The cardboard and newspaper were wetted in a bucket of water; and
allowing the excess water to run out before using. The next layer was 5cm of pH
neutral castings spread evenly, then 1-2kg/m of adult worms was supplied. Every 1-2
days, 1-2kg of old manure was added. The surface was covered by 5cm shredded
newspaper to keep moisture.
The growing system was made of brick, with the dimensions 1m width, 0.5m height,
and 3m long, and 0.5m between beds. The bottom of the beds was insulated by 20cm
cement layer with a slight slope in order to facilitate collection of leachate (Photo
2.7).
The sequence of layers for the growing beds was the same as the breeding system
except that the base of the bed was 10cm of cardboard/newspaper moist mixture, and
the worms spread over the surface were the juvenile worms only.
20
Photo 2.7.
Trial vermicompost set up at
Dokki.
Source: Author
2.3.3. Food
For the feeding of the breeding boxes, a mixture of rabbit manure and fresh kitchen
scraps (citrus not more than 1/3 of food scraps) were used. The feed was mixed well
in the mixing unit until it resembles dairy slurry. This was added in one strip along
lengthwise wall in a maximum 5cm thick and 10cm wide. The feed was supplied
again only when first strip is finished, and the new feed is added along opposite wall.
As for the growing beds, the feed varies over time. Potato wastes from the
manufacturers as potato peels were brought into the site to be dried and used as
needed. Plant wastes from the location were shredded and mixed with animal manure
to be composted for 1-2 weeks. This semi-composted material was the base feed that
goes to the mixing unit with available fruits and vegetable wastes were brought from
the nearby shops. The feed mixture was spread evenly on the surface of the beds.
Photo 2.8.
Mixture of food wastes and shredded
plant material ready to be mixed in the
rotating machine.
Source: Author
In order to facilitate the work, a shredding machine was manufactured locally (Photo
2.9) to prepare large plant material before mixed with other fruit or vegetable wastes
using a rotating mixing machine.
21
Photo 2.9.
The locally manufactured shredding
machine.
Source: Author
2.3.4. Moisture
The rule of thump is to check manually for moisture on a daily basis to ensure that is
not too dry, and when watering it is important not to make it too wet. Only fresh water
was used. The breeding boxes were rearranged to make the first on the top to become
the first from the bottom in order to avoid moisture variations between the boxes.
The instructions were:
- Water little and often only the newspaper on the surface should be wet.
- Water after checking the bed surface if already damp, skip one watering.
- Water should be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation.
- Use a spray or mist, not jets of water.
2.3.5. Aeration
The aeration was maintained as the bottom of beds or boxes has sufficient bedding
material, and the surface is only shredded newspaper. The aeration could be a
problem mainly if watering is not done properly leading to too wet conditions.
Only the newspaper on the surface should be wet, and as mentioned earlier, water
should be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation. Beds
must be mixed if:
- The bed smells bad.
- The bed is too wet.
- The bed is hot or lukewarm to touch.
- The worms are not distributed evenly on the surface.
- The section of bed turned only when there is no food on the surface of
the bed, and to a depth of 10-15cm only.
22
2.3.6. Temperature
The location of the growing beds was selected in order to avoid strong winds. A
shading roof made of reed mats was installed in order to prevent direct solar radiation
over the beds in summer. The mats were removed during the winter.
Narrower mats were used to cover the beds, as they shade the growing beds, and also
protect from birds, cats or dogs.
The breeding boxes were laid under grape vines grown in a shaded greenhouse. In
winter, the vines were pruned allowing sun to penetrate, while in summer the shading
screens and the shade of the green leaves of the vines were pleasant, not only
temperature wise, but also moisture as well. No other temperature control measures
were used and this made growing and breeding conditions maintained stable over both
summer and winter without major reduction in worms activities. Temperatures
maintained by daily checking. The general practice was to turn the beds or boxes
when conditions were not suitable. When a bed is hot or lukewarm to touch, it must
be mixed gently in order to allow air flow between the layers. In such cases,
precomposted food must be used to prevent over heating from organic matter
decomposition. It should be remembered that earth worms move from one side to
another horizontally, and from the bottom to be close to surface and close or far from
the food according to the comfortable combination of moisture and humidity. In such
dynamic situations, temperature varies over time of the day, season, type of organic
material, the covering material, as well as uniformity of the beds.
Photo 2.10.
The shaded growing beds at Dokki
greenhouse station.
Source: Author
2.3.7 Harvesting
Harvesting is an important procedure for the success of vermiculture operations.
Regardless of the harvesting target, it should be done quickly and simply. The target
of harvest could be castings, adult worms or babies and eggs.
a- Harvesting castings is performed according to the following steps:
- Selecting a growing bed.
23
Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure along each side of bed.
Waiting 1-2 days
Scooping out from the centre of the bed some castings.
Checking for eggs and worms these should be very limited.
Collecting castings from centre of bed.
Spreading castings to dry.
When castings clump and crumble, pack into plastic bags with pinprick holes
Photo 2. 12.
Harvested adult worms from the
growing beds.
Source: Author
24
Photo 2. 13.
A couple of adult worms, with clear
clitellum in both of them.
Source: Author
25
Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, (Department of Science and
Technology)
26
Photo 3.1.
Earthworm plots showing plastic
covers and support frame
Source: Wormsphilippines.com
Several types of substrates were used in the study; these were sugarcane bagasse,
mudpress, spent mushroom substrate, and cow manure. The plots were watered every
3-6 days, depending on the weather. During the dry months, watering was routinely
done every 3 days.
Based on the data and experience gathered in this study, the cost and return
projection for a larger scale earthworm farm are based on the following key
assumptions:
-
The total operational cost for 52 plots for a 2 month crop cycle is estimated at
PhP80,401.79 (1783.74$), including the cost of equipment depreciation (capital cost
assumed at PhP5,000 per plot, depreciated in 6 crops or 1 year). The total volume of
27
28
Photo 3.2.
Windrows vermicomposting method:
in Havana, Cuba .
Source: newfarm.org
29
users in Dharwad) and $3.2 per ton in channel-II (the producer-seller sold the produce
through BAIF to the users in Kalghatagi). The net returns per ton of vermicompost
were $26 in channel-I compared to $24.5 in channel-II. The net present value for the
vermicompost production was $2136.89, the benefit cost ratio at 12% discount rate
was 3.44, internal rate of return was 38% and payback period was 1.71 years.
Some islands in India such as Andaman and Nicobar islands are known for their wide
variety of crops such as paddy, coconut, areca_nut, clove, black pepper, cinnamon,
nutmeg and vegetables. About 2-3 kg of earthworms is required for 1000 kg of
biomass, whereas about 1100 number earthworms are required for one square meter
area. Non burrowing species are mostly used for compost making. Red earthworm
species like Eisenia foetida and Eudrillus enginae are most efficient in compost
making. Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale is shown in Table
3.1.
Women self-help groupes (SHGs) in several watersheds in India have set up
vermicomposting enterprises. By becoming an earning member of the family, they are
involved in the decision-making process, which has raised their social status. One of
the women managed to earn earned $36 per month from this activity. She has also
inspired and trained 300 peers in 50 villages. (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).
Photo 3.3.
Women self-help group involved
in vermicomposting, to promote
micro-enterprises and generate
income
Source: Nagavallemma et al.
(2004)
30
Table 3.1. Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale in Andaman and
Nicobar (A&N) Islands, India:
Parameters
Area (ha)
Cropping System
Vermicompost requirement
(kg/year)
Crop residue requirement (kg)
Gliricidia production from
fence (kg)
Cow dung required (kg)
Number of animals required
Total waste for composting (kg)
Earth worms required (kg)
RCC rings required
Number of units
Capital Cost / year (A)
Cost of rings $
Cost of shed $
Running cost /year (B)
Labour and Miscellaneous cost
Packaging cost
Total (A+B)
Returns / year
Vermicompost
production (kg/year)
Returns
Hilly area
0.08
Paddyvegetable
5.08
Coconut/
2
Areca_nut
spices
Low lying +
Hilly area
5.08
Paddy-vegetable
/ (1 ha) Coconut/
arecanut/spices (1 ha)
2500 + 5000
= 7500
2500
7750 Paddy
system +
homestead waste
1750 from
coconut or
areca_nut
plantations
1250
1250
2500
6000
2000 Kg
8000 kg
1 cow + 4 goats+
1 cow
10 poultry birds
15000
5000
7.5
2.5
6 rings
2rings
2 (3 rings +
1 (2 rings)
3 rings)
Expenditure/year
2cow
20000
10
8 rings
2 (4 rings+
4 rings)
191.8$
53.3
191.8$
53.3
255.8$
74.6$
127.9$
79.93$
452.9$
127.9$
79.93$
452.9$
159.86$
106.6$
596.8$
159.8
159.8
213.2
1438. 8$
1438. 8$
1918.2$
Coconut and arecanut produces around 8100 and 6900 kg of wastes/year, respectively. Hence,
on an average, 7500 kg of wastes will be available per year for composting. If all the available
wastes are utilized for production, the requirement of cowdung will be 5500 kg/year which can be
met from one cow. Including Gliricidia, the total waste availability will be 15000 kg/year which
requires 7.5 kg of earth worms and 2 units comprising 3 rings + 3 rings for composting. The total
production will be 7500 kg of vermicompost/year. The additional quantity of 5000 kg/year
available can be sold.
