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BOOK REVIEW - GROB (Ok)
BOOK REVIEW - GROB (Ok)
BOOK REVIEW - GROB (Ok)
CHAPTER I: ELECTRICITY
Electricity
Motion
Electric Charge
Circuit
Electron and Proton
Electron
Positive Polarity
True
Atom
Nucleus
1840
Free electrons
Conductor
Silver
Insulator
Dielectric
Semiconductors
Silicon
Elements
Atom
4
8
Molecule
Compound
Molecule
8
Carbon-composition
type
Current (I)
True
Resistance and its
power rating
Dissipation
1W or less
They have less
current
True
Wire-wound Resistor
GROB
This type of resistor has a carbon coating fired onto a solid ceramic
substrate.
This type of resistor is a wire-wound resistor made to burn open easily
when the power rating is exceeded. It then serves the dual functions of
a fuse and a resistor to limit the current.
RESISTOR COLOR CODING
In reading the resistor color coding value, the first band close to the
edge gives ______.
In reading the resistor color coding value, the third band indicates
______.
The amount by which the resistor can be different from the color-coded
value.
The typical tolerance of wire-wound resistor.
The typical tolerance of precision wire-wound resistor.
VARIABLE RESISTORS
It can be wire-wound or carbon-type resistor.
The way resistor varies with the shaft control.
It is convenient unit for providing any one resistor within a wide range
of values.
RHEOSTATS AND POTENTIOMETERS
It is a variable resistor with two terminals connected in series with a
load. The purpose is to vary the amount of current.
It is generally called pot and it has three terminals.
These are generally wire-wound high-wattage resistors for power
applications.
POWER RATING OF RESISTORS
A resistor should have _________ to dissipate the power produced by the
current flowing through the resistance, without becoming too hot.
A type of resistor that operates at high temperature, a typical value
being 300C for the maximum temperature.
SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATIONS OF RESISTORS
Two equal resistors in ________ double the resistance.
Two equal resistors in ________ have one-half the resistance.
RESISTORS TROUBLES
3 to 4W
Carbon-composition
Resistor
Axial leads
1 to 20
0.1 to 2W
Carbon film type and
Metal-film
Chip resistors
Fusible resistors
Electronic Industries
Association (EIA)
The first digit in the
numerical value of
resistor.
The decimal
multiplier.
Tolerance
5%
1% or less
Variable Resistor
Taper of the control
Decade box
Rheostat
Potentiometer
Commercial
rheostats
High wattage rating
Wire wound resistor
Series
Parallel
There is no current
in the entire series
path.
Carbon controls
Ohmmeter
Open
Heat over a long
period of time
GROB
It shows how much current the resistor allows for different voltages.
Ohms Law
Increase
Volt-ampere
characteristic graph
Current values
Voltage values
Directly proportional
Nonlinear resistance
Less
Watt
James Watt (17361819)
One watt of power
Power
Electric power
764 Watts or 550 ft
lb/s
kW
Work
1watt second
1 joule/second
6.25 x 1018 eV
Kilowatt-hour
Kilowatt-hour
Shock
High-voltage circuits
9mA
6mA
More than 30 V
GROB
There have one common voltage across all the branches but separate
branch currents that can be different.
It is formed when two or more components are connected across one
voltage source.
THE APPLIED VOLTAGE VA IS THE SAME ACROSS PARALLEL BRANCHES
Series Circuits
Electric Current
Current
Current
Adjacent Point
More positive or
more negative
Current through a
resistor
Negative
True
Heat
Total Power
Series-aiding
Voltages
Series-aiding
Series-opposing
Zero
Total Resistance
Drop
Open Circuit
Open path
Zero
Zero
No Current
Open Terminals
Parallel Circuits
Parallel Circuits
GROB
Voltage
The total resistance
in the branch.
IR Voltage Drop
Total line current
Resistance of the
total series-parallel
circuit
Current
Voltage
Total Resistance
Total Resistance
Source Voltage
Less than
Bridge Circuit
Sir Charles
Wheatstone (1802
1875)
Wheatstone Bridge
Balanced Bridge
Circuit
GROB
The voltage source is inverted. Any point in the circuit must be more
negative than the positive terminal of the source, even when this
terminal is grounded.
CHAPTER 7 : VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVIDERS
It gives the series voltages even when the current is not known.
It gives the branch currents even when the branch voltage is not
known.
CURRENT DIVISION BY PARALLEL CONDUCTANCES
If conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, therefore, conductance
and current are ____________ proportional.
The method of _______ is usually easier to use than the method of
resistances from three or more branches.
SERIES VOLTAGE DIVIDER WITH PARALLEL LOAD CURRENT
It is often used to tap off part of the applied voltage VT for a load that
needs less voltage than VT.
All the current in the circuit must come from the _______.
It is a steady drain of the source.
DESIGN OF A LOADED VOLTAGE DIVIDER
This type of circuit is used for the output of a power supply in
electronic equipment to supply different voltages at the taps, with
different load currents.
Ground Connection
Cold side or low side
Hot side or High side
Chassis
Positive voltages to
negative ground
Negative Voltages to
Positive Ground
Voltage Division
Formula
Current Division
Formula
Directly
Conductance
Voltage divider
Source Voltage
Bleeder Current
Loaded Voltage
Divider
Analog meters
Digital meters
Parallel
Series
Multimeter or
multitester
Volt-ohm-milliammeter
Moving coil meter
Pointer deflection
Galvanometer
Ballistic
galvanometer
DArsonval
Movement
Parallax error
GROB
The meter movement can be constructed with moving coil and pointer
suspended by a metal band, instead of the pivot and jewel design with
a restoring spring.
VOLTMETERS
It is commonly used for measuring voltage by the addition of a high
resistance series with the movement.
The series resistance must be _________ than the coil resistance in
order to limit the current through the coil.
It is a series resistor usually connected inside the voltmeter case.
Since a voltmeter has high resistance, it must be connected in
______________ to measure the potential difference across two points in
a circuit.
The ohms-per-volt rating is also called ___________ of the voltmeter.
OHMMETERS
It consists of an internal battery, meter movement, a current-linking
resistance.
For measuring resistance, the ohmmeter leads are connected across
the __________ to be measured.
Typical resistance of series ohmmeter circuit.
When the ohmmeter leads are open, not touching each other, the
current is _________.
The arrangement of the ohms scale increases from left to right.
A symbol which means that the measured resistance is infinitely
greater than the ohmmeter resistance.
It is given for each ohms range because the highest resistance is
infinite on all the ohms ranges.
For higher values of external resistance, the meter current _________ to
indicate higher resistances on the back-off ohms scale.
To compensate for lower voltage output as the internal battery ages,
an ohmmeter includes a ____________ to calibrate the ohms scale.
A back-off ohmmeter is always adjusted for __________.
MULTIMETERS
It is use to measure voltage, current, or resistance.
The main types of Multimeters
Most analog Multimeters have an AC voltage scale calibrated in
_________ for measuring AC signals.
It is a logarithmic unit used for comparisons of power levels or voltage
levels.
Positive decibel values, above the zero mark, indicate AC voltages
above the reference of ___________.
It is a probe with a clamp that fits around the current-carrying wire in
which its magnetic field is used to indicate the amount of current.
The accessory probe that can be used with a multimeter to measure
DC voltages up to 30kV. The probe is basically just an external
multiplier resistance for the DC voltmeter.
DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
This type of test instrument has become very popular because the
digital value of the measurement is displayed automatically with
decimal point, polarity, and the unit for voltage, ampere, or ohms.
These are generally easier to use because they eliminate the human
error that often occurs in reading different scales on an analog meter
with a pointer.
Taut-band meters
Voltmeter
Higher
Multiplier
Parallel
Sensitivity
Ohmmeter
External resistance
1500
Zero
Back-off scale
Lazy eight or
Multiplying factor
Decreases
Variable resistor
Zero ohms
Multimeter
VOM and DMM
Decibels (dB)
Decibels (dB)
0.775 V
Amp-clamp probe
High-voltage probe
Digital multimeter
Digital meters
Analog to digital
circuit
Liquid-crystal display
(LCD)
10 to 20M
GROB
The algebraic sum of the voltage sources and IR voltage drops in any
closed path must total ________.
At any point in a circuit the algebraic sum of the currents directed in
and out must total ________.
Creator of Kirchoffs Law
KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW (KCL)
The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any point in a
circuit must equal the algebraic sum of the currents out of that point.
It means combining positive and negative values.
Consider all currents into a branch point as __________ and all current
directed away from that point as ____________.
It is really the basis for the practical rule in parallel circuits that the
total line current must equal the sum of the branch currents.
KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)
Go around any closed path and consider any voltage whose negative
terminal is reached first as a negative term and any voltage whose
positive terminal is reached first as a positive term.
Any closed path is called __________.
The Greek letter which means sum of.
When a loop does not have any voltage source, the algebraic sum of
the IR voltage drops alone must total ________.
CHAPTER 10 : NETWORK THEOEMS
It is just a combination of components, such as resistances
interconnected in a way to achieve a particular end result.
It usually provides shorter methods of solving the circuit than the
Kirchoffs law.
SUPERPOSITION
This theorem is very useful because it extends the use of Ohms Law to
circuits that have more than one source.
In a network with two or more sources, the current or voltage for any
components is the algebraic sum of the effects produced by each
source acting separately.
Each __________ can have any number of series resistances.
It means that current is proportional to the applied voltage
Internal diode
rectifier
0.4V
Internal resistors
Current
0V
3 digit resolution
Auto-range function
2V
1000V
400Hz
60Hz
0 to 320mA
Analog display
Zero
Zero
Gustav R. Kirchoff
Kirchoffs Current
Law (KCL)
Algebraic Sum
Positive; Negative
Kirchoffs Current
Law (KCL)
Kirchoffs Voltage
Law (KVL)
Loop
Sigma
Zero
Network
Network Theorems
Superposition
Superposition
Theorems
Voltage Divider
Linear
GROB
It means that the current is the same amount for opposite polarities of
the source voltage.
There are components that doesnt amplify or rectify.
These are components such as transistors, semiconductors diodes, and
electron tubes in which are never bilateral and often are not linear.
THEVENINS THEOREM
Named after M. L. Thevenin, a French engineer, this theorem is very
useful in simplifying the voltages in a network.
It states that the entire network connected to two terminals can be
replaced by a single voltage source VTH in series with a single
resistance RTH.
It is the open-circuit voltage across terminal.
It is the open-circuit resistance across terminals.
NORTONS THEOREM
Named after E. L. Norton, a scientist with Bell Telephone Laboratories,
this theorem is used for simplifying a network in terms of currents
instead of voltages.
It states that the entire network connected to two terminals can be
replaced by a single current source IN in parallel with a single
resistance RN.
It is the resistance looking back from open terminals.
Any components directly across the two terminals are also shortcircuited by the _________.
MILLMANS THEOREM
This theorem provides a shortcut for finding the common voltage
across any number of parallel branches with different voltage sources.
This formula is derived from converting the voltage sources to current
sources and combining the results.
CHAPTER 11: CONDUCTORS and INSULATORS
These have a very low resistance.
Typical value of resistance in copper wire of 10 ft.
It is used in the manufacture of carbon composition resistors.
FUNCTION OF THE CONDUCTORS
The resistance of the two 10 ft lengths of copper wire conductor is
________.
TYPES OF WIRE CONDUCTORS
Most wire conductors are ________.
It is easier to solder for connections.
It is flexible, easier to handle and less likely to develop an open break.
It is often has an insulating coating of enamel or shellac.
Hookup that is bare should be enclosed in a hollow insulating sleeve
called ___________.