2
Areca nut is the seed of the Areca palm (Areca catechu), which grows in much of the tropical Pacific,
Asia, and parts of east Africa
31
32
33
34
35
Laws are not applicable with very weak mechanisms for enforcement.
The involvement of the private sector in SWM activities in Egypt has been
minimal till the last decade when the private sector became more involved.
Table 4.1. Municipal solid waste contents 2000, 2005 and 2008
Waste % 2000
Waste % 2005
Organic materials
45-55%
50-60%
Paper
10-20%
10-25%
Plastic
3-12%
3-12%
Glass
1-5%
1-5%
Metal
1.5- 7%
1.5- 7%
Fabrics
1.2- 7%
1.2- 7%
Others
11-30%
11-30%
Source: EEAA (2001) and (2006) and CAPMAS (2010)
36
Waste % 2008
50-60%
10-25%
3-12%
1-5%
1.5- 7%
1.2- 7%
11-30%
Table 4.2. Distribution of waste according to the sources in 2000 and 2005
Estimated quantity
Source
2000
2005
Municipal garbage
14-15 million ton
15-16 million ton
Industrial
4-5 million ton
4.5 - 5 million ton
Agricultural
23 million ton
25-30 million ton
Sludge
1.5 -2 million ton
1.5 -2 million ton
Clearing banks and
20 million ton
20 million ton
sewage outputs
Hospitals
100 -120 million ton
100 -120 million ton
Construction
and
3-4 million ton
3-4 million ton
demolition waste
Source: EEAA (2007)
37
whole; in many cities the municipal refuse collection and disposal services are
woefully inadequate, particularly in low-income areas, where waste accumulates in
the streets. Improved recovery processes could therefore reduce the amounts of waste
that need to be collected, and thus the costs of municipal waste disposal, and could
help to reduce the risk to human health.
For example, Cairo is renowned for its extensive informal waste recycling system. In
the Cairo metropolitan area, 6000 tons of municipal solid waste is generated daily.
The municipality collects about 2400 tons per day, while informal workers collect
about 2700 tons of household waste per day using a fleet of some 700 donkey carts.
The balance of 900 tons remains on the city streets, vacant lots and the peripheries of
poorly serviced low-income areas of the city.
Table 4.3. Distribution of wastes according to its sources and Governorates 2007/2008
Source (ton/month)
Governorate
Cairo
Giza
Qalyobia
Alexandria
Behira
Menofia
Gharbia
Kar ElSheih
Damitta
Daqhlia
North Sinia
South Sinia
Port Said
Ismailia
Suis
Sharqia
Beni Suif
Minia
Assuit
New valley
Sohag
Municipal
1761668
139650
27330
3281224
40860
65600
1124
14.75
47
18390.1
17160
118625
12000
45420
13406
6120
2322
2691
2046
Qena
480m3
Asswan
76003.3
16650
Red sea
12750m3
Luxor
550
5649880.15
Total
13230 m3
Source: EEAA (2007).
Industrial
Agricultural
Sludge
m3
149914
620500
2749.42
32.5
337.2
700
240
51666.7
178
53.4
382
15
90m3
6360
1296506
4099.5
20617.7
10069.6
369619
456517
2083.3
2918
45666.5
6166
409
5072500
7168
8.3
2205
369750
18250
335.3
218
416
330
Clearing
banks &
sewage
169239
3550
25000
37083.3
3186
666
250
340
1500
9.5
64.1667
0.5833
0.833333
134.46
2.55
50
833278
90 m3
250
2215326
-
120
8587.88
150
203541.8
8
53255
-
5462713 m3 37083.3 m3
Hospitals
49860
1366.5
899.57
0.5
33
31.7
244.11
35.9
243.33
11.648
32.88
33.08
14.7
290
Construction
and
demolition
811488
77100
5035.83
56
283.3
17053
760.417
975
2566
583
1919
135
12545m3
4080
1500
100m3
360
924254.55
12645 m3
The informal sector in Egypt plays a significant role in the solid waste services
including waste recycling. This sector has been growing significantly over the last
three decades. Therefore, it is essential to understand and recognize the complex role
of this sector in solid waste services and to benefit from its existing infrastructure and
expertise in any formal initiative (GTZ, 2004).
38
Over the last three decades, the informal garbage collectors have drastically
developed the volume and scope of activities they perform. Solid waste operators in
the informal sector generally perform five functions: collection, transportation,
recovery, trade, and recycling. It is usually a family business where men do the
transportation and trading and women do most of the sorting.
The waste sorting and recovery is almost entirely done in the courtyard of garbage
collectors houses. After waste collection and transportation to the Zabbaleen area,
waste is sorted into: (i) organic waste that is fed to the animals, sold to others as
animal feed, or sent for composting; and (ii) non-organic waste that is categorized
into: paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, bones, and residual non-recyclable waste.
Subsequently, another sorting process is then undertaken to sort different sub-types of
each of the main categories while non-recyclable waste is transported to the municipal
disposal site on a monthly basis. The recovered material is sold while the nonrecoverable materials are sent to the municipal dumps. Recyclable materials sorted
into categories and sub-categories of paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, and bones are
transferred to recycling workshops.
In 2000, there were more than 220 recycling workshops in the Zabbaleen area of
Cairo. About 90% own their workshop space (even if informally) while the remaining
10% rent their workshop. A workshop employs six workers on average. The average
area of the recycling workshop is 155 square meters but varies widely depending on
the recycling activity performed. Generally plastic recycling and cloth grinders use up
the most space and their workshops usually have an area more than 200 m2. Metal
recycling industries need less space.
4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are
- Governmental system: municipalities or cleaning authorities (Cairo and Giza)
collect and transfer wastes from the streets, bins, public containers, and supervises
public dumpsites and the operation of composting plants either directly or through
the private sector.
- Traditional Zabbaleen (garbage collectors) system: in this system, which date
back to the early twentieth century, collectors collect garbage from household units
and some commercial establishments, and transfer it to their communities
(Zabbaleen villages) for sorting and recycling. Although working conditions and
methods used, that are of minimal costs and do not comply with the requirements of
health and the environment, yet they are considered by clients as a considerably
good service. Further, this system achieves the highest recovery degree possible;
sometimes reach 80% of the garbage collected by Zabbaleen, which is estimated by
3000 tons per day in Cairo (about 30% of the total amount generated daily). Local
private companies: these collect and transfer garbage in a number of Egyptian cities.
They represent a developed model of the garbage collectors system, working in
limited areas under the supervision and control of municipalities or cleaning
authorities. The final disposal of wastes takes place either at the garbage collectors
communities or in public dumpsites.
39
40
The garbage from which the recyclable items have been removed is dumped by a
mechanical front-end loader through a grid onto a conveyor belt, which transfers the
garbage to a hopper and finally to a rotating, cylindrical drum, where the compost is
sieved. At the end of the sieve, children anxiously wait for some useful remnants. The
maturity of the compost is determined by measuring the temperature.
Normally, the plant processes 30 tons (60 m3) of compost per shift per day. During the
season when land is prepared for cultivation (November to February) output is
doubled by working two shifts per day. The plant provides jobs for 11 employees (1
consultant, 1 plant manager, 1 technician, 1 electrician, 1 operation and maintenance
manager, 3 security guards, 2 drivers, and 1 messenger). Mechanical parts for the
plant can be bought in Egypt, although some electrical parts have to be imported.
Although the quality of the compost appears to be good, it has been found to contain
small pieces of glass and plastics, and large quantities of heavy metals.
The major pressures on solid waste management in Egypt are exemplified in the
increase in waste quantities generated due to the escalating population, on the one
hand, and the change in consumption patterns in towns and villages alike, on the other
hand, in addition to the lack of awareness and the wrong handling of solid wastes in
general. Various studies on ducted during the last two decades in a number of
Egyptian Governorates and cities point out to a significant decrease in municipal solid
waste collection efficiency totally lacking in some rural areas. Consequently, large
amounts of waste accumulations appeared in streets, vacant land between buildings
and different areas in cities and populated areas throughout the past years. Such areas
have become focal points of environmental pollution and represent significant
pressures on human health as well as on the environment.
41
Table 4.4. Egypts Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan for the period 20072012.
The cost of the program / million Egyptian pound
Improve
Remove
Establish
Establish
Governorate
process of
Accumulaintermediate recycle
collections &
tions
station
centers
transportation
Cairo
--13
13
30
Alexandria
15
17
5
5
Giza
--30
30
10
Kalyobiya
--19.5
19.5
10
Dakahilya
60
56.5
16
10
Gharbeya
52
31.5
16
10
Monofiya
6
33
10
10
Beheira
8
47
13
10
Kafr-ELShiekh 6
27
10
15
Sharkia
10
48.5
10
10
Damietta
3
26
10
10
Fayoum
3
20.5
4
5
Bani Suif
3
22
5
5
Menia
10
28.5
6
10
Assiut
3
28.5
6
10
Sohag
4.5
35
7
5
Qena
4.5
30.5
7
5
Luxor
2
2
3
5
Aswan
6
17
3.5
5
Ismailia
7
17.5
3
5
Port Said
6
7
2.5
5
Suez
10
7.5
2.5
5
Red Sea
7.5
14
2
5
Matrouh
--26
5
5
North Sinai
--31
4
5
South
7.5
15
3
5
New Valley
--15
2
5
total
234
666
218
220
Source: EEAA (2008) and (2009).
42
Improve
work in
controlled
Dumpsites
40
--10
10
--------------------------------5
5
----------70
Establish
sanitary
landfill
Total with
million
Egyptian
pound
30
--30
30
30
30
30
40
30
30
--15
30
30
30
30
30
15
15
30
----30
15
30
30
10
655
126
42
110
89
172.5
139.5
89
118
83
108.5
64
62.5
65
84.5
72.5
86.5
82
27
46.5
62.5
25.5
30
58.5
51
70
60.5
37
2063
Governorate
Menoufia
Kafr_El Sheikh
Damietta
Gharbia
Dakahlia
North Sinai
South Sinai
Suez
Red Sea
Beni Suef
Assiut
Qena
Aswan
43
Accumulations in m3
280000
227000
100000
1500000
1300000
140000
512000
1168550
11885000
150000
250000
258480
385240
23598936
Table 4.6. Solid waste amount produced by governorates and the organic materials
percentages for the year 2008.
Governorate
Total waste
(Ton/Day)
Cairo
Alexandria
Port Said
Suez
Damietta
Behairah
Kafr_El Sheikh
Dakahlia
Ismailia
Menoufia
Gharbia
10000
2700
1014
325
1319
911
1361
3718
572
897
2960
717
1738
9062
706
924
785
187
98
343
364
164
395
917
260
337
287
43061
Sharqia
Qalyubia
Giza
Fayoum
Beni Suef
Menia
Assiut
Suhag
Qena
Aswan
Luxor
Red Sea
New Valley
Matruh
North Sinai
South Sinai
Total
Source: CAPMAS (2010)
44
% of organic
material
50%
65%
34%
50%
70%
60%
80%
70%
75%
65%
65%
70%
70%
60%
60%
65%
50%
75%
80%
90%
8%
50%
20%
25%
40%
20%
75%
45
which needs to find other alternatives such as, organic agriculture that could be one of
the important options that have a good opportunity in a wide zone of the newly
reclaimed lands in Egypt. Moreover, recycling of farm waste and composting is
another alternative for renewing soil fertility that has very low organic content
(Table.5.1). Harvesting the fruits or grains, which is a small proportion of a whole
plant system, and returning the remaining plant residues after composting back to the
soil will result in a minimum need for additional minerals. Substituting any quantity
of chemical fertilizers will result in a cleaner production and environment, as well as
less emissions of greenhouse gases, and consequently the organic farming growers
can get substituted through the clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto
protocol, which will be discussed in more details in a separate chapter later.
Table 5.1. Physical and chemical analysis of various soil types.
Item
North
Delta
South
Delta
Middle &
Upper
Egypt
East Delta
West Delta
Soil texture
Clayey
Clayey
Loamy clay
Sandy
Calcareous
pH (1:2.5)
7.9-8.5
7.8-8.2
7.7-8.0
7.6-7.9
7.7-8.1
0.2-0.5
0.2-0.4
0.1-0.5
0.1-0.6
0.2-0.6
2.6-4.4
2.0-3.1
2.6-5.3
1.0-5.1
11.0-30.0
1.9-2.6
1.8-2.8
1.5-2.7
0.35-0.8
0.7-1.5
25-50
30-60
15-40
10 20
10 -30
5.4 -10
3.5-15.0
2.5-16
2-5.0
1.5-10.5
250-500
300-550
280-700
105-350
100-300
0.5-4.0
0.6-6.0
0.5-3.9
0.6-1.2
0.5-1.2
20.8-63.4
19.0-27.4
12.4-40.8
6.7-16.4
12 - 18
13.1-45
11.2-37.2
8.2-51.6
3-16.7
10 - 20
46
Fertilizer
- urea (46.5 percent N)
- ammonium nitrate (33.5 percent N)
- ammonium sulphate (20.6 percent N)
- calcium nitrate (15.5 percent N)
- single superphosphate (15 percent P 2 O 5 )
- concentrated superphosphate (37 percent P 2 O 5 )
Phosphate
Potassium
Mixed
and -N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn and/or Cu in different formulations for
compound
either soil or foliar application. The micronutrient may be in
fertilizers
either mineral or chelated form.
Source: FAO (2005).
The improvement in fertilizers production is achieved through the last decades. The
total production quantity of fertilizers is approximately reaches to 2 million Mt, 32%
of the total production is exported. The remaining quantity of production after
exporting is less than the demand quantity by about 43%. Therefore, Egypt
compensates the shortage in the demands by importing fertilizers by about 43% of the
total consumption. Figure (5.1.) illustrates the increasing trend of fertilizers
production and export. This increase is mainly due to the rapid agricultural horizontal
and vertical expansion.
3500
3000
1000 tonnes
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2002
2003
Production
2004
2005
Import
2006
2007
2008
Export
47
The latest fertilizers consumption is shown in Figure (5.2) and illustrates that
phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers are the highest consumed type of fertilizers under
Egyptian conditions. The most recent FAO statistics of 2010 indicated that there is an
increase in nitrogen fertilizer consumption for 2008 (1721105 ton N) and phosphorus
(229911 tons). This increase reached 60 and 61% in 2008 compared to 2002 for
nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively.
In addition, the continuous increase in fertilizers consumption is obvious and
additional increase in fertilizer demand is expected in the next few years.
Consumption in nutrients (tonnes of nutrients)
2000
250
1800
200
1000 tonnes N
1400
1200
150
1000
800
100
1600
600
400
50
200
0
0
2002
2003
2004
N
2005
P
2006
2007
2008
Figure 5.2. Nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and total fertilizers consumption in Egypt.
Source: FAO (2010).
5.3. Vermicomposting as fertilizers in Egypt
The production of consistently high-quality vermicompost is especially important to
growers of high-value crops. The influence of production factors, such as the
variability in the characteristics of the organic feedstocks, the length of time of
vermicomposting, and the various parameters used as maturity indicators, are
essential aspects to be considered in developing guidelines for assessing the quality of
vermicompost. The vermicomposting industry anticipates a need for compost quality
indicators as the production, utilization and marketing of vermicompost expands.
Various organic wastes tested in past as feed material for different species of
earthworms include sewage sludge, paper mill industry sludge, water hyacinth, paper
waste, crop residues, cattle manure, etc.
Many studies were conducted in order to evaluate vermicomposting from various
waste sources as follows:
48
49
50
which humic acids could affect plant growth. There is a further alternative explanation
for the hormone-like mode of action of humic acids in these experiments. In our
laboratory, we have extracted plant growth regulators such as indole acetic acid,
gibberellins and cytokinins from vermicomposts in aqueous solution and
demonstrated that these can have significant effects on plant growth. Such substances
may be relatively transient in soils. However, there seems a strong possibility that
such plant growth regulators which are relatively transient may become adsorbed on
to humates and act in conjunction with them to influence plant growth (Atiyeh et al.,
2002).