Is it used fro very low resistance.
Two or more conductors in a common covering form a ________.
It has 25 conductors but not in pairs.
Constant spacing between two conductors through the entire length
provides a _____________.
It is generally used for the signals in cable television.
Two conductors are imbedded in plastic to provide constant spacing.
This type of line is commonly used in television for connecting the
antenna to the receiver.
It specifies an opposition to current that can include resistance,
inductance and capacitance.
It is constant for any length because it depends on the square root of
ratio for the inductance in the line to the capacitance between the
conductors.
Bilateral
Passive components
Active Components
Thevenins Theorem
Thevenins Theorem
VTH
RTH
Nortons Theorem
Nortons Theorem
RN
Wire Jumper
Millmans Theorem
Net VXY
Conductors
0.1
Carbon
0.08
Copper
Tinned Wire
Stranded Wire
Very Thin Wire
Spaghetti
Braided conductor
Cable
Ribbon Cable
Transmission Line
Coaxial Cable
Twin Lead Wire
Impedance
Characteristic
Impedance
GROB
This type of fuse has a coiled construction. They are designed to open
only on a continued overload.
These have a thermal element in the form of a spring.
75
300
Spade Lug
RCA type Plug
Phone Plug
F Connector
Multiple Connector
RS 232
Printed Circuit Board
(PCB)
Switches
Single Pole Single
Throw (SPST)
Single Pole Double
Throw (SPDT)
Double Pole Double
Throw (DPDT)
DIP Switch
Relay Switches
Fuse
Aluminum, tin coated
copper or nickel
Slow Blow Fuse
Circuit Breaker
Short length of bare
wire
Wire link
It was used for a small negative DC bias voltage at the control grid.
A battery that has a medium voltage and current ratings
This type of cell cannot be recharged.
10
Battery
Cell
Carbon zinc dry cell
Dry Battery
Lead Sulfuric Acid
Cell
Battery
A Battery
4.5 6 V with 150mA
or more
C Battery
B Battery
Primary Cells
GROB
This type is actually a modified carbon zinc cell but the electrolyte
contains only zinc chloride.
Which is better for heavy duty use; alkaline or zinc chloride type?
LITHIUM CELL
This type is a relatively new primary cell.
Lithium cell can provide at least _______ more energy than the
equivalent carbon zinc cell.
The sulfur dioxide is kept in a liquid state using a high pressure
container and an organic liquid solvent.
LEAD ACID WET CELLS
Where high values of load current are necessary, it is the type most
commonly used.
It is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid.
It is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged.
It is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions.
These are generally rated in terms of how discharge current they can
supply for a specified period of time.
Typical values of automobile batteries.
It is a ratio comparing the weight of a substance with the weight of
water.
It refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are always
connected to each other for supplying current to the load.
ADDITIONAL TYPES OF SECONDARY CELLS
11
Secondary
Cells
Cycling
Storage Cell
Lead Acid Cell
Dry Cells
Sealed Rechargeable
Cells
Voltaic Cell
Galvanic Cell
Electromotive Series
Carbon Zinc Dry
Cell
Electrochemical
System
Electrolyte
Polarization
70F
Manganese Zinc
Cell
Electrochemical
System
Low Internal
Resistance
Zinc Chloride Cells
Alkaline Cell
Lithium Cell
10 times
Lithium Sulfur
Dioxide
Lead Acid Wet Cells
Electrolyte
Lead Acid Wet Cells
Sulfuric Acid
Lead Acid Batteries
100 300 AH
Specific Gravity
Float Charging
GROB
This cell has been under development for use in electric vehicles.
It has more lines of forces and more flux than a weak magnetic field.
12
Secondary Cells
Lead Acid Cell
Nickel Cadmium Cell
NiCd Cell
Nickel Iron (Edison)
Cell
Nickel Zinc Cell
Zinc Chlorine
(Hydrate) Cell
Lithium Iron Sulfide
Cell
Sodium Sulfur Cell
Plastic Cell
Plastic Cell
Solar Cell
Magnetism
Ferromagnetism
North and South
Poles
Generator
Magnetic Field Lines
North-seeking pole
South-seeking pole
Attract
Repels
Magnetic Flux ()
Strong magnetic
field
One Maxwell (Mx)
1-lb of magnet
James Clark Maxwell
(1831 1879)
Weber
Wilhelm Weber (1804
1890)
Centimeter-gramsecond system (CGS)
Meter-kilogramsecond system (MKS)
System International
(SI)
CGS
MKS or SI unit
GROB
For science and engineering, the _______ units are preferred values.
FLUX DENSITY (B)
It is the number of magnetic field lines per unit area of a section
perpendicular to the direction of flux.
In the CGS system, this unit is one line per square centimeter, or 1
Mx/cm2.
SI units
13
Permanent Magnet
Alnico
Alnico V
About 5 lb, with a
flux of 500 25,000
lines or maxwells
Curie Temperature
800C
Ferromagnetic
Materials
GROB
14
50 50,000
100,000
Paramagnetic
Materials
More than 1
Diamagnetic
Materials
Less than 1
Magnetic field
associated with
electric charges in
motion.
Domains
Dipole magnet
Parallel
Ferrites
Very high
50 3000
105.cm
Ferrite core in the
coils of RF
transformers
Ferrite Core
Bare wire
choke
Shielding
Good Conductor
Good Magnetic
Material of High
Permeability
Steady Field
Short circuit
Hall Effect
Indium Arsenide
(InAs)
Hall Voltage (VH)
10kG
Magnetic Field
Magnetizing force or
Magneto Motive
Force (mmf)
Field Intensity (H)
GROB
medium.
AMPERE TURNS OF MAGNETO MOTIVE FORCE (MMF)
With a coil magnet, the ________ depends on how many current flows in
the turns of the coil.
The more current, the ___________ the magnetic field
It specifies the amount of magnetizing force or magnetic potential.