Vermicompost has been promoted as a viable alternative container media component
for the horticulture industry. The addition of vermicompost in media mixes of 10%
and 20% volume had positive effects on plant growth. The greatest growth
enhancement was on seedlings during the plug stage of the bedding plant crop cycle.
Growth increases up to 40% were observed in dry shoot tissue and leaf area of
marigold, tomato and green pepper. The increased vigor exhibited was also
maintained when the seedling plugs were transplanted into larger containers with
standard commercial potting substrates without vermicompost. Additionally, there
were benefits apparently resulting from the nutritional content of the vermicompost.
All of the plugs were produced without the input of additional fertilization. The
potential exists for growers to use vermicompost-amended commercial potting
substrates during the plug production stage without the use of additional fertilizer
(Bachman and Metzger, 2008).
5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer in Egypt
Considering urban wastes as mentioned in the previous chapter for the year 2005
ranged from 15 to 16 million tons, compostable matter in the wastes as 50-60% and
average collection efficiency as 70%. Egypt has an estimated potential of producing
from urban wastes about 1.99 million tons of compost each year containing about
21,000 ton N, 5,000 ton P, and 10,640 ton K (Table 5.2). Inappropriate solid waste
management and production of poor quality of composts are main constraint in
exploiting such large amount plant nutrients for increasing crop productivity.
On the other hand, agricultural wastes in Egypt could produce almost four times
compost material compared to urban wastes, assuming that 100% of it is organic
material and all of it is accessible to the grower. There are other advantages of this
waste, which are the availability of space and directly linked to the farm. This
minimizes the need of collection and transportation. The amounts of N, P and K that
could be produced from agricultural wastes are almost four folds of that of the urban
wastes.
From both sources, the total composted material is almost 10 million tons, containing
about 10 thousand tons of nitrogen, 20 thousand tons of phosphorus, and 41 thousand
tons of potassium. Nitrogen fertilizer obtained from organic wastes could save up to
5.9% of that consumed in 2008; while more than 10% of phosphorus fertilizers
consumed in 2008 could be saved.
51
Table 5.3. Potential nutrients that could be obtained from urban and agriculture
wastes in Egypt*
Waste
Ton/year
15500000
Fraction
organic
0.55
23000000
1.00
0.70
Fraction
of waste
to
be
compost Quantity, Ton
0.33
1,988,968
20,815
5,088
10,639
1.00
0.33
Fraction
efficiency
collection
Urban
Agriculture
Total
7,665,900
80,225
19,610
41,004
9,654,868
101,039
24,698
51,642
Type
Compost
N
P
K
Compost
N
P
K
Compost
N
P
K
52
53
demand in the world. Thus earthworms are the best substitute with the functions of
supplements, anti-diseases and allurement. Earthworms are used as additive to
produce pellet feeds in the USA, Canada and Japan, which account for 50% of the
pellet feed market. However, when earthworms are used as feeds, one must note that
earthworms degrade quickly and should be processed within several hours by hot
wind or freeze drying. In general earthworms contain more pollutants than fish meal
because it is hard to clean residues from the epidermis and seta of earthworms. Some
people realize that it is better to feed earthworms in wet. For fowls, the earthworm
amount could reach 50% and for swamp eel 100% (Kangmin, 2005).
6.2. Worm meal
Worm meal or vermin-meal is an excellent source of protein and nutrients.
Earthworms typically contain over 80% moisture and can be fed directly to animals.
To preserve the worms and process them into to a more convenient food they can be
dried and ground up into worm meal.
In addition to the protein, worms are a valuable source of essential amino acids and
vitamins. The fats in worms are highly unsaturated and no additional antioxidants
need to be added to the worm meal to preserve it.
Worm meal may replace fish meal and meat and bone meal. Broilers fed with
earthworm meal consumed 13% less feed for the same weight gain than those fed
with ordinary broiler diet, but given live in earthworms matured 15 days earlier than
the control group without earthworms (Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual, 2000).
Earthworms are the best bait for anglers. Pay attention to the palatability of various
species of earthworms. It is said that Eisenia foetida can produce a substance fish do
not like. In Australia they culture 3-4 species of earthworms: red wiggler Lumbricus
rubellus, Indian blue Perionyx excavatus, African earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae, and
Eisenia foetida. Table (6.1) shows the different composition of several earth worms.
Different fish prefer different species of earthworms as bait, the palatability of
earthworms is out of question. Table (6.2) shows the richness of vermin meal with
essential amino acids, while Table (6.3) demonstrate the macro and trace mineral
contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus eugeniae).
The protein content of earthworms is complete, containing 8-9 essential amino acids
for human beings, including 9-10% tasty glutamic acid. Compared with other meat,
the protein of earthworms is higher than meat and the lipid, 2% lower than meat.
From the view point of health, earthworms might be one of ideal food with high
protein and low lipid for human beings. In southern China and Taiwan people used to
eat earthworms. There are many dishes of earthworms: mince meat of earthworm as
stuffing for dumplings to increase delicacy and prevent it from going bad. It is said
that spiced sauce from ROK has a big market in SEA. For human consumption a
worm farm should use beer spent grains or mushroom spent substrate to feed
earthworms. The Edible Fungi Scientific Center in Qingyuan as well as Shanghai
Academy of Agriculture has developed artificial logs which do not require pure
hardwood chips. Each year Qingyuan produces some 50,000 tons of used logs. This
substrate of shiitake Lentinus edodes could also generate as much as 5,000 tons of
54
earthworms and in turn can be processed to quality human food. It is said that there
are 200 kinds of food from earthworms in the U.S.A (Kangmin, 2005). Earthworms
are the future of seafood. Not yet, but they will be (Shiner, 2009).
Table 6.1. Chemical composition % of various worm meal (in dry matters)
Eisenia
Lumbricus
foetida
terrestils
Moisture
83.3
81.1
Crude protine
57.4
56.1
Crude fat
13.2
2.1
Ash
10.8
28.7
Crude fiber
0.7
N-free extract
18.2
13.1
Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascua l(2000).
Allolobophora
longa
78.3
50.4
1.4
35.2
12.9
Neries sp.
47.0
25.2
6.6
-0.6
20.6
Eudrilus
eugeniae
85.3
56.4
7.9
13.1
5.9
17.8
Table 6.2. Essential amino acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN)
Eisenia
Lumbricus
foetida
terrestils
Arginine
3.67
3.17
Histidine
1.39
1.38
Isoleucine
2.85
2.20
Leucine
4.90
4.11
Lysine
4.16
3.52
Methionine
0.83
1.11
Phenylalanine
2.65
2.02
Theronine
3.07
2.48
Tryptophan
0.67
0.44
Valine
3.11
2.30
Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascua l( 2000).
Allolobophora
longa
3.15
1.01
2.24
3.57
3.43
0.5
2.65
2.11
2.46
Eudrilus
eugeniae
4.95
1.58
2.82
5.22
4.50
1.04
2.47
3.22
0.63
3.39
Table 6.3. Macro and trace mineral contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus
eugeniae)
Calcium
%
Phosphorus
%
Sodium
%
Iron
mg/kg
Zinc
mg/kg
Copper
mg/kg
Cadmium
mg/kg
Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual (2000).
1.5
0.9
0.2
100.0
122.5
7.8
21.0
The key to the multi-pronged success of earthworms as aquaculture fodder is their diet
of organic wastes. Land-based pollution, such as festering animal manure, is an
enormous problem for coastal fisheries impacted by runoff. Britain alone produces 84
megatons of cow manure, 9 megatons of pig waste and 5 megatons of chicken waste
each year, much of which flows to the coast as runoff. This pollution is a significant
contributor to the declining productivity of wild fish stocks, as fish struggle to cope
with their heavily contaminated environment. Earthworms solve this problem by
converting land animal wastes into high-protein aquaculture feed. Earthworms
convert cow manure into dry matter at a remarkable 10 percent clip, such that
Britains 84 megatons of cow manure could produce 8.4 megatons of dehydrated
55
56
Genetic contamination and pollution, both chemical and biological, are serious
blemishes on the face of responsible aquaculture; however, the solution is simple.
Floating or land-based solid-wall tanks, such as those already in use in British
Columbia, eliminate escapes altogether. Wastes and uneaten feed, all collected within
the tank, are pumped through a filter, eliminating their respective eutrophying and
polluting effects. The real problem with status quo aquaculture isnt genetic
contamination or pollution, but rather the inefficiency and un-sustainability of
fishmeal as used for fish feed.
Carnivorous finfish aquaculture, the type employed in salmon and tuna farming,
typically depends on fishmeal, an oily paste made from ground fishes such as
mackerel and sardines, for feed. Each pound of farmed fish for human consumption
demands many pounds of fishmeal throughout the farming process, presenting a
serious barrier to the expansion of responsible aquaculture. Tilapia, a onetime dining
hall staple, is only 25 percent calorie efficient, meaning that it takes four tons of
fishmeal to grow only one ton of tilapia. Sardines and mackerel serve as important
sources of protein worldwide and as the diet of larger, commercially valuable stocks.
New sources of feed must be developed in order to facilitate industrial expansion and
ease aquacultures strain on the worlds over-fished oceans.
Organic manures if not decomposed completely before application in aquaculture
pond may deteriorate the water quality as they utilize oxygen during decomposition.
Therefore, the amount of any organic manure to be added in the pond mainly depends
upon its biological oxygen demand (BOD), as their excessive use may cause severe
dissolved oxygen depletion in the pond and results in production of toxic gases like
CO2, H2S, NH3, etc., and can spread parasitic diseases.
A study suggests higher potential of utilizing vermicompost as compared to cow dung
and hence can be used more effectively for manuring semi-intensive carp culture
ponds without affecting the hydro biological parameters. In developing country like
India, agriculture and livestock work in integration, where livestock waste (mainly
cow dung) is the most commonly used organic manure in agriculture and aquaculture.
Hence, the small scale on farm integration of vermicomposting of livestock and
agriculture waste with the rural aquaculture (extensive/semi-intensive) holds ample
scope for developing economically and ecologically sustainable farming system for
the socio-economic upliftment of rural population in developing countries (Kaur and
Ansal, 2010).
The research on Carassius auratus, showed that a 10% supplement of E. fetida
earthworms in food, given to those fish, caused a doubling of their biomass. The
research on P. reticulata, fed on earthworms only, also showed benefits. Compared to
the group fed with Bio-vit, the fish were characterized by a larger number of broods
and larger numbers of surviving fry. From this research it can be seen that E. fetida is
a highly nutritious food that is eagerly eaten by all age groups of the examined species
of fish. For the advocates of the ecological box, it means another possible use of one
of its products. That is because in addition to using the vermicompost, it gives another
possibility of feeding selected aquarium fish with the produced biomass of
earthworms. The results of the research not only indicate the possibility of reducing
57
the cost of fish-keeping, but also better results of that culture (Kostecka and Paczka,
2006).
Three meals were formulated from the earthworm (Endrilus eugineae) and maggot
(Musca domestica) and fish (Engraulis encrosicolus). These meals were evaluated as
a potential replacement for fishmeal. This is because fishmeal could be very
expensive at times. The three meals were used in feeding the catfish (Heterobranchus
isopterus) for 30 days. On the basis of weight increment, the best growth performance
was produced by maggot meal. It was followed by earthworm and fish meals,
respectively. Based on food conversion ratio maggot meal was again the best,
followed by earthworm and fish meals respectively. The importance of supplementary
feeding was evidenced in the higher weight increment in fish that were fed than those
that were not fed. Maggot and earthworm meals could therefore be a whole or partial
replacement for fishmeal. The difficulty in the harvesting or rearing maggots and
earthworms may however reduce this potential (Yaqub, 1991).
The use of vermicompost in pisci-culture is gaining its increased recognition for the
conservation of energy and optimum but economical utilization of available resources
with simultaneous pollution control. Vermicompost is hazard free organic manure,
which improves quality of pond base and overlying water as well as provides
organically produced aqua crops. The additions of manures affect the relative
abundance of the plankton and their community structure in aquatic system. Proper
combinations of inorganic nutrients (NPK) are the major factors that influence the
growth and production of plankton in a pond. Vermicompost contains all the major
organic nutrient components of N, P and K along with some necessary micronutrients
for plankton growth (Table 6.4).
In aquaculture industry, capital investment apart, there are also operating expenses,
mainly for seed, fertilizer, feed and labors. Among those, the cost of feed and
fertilizer constitute about 70% of the total expenses. For this reason there is need for
searching out chapter sources for feed and fertilizer. So, this is particularly significant
in developing nations, where fish farmers are unable to buy costly fish feed and
chemical fertilizer vermicompost forms an abundant alternative natural resource for
less expensive manure and fish feed for higher fish yield. However, the amount of
available nitrogen and phosphorus from vermicompost is less when compared with
conventional fertilizers and research should be oriented to increase its nitrogen and
phosphorus concentration through alteration of substrate composition.
Table 6.4. Different nutrient concentration in manure and fertilizer applied (average
value of triplicate sample analyzed)
Parameters
Diammonium phosphate (DAP)
Vermicompost
Compost
Available N
(mgg-1)
18 0.07
1.5 0.05
1.0 0.08
Available P
(mgg-1)
46 0.05
1.4 0.08
0.55 0.09
Sample of soil, compost, vermicompost and DAP were analyzed for available P, N
content as well as for organic carbon. The dry weights of the fertilizer and manure
58
were ranged from 3.04 to 252.0 g in different treatments (50 kg P2O5 content basis)
(Table 6.5).
Table 6.5. Average values* (SD) of physio-chemical parameters of water, primary
productivity of phytoplankton and final body weights and fish production of
Cyprinus carpio in various treatments.
Parameters
Control (T-1)
Compost
(T-2)
Temperature (C)
30.0 4.3
30.0 5.1
pH
7.06 0.4
7.26 0.6
Dissolved oxygen (mg l-1)
6.01 0.9
6.21 1.1
Ortho phosphate (mg l-1)
0.09 0.09
0.19 0.06
Organic phosphate (mg l-1)
0.08 0.19
0.27 0.15
Total phosphate (mg l-1)
0.10 0.10
0.66 0.16
NO3N (mg l-1)
0.06 0.08
0.12 0.06
Total inorganic N (mg l-1)
0.06 0.005
0.40 0.02
Total inorganic nitrogen (N)/total 1.6
0.61
phosphate (P)
Community respiration (mg C m-2h- 20.13 9.3
28.13 12.5
1
)
Final mean body weight (g)
18.24 2.3
22.25 3.6
Fertilizer/manure added (g)
0
252
Stocking density
10.00
10.00
Initial average individual length 1.40 0.02
1.40 0.02
(cm)
Initial average individual weight (g) 2.40 0.01
2.40 0.03
Final average individual length (cm) 4.20 0.03
6.80 0.06
Final average individual weight (g)
3.76 0.01
8.29 0.05
Growth increment (g sh-1day-1)
0.0151
0.0654
Production of fish (kg ha-190 day-1) 385.92
1,952.64
Total weight gain (TWG) (g sh-1)
0.57
2.45
Survival (%)
85
88
*Each average value applies to 90 days samples.
Source: Chakrabarty et al. (2009).
Where:
Absolute growth (AG) = final body weight - initial body weight
Growth increment (GI) = final body weight - initial body weight /
number of culture days after fish introduction
Total weight gain (TWG) = final body weight - initial body weight /
initial body weight
Diammonium
phosphate
(T-3)
30.0 4.9
7.14 0.1
7.74 1.0
0.52 0.10
0.20 0.14
0.88 0.25
0.28 0.03
0.80 0.04
0.90
Vermicompost
(T-4)
35.79 18.2
38.58 13.1
39.50 4.3
3.04
10.00
1.40 0.02
45.77 3.9
99
10.00
1.40 0.02
2.40 0.04
7.60 0.04
12.92 0.03
0.1169
3080.45
4.38
87
2.40 0.02
8.80 0.07
16.76 0.07
0.1595
3,970.56
5.98
90
30.00 5.5
7.43 0.6
7.02 1.2
0.30 0.14
0.35 0.21
0.68 0.21
0.16 0.04
0.62 0.03
0.91
The demand for organically cultured food for human consumption is increasing across
the globe and for this reason organic aquaculture is the need of the present time. Wide
variety of organic manures such as grass, leaves, sewage water, livestock manure,
domestic wastes, night soil and dried blood meal have been used.
6.4. Possibilities of worms as animal feed in Egypt:
For a long time, extensive fish farming was the type practiced in Egypt, where only
chemical and/or organic fertilizers were applied for promoting the natural productivity
of ponds. Agricultural by-products such as wheat bran and rice bran were used for
supplementation in some farms. As the technology of fish farming has developed,
59
aquaculture started to exert some significant demand on fish feed. In 2001, there are
twelve feed mills that produced about 68 500 tons of specialized feeds. Most of feeds
are produced for self-sufficiency to support the needs of Governmental fish farms, but
some quantities are available for sale to private sector. Because of the cost, such mills
produce fish feeds of 18-32% protein of sinking type pellets, however, higher protein
floating feeds could be produced upon request. High quality fish meal provide the
major component in the commercial fish feeds and may constitute up to 60% of the
total diet for marine species, with higher levels being used in starter and fingerling
rations. Generally, a good range of raw materials is available for fish manufacture in
Egypt. However, price and competition from the human food and animal feed
industries limits the choice. High quality feed materials are in short supply and are
expensive. Apart from fish meal (imported and indigenous), the main available
protein sources are: soybean meal (hexane-extracted), cottonseed meal (expeller),
meat meal, poultry offal meal and feather meal. Other possibilities for new feed
materials may be the wide spread marine macroalgae or fresh water weed hyacinth.