With thinner wire, _______ turns can be used in a given space.
The CGS unit of mmf is _________.
An English scientist who investigated the magnetism of the Earth.
PERMEABILITY ()
Using SI units, it is the flux density in webers per square meter.
It is the absolute permeability, in unit of B/H.
The values of relative permeability (r) must be multiplied by ______ for
o to calculate as B/H in SI units.
B H MAGNETIZATION CURVE
It is often used to show how much flux density (B) results from
increasing the amount of field intensity (H).
The current in the coil equals to ________.
The __________ of magnetizing force increase with more current.
The field intensity (H) increases with _________.
The __________ depends on the field intensity (H) and permeability of
the iron.
The effects of little change in flux density when the field intensity
increases.
MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
It means a lagging behind.
The flux ________ the increases or decreases in magnetizing force.
The energy wasted in heat as the molecular dipoles lag the
magnetizing force.
It is actually a B H curve with an AC magnetizing force.
The value of flux density in which is residual induction of a magnetic
material.
The value of -HC, which is equals the magnetizing force that must be
applied in the reverse direction to reduce the flux density to zero.
The method of demagnetization.
CHAPTER 15: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
He found that current in a wire could move a magnetic compass
needle.
A magnetic field in motion forces electrons to move, producing
___________.
The Henry unit of inductance is named after __________.
The farad unit of capacitance is named after __________.
It combines effect of an electric current and magnetism.
15
Strength of the
Magnetic Field
Stronger
Quantity IN
More
Gilbert (Gb)
William Gilbert (1540
1603)
1.26 Gb
Field Intensity (H)
Center of an air core
Through the entire
core
Oersted (Oe)
H. C. Oersted (1777
1851)
Ampere turns per
meter
B
Permeability ()
1.26 x 10-6
B H Curve
V/R
Ampere turns IN
Higher IN
Flux Density (B)
Saturation
Hysteresis
Lags
Hysteresis Loss
Hysteresis Loop
Retentivity
Coercive Force
Degaussing
Oersted
Current
Joseph Henry
Michael Faraday
Electromagnetism
GROB
It can be over and under, starting from one end of the coil, or under
and over with respect to the same starting point.
INDUCED CURRENT
The action in which the motion of magnetic lines cutting across a
conductor forces free electrons in the conductor to move.
It is the result of generator action as the mechanical work put into
moving the magnetic field is converted into electric energy when
current flows in the conductor.
16
Circular
Plane Perpendicular
Counterclockwise
Reversed Field
The lines of force aid
each other.
The fields cancel.
Solenoid
Diameter
North Pole of the
coil.
Left Hand Rule
Direction of the
current and the
direction of the
winding
Direction of winding
Induction
Induced Current
Current flows in the
direction shown.
No current
Motion
Perpendicular
Coil
Lenz Law
Left Hand Rule
Potential Difference
Number of turns
Induced Current
Induced voltage as a
generator
Motion of the
conductor
GROB
The more magnetic lines of force that cut across the conductor, the
_________ the amount of induced voltage.
The more turns in a coil, the ___________ the induced voltage
It is the sum of all individual voltages generated in each turn in series.
The __________ the flux cuts a conductor, the higher the induced
voltage.
The amount of induced voltage can be calculated by ___________.
It means a change in the flux .
It means a change in time.
If the external flux increases, the magnetic field of the induced current
Opposite Direction
will be in the ____________.
Opposes
The induced voltage has the polarity the __________ the change.
CHAPTER 16: LATERNARING VOLTAGE and CURRENT
17
Higher
Higher
vind
Faster
Faradays Law
d
dt
Lower value of
induced voltage.
Hertz (Hz)
One Hertz
Voltage
AC Voltage
Characteristics of
Varying Values
Induced Voltage
Capacitance (C)
Peak Value
Peak, Average, or
RMS
Peak-to-peak Value
Average Value
Root Mean Square or
Effective Value
RMS
Form Factor
Sine Wave
Non-Sinusoidal
Waveform
Cycle
Peak Amplitude
Sine Wave
Phase Angles
AC Voltage
Sawtooth Wave
GROB
Ramp Voltage
18
Harmonic
Frequencies
Harmonics
Octave
60Hz Power Lines or
the Mains
120VRMS
Greater Efficiency
60Hz
50Hz
0.333%
White
Black or Red
Green
Edison System
Neutral Wire
Grounding
Ground Fault
Circuit Interrupter
(GCFI)
Generator
Motor
Armature
Armature
Armature
Rotor
Field Winding
Field Winding
Field Winding
Self-excited
Generator
Stator
Slip Rings
Brushes
Commutator
Wire wound or
squirrel caged type
Rotors
Universal Motor
Alternators
GROB
19
Inductance
Inductors
Henry
Air Core Coils
Iron Core Inductors
Induced Voltage
Mutual Inductance
Leakage Flux
Coefficient of
Coupling
Tight Coupling
Loose Coupling
Mutual Impedance
Transformer
Transfer primary
voltage to the
secondary.
Transformer
Turn Ratio
Voltage Ratio
Current Ratio
Auto Transformers
Reducing the chance
of the electric shock.
Transformer
Efficiency
Blue
Red
GROB
For the RF transformer, the color code of the input electrode of next
amplifier.
For the RF transformer, the color code of the return line of secondary
winding.
For the power transformer, the color code of the primary leads without
tap.
For the power transformer, the color code of the tap on primary
For the power transformer, the color code of the high voltage
secondary to rectifier in power supply.
For the power transformer, the color code of the tap on high voltage
secondary.
For the power transformer, the color code of the low voltage secondary.
CORE LOSSES
It flows in a circular path through the cross section of the core. It
represents wasted power dissipated as heat in the core.
It not only isolates the coil from external varying magnetic fields, but
also minimizes the effect of the coils RF current for external circuits.
It is the result from the additional power needed to reserve the
magnetic field in magnetic materials in the presence of alternating
current.