On local basis, there is a scope for their incorporation into fish feeds particularly for
tilapia and mullets. Tables 6.6 and 6.7 show the proximate composition of the tested
feed ingredients, namely: acid fish silage (AFS), fermented fish silage (FFS), soybean
meal (SBM), a mixture of FFS and SBM (MIX), green macroalga Ulva meal (UM)
and red macro-algae Pterocladia meal (PM) compared to fish meal (FM) from
different sources and their amino acid profiles, respectively.
Table 6.6. Composition (%dry matter) of tested proteins sources or supplements for
fish feeds
Ingredient
Protein
Lipid
Ash
Moisture
NFE
Fiber
DE
AFS1
72.90
13.12
12.76
73.28
1.22
164
AFS2
73.40
17.10
8.30
1.20
178
AFS3
63.00
22.10
9.68
75.00
177
FFS
56.67
12.7
20.04
0.98
135
SBMG
44.80
20.60
5.40
5.50
29.20
161
SBMB
44.00
1.80
8.00
8.94
37.26
103
SBMD
44.00
4.00
6.53
11.00
38.17
7.30
110
UM
17.44
2.5
32.85
3.69
41.47
5.47
64
PM
22.61
2.18
37.3
3.05
28.29
9.62
35
FM1
72.05
10.94
7.00
5.00
8.98
1.02
160
FMD
61.00
8.95
20.72
6.20
9.73
136
61.00
5.00
16.60
5.00
16.70
0.70
127
FMD
Source: Wassef (2005).
NFE: Nitrogen free extract, by difference; DE: Digestible energy (MJ/Kg); AFS: acid fish silage;
FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal (G: germinated; B: boilled fullfat; D:
defatted); MIX: mixture of FFS and SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal (D:
domestic product; I: imported Manhaden).
60
Table 6.7. Amino acid (g/100g protein) profiles of tested protein sources or
supplement as compared to fish meal (FM)
Amino acid (AA)
AFS
FFS
SBM
MIX
UM
PM
FM
Indispensable (IAA)
Arginine (ARG)
03.62
02.86
05.59
06.20
05.85
04.46
05.88
Histidine (HIS)
02.36
01.33
04.30
02.48
02.80
02.70
02.48
Isoleucine (ILE)
02.66
01.87
03.64
03.27
03.47
04.53
04.41
Leucine (LEU)
04.43
03.73
06.09
00.51
05.21
05.92
05.71
Lysine (LYS)
05.27
03.95
04.49
05.44
05.62
06.90
04.42
Methionine (MET)
01.81
01.35
01.25
02.22
04.40
03.26
02.50
Phenyl-alanine (PHE)
02.36
02.30
04.30
03.06
04.45
04.78
03.87
Threonine (THR)
02.60
01.41
02.97
03.74
03.94
04.23
03.76
Valine (VAL)
03.01
02.41
03.86
03.94
07.46
06.69
04.75
Tryptophan (TRP)
00.63
00.36
00.72
00.80
Total IAA
28.75
21.57
36.94
31.58
43.20
43.47
38.58
Dispensable (DAA)
Aspartic Acid (ASP)
05.97
15.20
11.54
10.59
02.04
Serine (SER)
02.62
04.15
04.48
04.08
00.66
Glutamic Acid
08.81
13.03
09.35
10.22
03.30
(GLU)
03.50
03.14
05.53
07.49
04.13
Glycine (GLY)
03.74
03.54
07.19
07.23
01.47
Alanine (ALA)
02.04
04.03
03.31
03.65
01.47
Tyrosine (TYR)
02.60
04.46
05.15
04.64
Proline (PRO)
00.73
01.13
01.27
01.51
00.97
Cysteine (CYS)
30.01
48.68
47.82
49.41
12.57
Total (DAA)
58.76
85.62
91.02
92.88
51.15
Total amino acids
Source: Wassef (2005).
AFS: acid fish silage; FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal; MIX: mixture of FFS
and SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal.
There is still a great opportunity for Egypt to use the tremendous amount of organic
wastes to be used as meal not only for poultry, rabbits, ducks, and geese, but also for
aquaculture and large animals. The only missing part is to create awareness and to
develop capacity building programs in a well established demonstrated sites
representing different geographic regions of the country.
61
62
63
Each of the greenhouse gases has a global warming potential (GWP) value compared to CO2, which has global
warming potential=1. All quantities of green house gases are converted to CO2 equivalent quantities by
multiplying the weight of such gas by its GWP to obtain the CO2 equivalent weight.
64
Table 7.1. Summary of greenhouse gases emissions for Egypt, 2000, as of its Second
National Communications1 submitted in July 2010.
Greenhouse gases
Source & Sink
Categories
CO2
(Kt)
CH4
(Kt)
N2O
(Kt)
PFCs
(Kt)
SF6
(Kt)
HFCs
(Kt)
Total
(Mt
CO2e)
Total National
Emissions & Removals
128,227
1,877
79
160
(tons)
5
(tons)
28
(tons)
193.3
ALL ENERGY
(Fuel Combustion &
Fugitive)
106,629
447
581
(tons)
--
5
(tons)
--
116.3
105,161
559
(tons)
--
5
(tons)
--
105.5
--
5
(tons)
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
Fuel combustion
Petroleum & energy
transformation industries
41,436
Industry
26,987
Transport
27,120
Small combustion
Agriculture
Fugitive emissions from
fuels
Oil & Natural Gas
9,389
229
930
(tons)
680
(tons)
130
(tons)
180
(tons)
222
(tons)
25
(tons)
2
(tons)
1
188
(tons)
10
(tons)
1,469
444
22
(tons)
--
--
--
1,469
444
22
(tons)
--
--
--
10.8
INDUSTRIAL
PROCESSES
21,594
--
16
160
(tons)
--
28
(tons)
27.8
Cement production
17,251
--
--
--
--
--
--
31
--
--
--
--
--
--
1,576
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
16
--
--
--
--
Aluminum production
--
--
--
160
(tons)
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
28
(tons)
--
Ammonia production
2,736
--
--
--
--
--
--
Lime production
As per Kyoto Protocol, Egypt submitted it's Second National Communication for Climate Change to
the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC) in June 2010.
65
Greenhouse gases
Source & Sink
Categories
CH4
(Kt)
N2O
(Kt)
AGRICULTURE
--
599
62
Agriculture soils
--
--
33
--
--
--
--
Enteric fermentation
--
385
--
--
--
--
--
Manure management
--
28
28
--
--
--
--
Rice cultivation
--
--
--
--
--
--
Field burning of
agricultural residues
--
68
--
--
--
--
WASTE
832
10
(tons)
--
--
--
17.5
--
557
--
--
--
--
--
Wastewater treatment
--
275
10
(tons)
--
--
--
--
Waste incineration
--
--
--
--
--
--
118
PFCs
(Kt)
SF6
(Kt)
HFCs
(Kt)
Total
(Mt
CO2e)
CO2
(Kt)
31.7
66
Over the past three years, a comprehensive research program on vermicomposting has
been developed at the Ohio State University. This has included experiments
investigating the effects of vermicomposts on the germination, growth, flowering, and
fruiting of vegetable plants such as bell peppers and tomatoes, as well as on a wide
range of flowering plants including petunias, marigolds, bachelors button,
chrysanthemums, impatiens, sunflowers, and poinsettias. A consistent trend in all
these growth trials has been that the best plant growth responses, with all needed
nutrients supplied, occurred when vermicomposts constituted a relatively small
proportion (10% to 20%) of the total volume of the container medium mixture, with
greater proportions of vermicomposts in the plant growth medium not always
improving plant growth. Some of the plant growth responses in horticultural container
media, substituted with a range of dilutions of vermicomposts, were similar to those
reported when composts were used instead (Atiyeh et al., 2000).
Table (7.2) and Figure (7.1) present Egypts total greenhouse gas emissions by gas
type, for the year 2000, while Table (7.2) and figure (7.2) present Egypts total
greenhouse gas emissions by sector for the year 2000.
Table 7.2. Egypts greenhouse gas emissions by gas type for the year 2000.
Gas
Carbon Dioxide, CO2
Methane, CH4
Nittrogen oxide, N2O
Perfluorocarbons, PFC
Sulpher hexafluoride, SF6
Haloflorocarbons, HFC's
blend
TOTAL
Source: EEAA (2010).
Emissions
(mega ton CO2
equivalent)
128.2
39.4
24.4
1.1
0.1
0.1
193.3
67
Emissions
(%)
66.3
20.4
12.6
0.6
0.1
0.1
100
SF6; 0.11; 0%
PFC; 1.04 ; 1%
N2 O; 24.36 ; 13%
CH4 ; 39.44 ; 20%
Figure 7.1. Egypts greenhouse gases emissions by gas type for the year 2000 in
mega ton CO2 equivalent.
Source: EEAA (2010).
Table 7.3. Egypts greenhouse gases emissions by sector for the year 2000
Emissions
Emissions
Sector
(mega ton CO2
(%)
equivalent)
105.5
55
Fuel Combustion
10.8
6
Fugitive Fuel Emissions
Agriculture
31.7
16
Industrial Processes
27.8
14
Waste
17.5
9
TOTAL
193.3
100
Source: EEAA (2010).
68
Waste; 17.49; 9%
Agriculture; 31.72;
16%
Fuel Combustion;
105.51; 55%
Industrial Processes;
;
27.77; 14%
Fugitive fuel;
10.81; 6%
Fuel Combustion
Agriculture
Waste
Figure 7.2. Egypts greenhouse gases emissions by sector for the year 2000, in mega
ton CO2 equivalent.
Source: EEAA(2010).
Table (7.3) and figure (7.2) show the change of sectors contribution to Egypts total
inventory. It is clear that the total greenhouse gas emissions of Egypt increased in
2000 to be 165% of that in 1990. During this period Egypts population increased by
123% with an increase in the GDP of 277% (Ministry of Economic Development,
2007). The ratio of GDP, at the 1981/82 fixed prices, for the year 2000 to that for
1990 is 151%, denoting that the increase in greenhouse gas emissions seems to be
correlated to the GDP increase rather than the population growth. It is clear that
emissions from agriculture are the second after fuel combustion and before industrial
processes.
7.4. Vermifilters in domestic wastewater treatment
There is another important use that helps the environment which is the use of
vermiculture as a biological filter for domestic waste water. use of earthworms in
filtration systems, which has been termed vermifiltration (VF) (Xing et al., 2010).
Since then, several studies have been conducted to evaluate the use of vermifilters in
domestic wastewater treatment, municipal wastewater treatment, and swine
wastewater treatment processes, as well as in simultaneous sludge reduction
processes. However, less attention has been given to the use of vermifilters to dispose
of excess sludge directly. Moreover, most studies conducted to evaluate VFs have
only focused on the contamination purification efficiencies, but the interactions
between earthworms and microorganisms, which are very important for understanding
the sludge stabilization mechanisms involved in VFs, have not been fully investigated.
A study was conducted to explore the feasibility of using a VF to stabilize sewage
sludge while focusing on elucidating the earthwormmicroorganism interactions
responsible for the decomposition of organic matter in the vermifilter. Additionally,
this investigation sought to identify the primary mechanism by which sewage sludge
stabilization in the vermifilter occurs based on the chemical and spectroscopic
69
properties of the treated sludge, the microbial community in the biofilm, and the
earthwormmicroorganism interactions in the vermifilter reactor. The results of this
study provide useful information regarding the use of a vermifilter for the optimal
sewage sludge treatment. A cylinder shaped vermifilter (30 cm in diameter and 60 cm
in depth) that was naturally ventilated was equipped with a 0.5-inch polypropylene
pipe with holes to ensure uniform distribution of the influent (Figure 7.3). The
vermifilter contained a 0.5 m filter bed of ceramic pellets (69 mm in diameter). A
layer of plastic fiber was placed on the top of the filter bed to avoid direct hydraulic
impact on the earthworms and to ensure an even influent distribution. The influent
sludge was introduced to the vermifilter via a peristaltic pump. After passing through
the filter bed, the treated sludge entered into a sedimentation tank below the
vermifilter and the supernatant in the sedimentation tank was recycled.
70
71
72
incremental greenhouse gas emissions reductions equivalent to those that would have
been made in Annex I countries, or play a role in the ultimate objective of stabilizing
atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations.
CERs generated by CDM projects that are used by Annex 1 countries to meet their
Kyoto targets allow emissions in these countries to rise. Therefore if CERs are
awarded to activities that would happen without the CDM project, i.e. for reductions
that would occur anyway, Annex 1 emissions are allowed to rise without a
corresponding cut elsewhere, thereby raising global emissions. The only winners are
the buyers of cheap credits, because host countries do not receive new investment and
climate change is not being mitigated.
CDM projects assist developing countries to achieve sustainable development.
Industrialized countries have developed domestic policies to comply with the Kyoto
Protocol. This has led to a growing demand for carbon credits. Developing countries
may supply such carbon credits. While many factors influence the size and stability of
the global market, facts indicate that this market would move billions of dollars a
year, increasing foreign investment capital flow in developing countries.
According to the Kyoto Protocol, investments in various sectors of non-Annex I
countries may qualify for CDM credits in 1) energy fuel combustion: energy
industries; manufacturing industries and construction; transport; other sectors; 2)
Fugitive emissions from fuels: solid fuels; oil and natural gas; 3) industrial processes:
mineral products; chemical industry; metal production; other production; production
and consumption of halocarbons and sulphur hexaflouride; 4) solvent; 5) agriculture:
enteric fermentation; manure management; rice cultivation; agricultural soils;
prescribed burning of savannas; filed burning of agricultural residues; 6) solid waste
disposal on land; wastewater handling; waste incineration; 7) land-use, land-use
change, and forestry: afforestation; reforestation; avoided deforestation for thermal
energy in small-scale projects.
8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements in Egypt
Clean Development Mechanism is one of Kyoto Protocol three mechanisms which
include Joint Implementation and Emissions Trading. The aim from applying CDM is
the implementation of projects reducing greenhouse gas emissions from different
sectors such as industry, waste recycling, transport, switching to usage of natural gas
as a fuel, and afforestation to absorb greenhouse gas. These projects contribute to
achieving sustainable development goals, create job opportunities, produce additional
financial return from selling carbon reduction certificates as a result.
During 2007, NCCC held 6 meetings (3 for the Egyptian Bureau for CDM (EB-CDM)
and the Egyptian Council for CDM (EC-CDM)). Seventeen CDM projects have been
approved and Letters of No-Objection (LoN) have been issued (first phase of project
approval). Such projects include:
1. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, Delta Fertilizers and Chemical
Industries.
73
2. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, KIMA Chemical Industries.
3. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, Nasr Fertilizers and Chemical
Industries.
4. Fuel switching and reduction of clinker, National Cement Company.
5. Fuel switching in industrial processes, El-Delta Steel Company.
6. Equipment replacement and fuel switching, El-Max Salinas Company,
Alexandria.
7. Land filling, treatment, and recycling, Southern Region, Cairo Governorate.
8. Installation of cogeneration unit operating by gas recovered from the industrial
processes, Alexandria Carbon Black Company.
9. Replacement of fuel oil by natural gas, Dakahlia Spinning and Weaving
Company.
10. Replacement of light oil and coke gas by natural gas as a fuel for furnaces, Nasr
Forging Company.
11. Fuel Switching from Light Oil to Natural Gas in Spring and Transport Needs
Manufacturing Co.
12. Methane Reduction by Composting of Municipal Waste from Cairo North and
West.
13. Capture and flaring of biologically-generated methane from Abu Zaabal
landfills,Qalyubia.
14. Replacement of light oil by natural gas, Damietta Spinning and Weaving
Company.
15. Reduction of sodium carbonate, Nile Oils and Detergents Company.
16. Reduction of CO2 emissions, Egypt for Oils and Soap Company.
17. Switching fuel from heavy oil to natural gas, El-Nasr Wool and Selected Textile
Company (STIA).
8.3. Egypt National Strategy on the CDM
Egypt has participated to the National Strategy Studies (NSS) Program, launched by
the Government of Switzerland and the World Bank in 1997.
This program has assisted Egypt in the development of the CDM Strategy which was
undertaken in collaboration with the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs and
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA).
The Egypts NSS on the CDM aims at mainstreaming environment into the relevant
sectors and minimizing the environmental impacts of development, through
identification of priority policies and planning for their implementation.