It is limited to low values in the microhenry or millihenry range.
TYPES OF CORE
The purpose of _______ is to reduce the amount of eddy currents.
It is a shell-type core formed with a group of individual laminations.
It is generally use to reduce eddy currents in the iron core of an
inductance for radio frequencies.
Powdered iron core consists of individual insulated granules pressed
into one solid form called _______.
It can be for high frequencies with minimum eddy current losses.
CHAPTER 18: INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
It indicates reactances.
It is an opposition to current, measured in ohms.
The amount of XL is equal to _________.
HOW XL REDUCES THE AMOUNT OF I
The higher the frequency of the alternating current, the _____ is the XL
opposition.
Black or White
Black
Black with Yellow
Red
Red with Yellow
Green - Yellow
Eddy Current
RF Shield Cover
Hysteresis Losses
Inductance for small
coils with an air core
Core
Laminated Core
Powdered Iron Core
Slug
Ferrite Core
X
Reactance
2fL
Higher
Steady Direct
Current
Green
Inductive Reactance
Inductive Reactance
Coil
90 Difference
Because the vL
depends on the rate
of the change of iL.
XL AND R IN SERIES
When a coil has series resistance, the current is limited by _______.
Voltage VL is _______ with I.
20
Both XL and R
90 out of phase
GROB
SERIES RESONANCE
In a series AC circuit, the inductive reactance _______ by 90, compared
with the zero reference angle of resistance.
In a series AC circuit, the capacitive reactance _______ by 90,
compared with the zero reference angle of resistance.
The series resonance should be ______________ for a sharp increase in
current at resonance.
Impedance Triangle
Phase angle of the
circuit
Tangent
1 - 45
Ratio of XL/R
Series
Resonance
Resonant Circuit
Inductive Reactance
Capacitive Reactance
Resonance
Resonant Circuit
LC Circuits
Resonant Frequency
Tuning
Tuning in Radio and
Television
Phasor
21
Leads
Lags
As small as possible
The amount rise of
current to its
maximum at the
resonant frequency
XL
XC
XC and XL
Minimum
Maximum
In phase
Maximum
minimum
Minimum
Maximum
LC circuit as the load
impedance
0.000133A
GROB
Line Current
In phase
Maximum
Tank Circuit
Flywheel Effect
Ringing
WITH
The effect in which the DC component has been inserted into the AC
variations.
The AC component that consists of the variations above and below the
DC axis.
As a common application, __________ always have fluctuating DC
voltage or Current when used from amplifying an AC signal.
Mechanical Filter
Electrical Filter
Inductors and
Capacitors
Separating audio
from radio
frequencies.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Filters
22
Pulsating or
Fluctuating DC
DC Insertion
AC Ripple
Transistor
Transformer with a
separate secondary
winding
Transformer
DC Axis
180 opposite
Capacitor Coupling
Coupling
RC Coupling Circuit
Capacitance
Voltage across CC
The capacitor loses
charge
Bypass
Capacitors
GROB
23
Tuned Circuits
Bandstop Filter
Wavetrap
Series Resonant
Circuit
Parallel Resonant
Circuit
Crystal Filters
Piezoelectric Effect
Lead Titanate
Power Line Filters
Television Antenna
Filter
Semiconductor
Silicon and
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Germanium
SEMICONDUCTORS
Materials that are not as good as the metals as electrical conductors
but they are not insulators.
Electron valence of all semiconductor elements.
Atomic number of silicon.
A combination of atoms sharing groups of valence electrons.
4
14
Covalent Bond
Solid-State
Components
Intrinsic
Sand
1823
1886
Ash of certain coals
Doping
Extrinsic
Semiconductor
Arsenic, Antimony, or
Phosphorus
Boron, Aluminum,
Gallium, or Indium
Hole
Hole Charge
Hole Current
Forward Current or
Easy Current
Reverse Current or
Leakage Current
THE
Semiconductor
________ is an atom, with it nucleus, where the atom has a net charge,
either positive or negative.
PN JUNCTION
_________ provides an internal contact potential, which is 0.7v for silicon
and 0.3v for germanium.
Width of the PN junction.
The combination of opposite charge in the PN junction that is neutral.
External voltage of Silicon
External voltage of Germanium
The barrier voltage is higher for a ____________ because its lower atomic
number allows more stability in the covalent bonds.
_________ of the junction is characteristic of the element.
Because of its neutral electron-hole pairs, the junction area is
considered as ____________. It has no free charge carriers that can be
moved.
Barrier voltage ______ when higher than room temperature is applied.
Connection of wire conductors without any barrier potential.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
A _________ is essentially a PN junction.
The CR stands for ___________ in the schematic diagrams.
________ is the positive side of the diode.
24
Ion
PN junction
10-4 cm
Electron-hole pairs
0.7 V
0.3 V
Silicon Junction
Barrier Voltage (Vb)
Depletion Zone
Decreases
Ohmic Contact
Diode
Crystal Rectifier
Anode
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25
Cathode
Power-Supply
Rectifier
Half-Wave Rectifier
Signal Detector
Digital Logic Gates
Capacitive Diode
(Varactor)
1A
High Current
Ratings.
Bridge Rectifiers
1000 V
1-25 A
Peak Inverse Voltage
(PIV)
Transistor
Supplies free
charges
Controls the flow of
charges
Collects the charges
from the emitter
PNP
NPN
Silicon
Emitter
PNP
Bipolar Junction
Transistors
Collector, base,
emitter
Current-controlled
Triode
Amplifiers
IC chips
1948
Transresistor
Emitter-Base
Junction
Junction Transistor
Collector-Base
Junction
NPN
3-100v
GROB
No majority current
can flow from
collector to base
Emitter
Base
Collector
Electrode Voltage
98-99%
Hole current
IB
IC and IE
Collector
Collector current
Forward voltage
0.5-0.7v
Amplification
Field-Effect
Transistor (FET)
15M
Voltage-controlled
Drain, source, and
gate
Bulk or substrate
Source
Drain
Gate
Source and drain
positive
Insulated-Gate FET
(IGFET)
Electrostatic
induction
Depletion and
enhancement mode
On
Positive gate bias
Negative gate bias
Zero gate current
Junction Field-Effect
Transistor
THYRISTORS
This name is a general term for semiconductor devices like the silicon
26
Thyristors
GROB
controlled rectifier and the triac often used for power-control circuits.