1- Ratification on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, the issuance of Law 4/1994 for the Protection of the Environment,
and the participation in various international workshops and conferences
related to climate change to avoid having any international obligations on
developing countries, including Egypt .
2- Ratification of Kyoto's Protocol, and the establishment of the Egyptian
Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism (DNA);
74
consisting of the Egyptian Bureau and the Egyptian Council for Clean
Development Mechanism.
3- Ministry of Electricity and Energy: establishment several projects in the field
of New and Renewable Energy (Wind - Solar - Hydro - Bio), and encouraging
Energy Efficiency Projects .
4- Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs: establishing guiding schemes for
private sector to encourage investments in the field of clean energy projects,
waste recycling, and afforestation .
5- Maximizing the benefit from Kyoto Protocol Mechanisms through
implementing Clean Development Mechanism Projects .
In addition to the State's concern in maximizing the benefit from Kyoto Protocol
Mechanisms, especially Clean Development Mechanism, it established the
Egyptian Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism
(DNA-CDM), instantly after ratifying the protocol and its entrance into force in
2005. The DNA has achieved tangible progress in several sectors, 36 projects
have been approved within the framework of the Mechanism. This is including the
sectors of: New and Renewable Energy, Industry, Waste Recycling, Afforestation,
Energy Efficiency, and Fuel Switching to Natural Gas. This is for an estimated
total cost of 1200 Million US Dollar. These projects are considered as a source for
attracting foreign investments, providing employment opportunities, and
contributing in the implementation of Sustainable Development plans in Egypt.
8.4. The national regulatory framework
The law number 4 of 1994 and its executive regulation contain the national policy and
regulatory framework governing the growth and competitiveness of the agro residue
based biomass sector. In the protection of air environment from pollution section
article (36) said that in carrying out their activities, establishments subject to the
provisions of this law are held to ensure that emissions or leakages of air pollutants do
not exceed the maximum limits permitted and Article (38) Concern about dump, treat
or burn garbage and solid waste, while Article (42) talk about the consideration which
should be given by the competent bodies, according to their activities, when burning
any type of fuel or other substance, and the Precautions, Permissible limits, and
Specification of Chimneys While Article (45)Talk about the necessary precautions
and procedures laid down by the Ministry of Manpower and Employment to prevent
the leakage or emission of air pollutants inside the work. Annex I contain the
executive regulation of law number 4 of 1994 which governing the growth and
competitiveness of the agro residue based biomass sector.
75
76
12 Mt per day. They are usually operated by private entities. Recently, 53 sites have
been identified for new landfills, and the construction of 56 composting plants
throughout the country is underway.
9.1.2. Agricultural wastes
Egypt produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons
per day). Some of this waste is used in the production of organic fertilizers, animal
fodder, food production, energy production, or other useful purposes.
9.2. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the solid wastes
As a non-annex I country, Egypt is not required to meet any specific emission
reduction or limitation targets in terms of commitments under the UNFCCC, or the
Kyoto protocol. However, mitigation measures are already in progress. Egypt is fully
aware that greenhouse gas emissions reduction, particularly by major producers, is the
only measure that could ensure the mitigation of global warming and climate change.
The mitigation measures in this section are based on those described in national plans
and country studies documents (Table 9.1).
Six main criteria have been selected for prioritization of mitigation measures in the
waste sector according to Egypt's Second National Communication. These entail
investment costs; payback periods; greenhouse gases emission reductions potentials;
duration of implementation; priority in national strategies/programs; and contribution
to sustainable development. Mitigation options, concluded from a multi-criteria
analysis, were combined for each sub-sector in order to generate a number of
scenarios for solid waste and wastewater. The lowest greenhouse gas emitting
scenario was selected for implementation during the period 2009 to 2025.
Mitigation measures under one or more of appropriate treatment categories, the
associated emission reduction potential, and investment costs calculated for 25 years
lifetime in simple linear amortization cost, are summarized in tables (III.6) and (III.7)
for solid waste and wastewater, respectively (EEAA, 2007).
77
Mitigation Measure
0.38
< 0.3
< 0.3
0.342
0.547
Investment cost
(US$/ton MSW)
0.92
2.07
1.97
12.16
16.16
The limited public awareness about the economic benefits of mitigation options
in the waste sector leads to the hesitation of funding institutions to consider
waste management activity as an economically viable option.
78
79
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84
Annex 1
General information and FAQ
WORM FACTS
85
How long will the material ingested by the compost worm be in his gut?
In adult compost worms (Eisenia andrei) appr. 3 to 4 hours, in juvenile worms appr.
11 to 13 hours. The scientists expected the opposite (a longer retention time for adult
worms).
For Eisenia foetida 2.5 h were measured at 25C, independent from the weight or the
length of the worm. At 18C the retention time was about 3.5 hours.
Lumbricus terrestris shows a retention time of 20 hours. Other worm species 11 to 13
hours (Lumbricus festivus, Lumbricus rubellus, Allolobophora caliginosa).
How do compost worms multiply?
Like all earthworms, compost worms have female and male gender organs
(hermaphrodite). If they pair off, the genitals come mutually to narrow contact. These
are localized in the wide rings (clitellum) of adult worms. This ring walks in the
course of the next days on and on to the back and is shored up, in the end, so that a
yellowish cocoon originates which has the form a lemon. After a certain time, out of
this small mites are slipping.
How often does a conception take place with the mating of compost worms?
It comes to 61% of the matings to the transfer of sperm. Of it a mutual transfer of
sperm takes place in 88.2% of the cases, in 9.8% the transfer occurred only in one
direction. Merely in one case a self conception occurred.
Is a self-fertilization also possible with compost worms?
Although reported very often with earthworms, a self-sperm transfer could be clearly
documented in 2003 for the first time. This occurs very seldom and was observed with
Eisenia foetida. Self conception is an extreme form of inbreeding. The genetic
diversity is lowered what normally leads to a reduction in fitness of the species. For
this reason mechanisms of self-incompatibility have been developed in many species.
Which compost worm multiplies faster? Eisenia foetida or Eisenia andrei?
Scientific investigations from the year 2003 showed that Eisenia andrei multiplies
much faster under the elective conditions of the study. The percentage of the worms,
that produced cocoons was substantially higher (33% compared with 3.5%). Also the
number of the produced cocoons was higher with Eisenia andrei, likewise the slip rate
of the mites from the cocoons. The life ability of the cocoons was possibly equally
high with both species.
86
Slows the composting process down because the fungi in the compost are eaten
by the worms?
On the contrary, in the general, it is even accelerated. More diverse fungal
communities inhabited earthworm-processed substrates than were found in fresh
substrates. This, although it is generally believed that fungal hyphae are destroyed and
may be a preferred food source for earthworms. Worms probably accelerate the
composting process by both grazing and dispersal, and indirectly by their effects on
the substrate (burrowing and casting).
Can earthworms nibble at living roots?
No! The earthworms to which also the compost worms belong, attack no living roots.
They live on the dead plant material colonized richly with micro-organisms. In
addition, they have no tools (teeth, grater plates or other things) by which they could
nibble at roots. The earthworm in the flowerpot or plant patch does not harm the
plants.
Are certain fungi preferred by earthworms as food?
Earthworms can make a good distinction between the different kinds of fungi.
Lumbricus terrestris prefers Fusarium oxysporum and Mucor hiemalis, other tested
mushrooms are only sometimes eaten or are avoided even completely. In case of the
compost worm Eisenia foetida it was shown, that the black melanine containing
fungus C. cladosporioides was the most attractive in contrast to Aspergillus niger
which was the least attractive. For Eisenia andrei still no investigations were done.
Does a quicker worm composting take place if the plant leftovers are inoculated
with certain fungi before?
This is possible, however, for the normal leisure gardener too exaggeratedly and also
not necessary. Investigations proved that a previous addition of A. flavus accelerates
the growth of Eisenia andrei. Mucor sp. should accelerate the growth with five other
earthworms. Nevertheless, with Eisenia andrei M. circinelloides shows the opposite
effect.
What role do composting worms play besides the use as humus producer, fish
bait and animal food?
The compost worms Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei play an important role in the
ecotoxicological assessment of compounds in soil and are the recommended OECD
87
earthworm test species. This species has been used to examine the relative toxicity
and predict the short and long-term effects of toxic substances on earthworm
populations in field soil. The composting worm (Eisenia fetida) is representative of
three other species of earthworms (Allolobophora tuberculata, Eudrilus eugenia, and
Perionyx excavus). For Eisenia fetida a very large toxicological literature database is
existing.
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