A solid-state electronic switch for high values of current in the range of
amperes.
The name thyristor comes from an older device called a _________,
which is a gas-filled tube formerly used for similar applications.
The thyristor is a __________ device.
Reverse voltage at any junction of thyristor prevents _________ between
the two end terminals
It is a power rectifier device that needs a forward gate voltage to start
conduction. It is considered as a reverse-blocking triode thyristor.
Terminals of SCR.
The triac can supply power to the load for both _________.
27
Thyratron
PNPN
Forward current
Silicon Controller
Rectifier (SCR)
Anode, cathode, and
gate
1-3V
10-20mA
Holding Current
Latching Current
Three
Triac
Half-cycles of the AC
input
Diac
30V
True
Increases
Less than 1 W.
Double-base diode
8-20mA
N
S
Joint Electronic
Device Engineering
Council (JEDEC)
Transistor outline
Heat sink
True
TO-3
200 to 800 mW
1-50 mA
TO-5
5W
2A
10W
4A
25-100 W
5A
PN Junction
Rectification
GROB
28
Varactor
Barrier Voltage
Pico farad
Capacitance
Reverse voltage
LC tuned circuit
Capacitance (CV)
Zener Diode
C.A. Zener
3 to 100 V
Voltage
Avalanche Diode
Esaki Diode
Heavy doping
Tunnel diode
Gallium (Ga)
PN junction
Forward Voltage
1.6 V
20mA
Photocells
Sulfide
Dark Resistance
Mega ohms
Dot Matrix
Digit 8
Dot Matrix Display
35
Font
DIP package
Incandescent
Gas-discharge Tube
Fluorescent
Light-emitting diode
Display
Liquid Crystal
Display
Decoder/drivers
7
GROB
VACUUM TUBES
A ________ has a glass envelope enclosing metal electrodes in a
vacuum.
A ________ is heated to emit electrons.
A ________ is a two-terminal device, since the heater connections are
not considered as electrodes.
In diode tube, the _________ is connected to a power source to heat the
cathode to a high temperature, which emits electrons.
A ________ has three electrodes: cathode, plate, and control-grid
electrode.
The _____ is a fine metal wire wrapped around two supports placed in
the space between the cathode and anode. It connected to a base pin
so that its voltage determines how many electrons can travel from the
cathode to the plate.
For small triode amplifier tubes, typical values of positive plate voltage
are ______.
This tube has an additional grid, resulting in four electrodes.
The ___________ purpose is to screen the plate from the control gird, in
order to reduce the amount of capacitance between the two
electrodes.
The screen grid must have _________ applied.
This tube has one more electrode which is placed between the plate
and the screen grid.
The _________ purpose is to suppress secondary emission form the
plate.
TESTING DIODES, TRANSISTORS, AND THYRISTORS
It can be used to check either for an open circuit or a short circuit.
In an ohmmeter, short indicated practically in ________.
In an ohmmeter, open circuit indicated practically in ________.
When the ratio of reverse to forward resistance is _______, the diode is
probably good.
When both the forward and reverse resistances are very low, close to
zero, the diode junction is ___________.
When _____________ are very high, close to infinite, the diode probably
has an open at the terminal.
When the forward voltage for VBE is 0.6 to 0.7 V, the transistor is
_________.
When the forward voltage for VBE is 0.2 to 0.3 V, the transistor is
_________.
CHAPTER 29: ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Two common types of semiconductor devices that make it possible to
have so many applications of electronics.
One of the main applications of transistors.
A device that increases the magnitude or amplitude of signal variations
to make the desired signal stronger.
Low-frequency AC
signals
False, it must not
use cause it will
damage them.
Vacuum Tube
Cathode
Diode Tube
Heater or filament
Triode Tube
Control Grid
90 to 300 V
Tetrode
Screen Grid
Positive DC voltage
Pentode
Suppressor Grid
Ohmmeter
Zero Ohms
Infinite Ohms
Very High
Short Circuit
Forward and reverse
resistance
Silicon
Germanium
Transistor and
Diodes
Amplifier Circuit
Amplifier
Integrated Circuit
(IC) chip
Discrete Component
29
GROB
30
Analog Circuits
Digital Circuits
Linear
Signal
Analog Signal
Digital Signal
Bit
Word
32
byte
Increase
Gain
Triangle
10 to 2000
Inverter
Current Gain
True
1 to 500
Power Gain
It can drive a load
that requires
appreciable voltage
and current
False, discrete is
higher than the IC
chip
Stage
Cascade
Multiplied
Active device
Passive device
Resistance
Voltage drop
Capacitor
Decreases
Open
To block dc voltage,
couple ac signal, and
bypass the ac signal
around the
components
5F
100pF
GROB
True or false: the oscillator output can generate without using energy.
The _________ means that the AC signal for oscillator feedback must be
in the same phase that an AC input signal would have for amplification.
The ________ results from the two phase reversals of 180 each.
This type of circuit uses a tuning circuit and amplifier which provide
feedback.
The tuned circuit is often called a ________ because it stores energy.
In the oscillator circuit, the capacitor is the tuning capacitor which is
use to _________.
These are named for the inventors of the two main types of circuits for
an RF feedback oscillator.
In this type of circuit, the feedback is provided by a tapped coil which
serves as an AC voltage divider for the output voltage and feedback
signal.
In this type of circuit, similar results are obtained with a capacitive
voltage divider.
In this type of circuit, a piezoelectric crystal is used as a resonant
circuit.
The __________ means the crystal can vibrate mechanically when
excited electrically and produce AC voltage output.
Typical values of resonant frequency of crystal oscillators.
31
Inductor
Increases
High impedance
Resonant circuits
20 to 20,000 Hz
50 to 15,000 Hz
100 to 3,000 Hz
MF, HF, VHF, and UHF
635 to 1605 kHz
88 to 108 MHz
6 MHz
LC circuits
Wideband Amplifier
Sensitivity
Selectivity
Oscillation
Swinging Pendulum
Oscillator
False, it cannot
generate
Positive polarity
Positive feedback
Tuned RF feedback
Oscillators
Tank Circuit
Set the frequency of
the oscillator output.
Hartley and Colpitts
Oscillators
Hartley Circuit
Colpitts Circuit
Crystal Oscillators
Piezoelectric effect
0.5 to 30 MHz
Very high Q which
results in good
frequency stability
RC feedback
Oscillators
20Hz to 200kHz
GROB
32
Multivibrator (MV)
Reference clock
Relaxation Oscillator
True
Pulse Generator
Conduction
Cutoff Voltage
Low
Astable Multivibrator
Bistable
Multivibrator
Triggering
Flip-flop
Monostable or Oneshot Multivibrator
Modulation
AM and FM
Higher
RF carrier wave
Baseband signal
Audio signal
Video signal
Peak-to-peak
amplitude,
instantaneous
frequency, and phase
angle
Amplitude
Modulation
Nonlinear
Amplification
RF peak-to-peak
amplitude
Modulation envelope
True
10kHz
5kHz
GROB
50 to 5000 Hz
6MHz
54-60MHz
0 to 4 MHz
A modulated signal needs more bandwidth than the carrier wave itself
because ___________.
Equal
88-108 MHz
200kHz or 0.2MHz
Phase Modulation
Equivalent FM or
Indirect FM
Frequency
Modulation
33
RF carrier frequency
Good frequency
stability.
Pulse Modulation
PAM, PFM, PWM,
PCM
The carrier power is
on for only the time
of the pulses.
Greater bandwidth
Open
Conventional current
or electron flow
Diode
Anode
The anode is
negative
Commutating
DC power supply
One
Resistor
Filters
Output resistor
GROB
The DC output voltage may be higher than the RMS value of the AC
input voltage because ______________.
Hum
No DC output and
Insufficient DC
output
Amplifier
AC signals
Circuit Configuration
Common Electrode
True
Common-Emitter
Common-Base
The common-base circuit has no current gain from the input to output
because ______________.
Collector current
must be less than
emitter current.
Common-Emitter
34
Collector current is
much larger than
base current.
Reverse leakage
current
Common-emitter
amplifier
Common-collector
The output signal
provides negative
feedback to the base
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input.
Emitter-follower
Impedance matching
Darlington Pair
Percentage of the
input signal
DC bias compared to
cutoff value and the
peak AC signal
compare with DC
bias.
Power efficiency and
distortion
Class A
False, It never cut-off
Class B
Output current then
is zero.
True
Half-wave
rectification
Class C
Tuned RF power
amplifiers
Lowest
5 to 10
20 to 40%
80%
Class C
Class A
RF stage
Class A
Push-pull amplifier
LC circuit
35
Output current is
very low compared
with the peak signal
amplitude.
Pulse clipper circuit
Tenths of a volt
0.6 to 0.7 V
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silicon.
The required bias at the base for a class A amplifier is _________ for
germanium.
A __________ means that the amplifier conducts current of 360 of the
signal cycle for minimum distortion.
The maximum AC input signal without overload distortion.
Without any forward bias, a junction transistor is cut off by __________.
The __________ is the lowest VBE that allows appreciable collector
current.
The __________ is the highest VBE that allows it to produce proportional
changes in collector current.
True or false: at saturation, the maximum collector current does
increase with an increase of forward voltage.
The transistor amplifier itself is usually labeled ________.
True or false: one supply voltage is used for both collector and base in
the common-emitter circuit.
The signal changes in _________ produce variations in the voltage drop
across the collector load for the output circuit.
In signal analysis of the common-emitter circuit, positive signal voltage
in the forward direction __________ the base current.
True or false: the base bias produces the required collector current with
the specified RL.
Each of the cascaded amplifiers increases the __________ enough to
drive the next stage.
COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
The _________ shows the volt-ampere characteristics for the collector
and also provided by the manufacturer in a transistor manual or
application notes.
For the common-emitter circuit, the collector curves are for different
values of __________.
For common-base circuit, the collector curves are for different values of
__________.
For more collector current, the transistor needs more ________.
This specification for a junction transistor indicates the amount of
current gain in the common-emitter circuit.
The symbol _________ is used to denote the DC supply voltage for the
emitter.
36
0.2 to 0.3 V
Class A operation
0.1 V
Barrier potential
Cut-in voltage
Saturation voltage
False, it doesnt
increase
Q
True
Collector current (iC)
Increase
True
Signal current
Characteristic curve
Base current
Emitter current
Base current
Beta ()
characteristic
False, because it is a
ratio of two currents.
Alpha ()
characteristic
Average DC values
The supply voltage
that does not
change.
VEE
Instantaneous value
that vary with
fluctuating DC
waveform
AC waveform
RMS value of the AC
component
ICBO
Hybrid parameters
Common-source
GROB
transistors. With an FET, the input signal is applied to the gate which is
the control electrode. Amplified output signal is taken from the drain.
The source is the common electrode
In this circuit, the input signal is applied to the source, with output from
the drain.
In this circuit, the input signal is applied to the gate, with output from
the source.
Common-drain circuit is named ________, corresponding to the emitter
follower with junction transistors.
The circuit configuration used most often for FET amplifiers.
This factor is important for the FET because it specifies how the gate
voltage controls the drain current.
The unit of gm because it is a ratio of current over voltage.
The ______ indicates a mutual conductance relation of how the effect of
the input voltage at the gate is transferred to the output current in the
drain current.
TYPES OF DISTORTIONS
The __________ has been introduced in the amplifier when the waveform
of the amplified output signal is not exactly the same as that of the
input signal.
The _________ is produced by operating the amplifier over the nonlinear
part of the transfer characteristic of the amplifier.
This distortions occurs when the input signal or drive is excessive
Any _________ in a class A amplifier is a measure of the amount of
amplitude distortion.
The change of the relative amplitudes is the same as introducing
harmonic components not present in the input signal.
A ___________ is composed of a fundamental sine wave at the same
frequency plus odd-harmonic frequency components.
Typical values of harmonic distortion at full power output.
The effect which results in harmonics introduced in the amplifier can
combine with each other or with original frequencies to produce new
frequencies that are not harmonics of the fundamental.
____________ is the reason for the rough, unpleasant sound of amplitude
distortion, because that distortion is not harmonically related to the
signal.
The distortion that results when the gain of the amplifier varies with
frequency.
The uniform gain at the center of the curve.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
___________ means coupling part of the amplified output signal back to
the input.
The result when the feedback is in phase with the input signal.
Positive feedback is used in _________.
The result when the feedback is out-of- phase with the input signal.
The amount of feedback is determined by __________ which is also can
vary the feedback for different frequencies.
The amount of amplifier gain with feedback.
The amount of amplifier gain without feedback.
The reason why negative feedback reduces distortion is because
___________.
circuit
Common-gate circuit
Common-drain circuit
Source follower
Common-source
Transconductance
(gm)
Siemens
gm
Distortion
Amplitude distortion
Overload distortion
Shift of DC level
Harmonic distortion
Square Wave
1to 5%
Intermodulation
distortion
Intermodulation
Frequency distortion
Flat response
Feedback
Positive feedback
Oscillator circuits.
Negative feedback
Feedback network
Closed-loop gain
Open-loop gain
There is partial
cancellation of the
out-of-phase signals
It involves circuits that operate using only two voltage levels for all
input and output signals.
The two voltage levels most commonly used in digital electronics.
37
Digital Electronics
0 and 5 v
GROB
38
Logic Gates
Combinational logic
circuits and
sequential logic
circuits
Combinational logic
circuits
Sequential logic
circuits
Logic gates
Flip-flop
Base or radix
10
2
Decimal
Binary
True
Bit
Nibble
Byte
Least significant
digit (LSD)
Most significant digit
(MSD)
Double-dabble
Hexadecimal
Numbers
0-9
A-F
Hex-dabble
Chunking
Binary coded decimal
system (BCD)
9
BCD number system
ASCII Code
Binary code
7-bit binary word
X6
GROB
1010111
Logic Gate
Truth table
Inverters
Inversion
2N
OR Gate
AND Gate
NOR Gate
NAND Gate
XOR Gate
XNOR Gate
Boolean algebra
X=
Inversion or
complementing
Opposite state
OR addition
AND operation
39
Demorgans Theorem
Active high
Active low
Bubble
Active high
GROB
Active low
VCC (+5V)
High
The output would
always be low.
Ground
The output will
remain high.
Inverters
Transistor-transistor
Logic (TTL)
Digital family
Digital IC
Bipolar and MOS
technology
Bipolar technology
MOS technology
Bipolar technology
MOS technology
True
MOS technology
7400 series
Quad 2-input NAND
gate
Hex inverter
Three, 3-input NOR
gates
+5V
Totem-pole output
Low input
High input
Worst case input
voltages
Fan-out
0 to 70 C
4.5 - 5.5 V
-55 to 125C
MOSFET
Slower switching
speed and extreme
sensitivity to ESD
Disadvantages of MOS.
40
GROB
CMOS
True
P-channel and Nchannel
enhancement types
4000 series
3-15 V
Logic gate
Minterm Boolean
expression
41
NAND gates
Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU)
Half adder
Full adder
Flip-flop
True
Binary information
Digital memory
circuits
RS flip-flop
Q=1 and Q=0
Q=0 and Q=1
Pull-down resistors
500
Pull-up resistors
Clocked RS flip-flop
Clock voltage
Clock input signal
D-type flip-flop
Clock
JK flip-flop
Inactive
Binary counter
Binary counters
Four JK flip-flop
Ripple counter
Modulus
Buffer register
Memory circuit
GROB
AND
1
&
Logic probe
Logic pulsers
Logic analyzer
Current tracer
Integrated Circuits
Digital IC
Linear IC
False, there are lowpower devices.
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Operational Amplifier
(Op amp)
741
Push-pull
Very low output
impedance
Compensating
capacitor
30pF
Triangle
+VCC
Pin 4
Pin 2 and 3
Op amp output
Open-loop voltage
gain AVOL
Output voltage to its
differential input
voltage
200,000
Negative
Positive saturation
voltage
Negative saturation
voltage
42
GROB
If the output voltage of any op amp lies between positive and negative
saturation voltage, then the differential input voltage can be
considered as ________.
Typical input bias current of 741 op amp.
The difference between the current flowing for the non-inverting
terminal and the current flowing from the inverting input terminal.
Typical input offset current of 741 op amp.
The frequency where gain of open-loop equals to 1.
Unity frequency of 741 is approximately ________.
The ___________ tells how fast the output voltage can change.
43
Zero
80nA
Input offset current
20nA
Unity frequency
1MHz
Slew rate
Volts per
microsecond
0.5V/s
Triangular wave
Slew rate distortion
Power bandwidth
25mA
Common mode
rejection ratio
(CMRR)
90dB
Negative
Negative feedback
Inverting amplifier
Resistors RF and Ri
Non-inverting
amplifier
In phase
Voltage follower
Buffer
Thermal shutdown
100mA 3A
LM340 series
2-3V
LM317
555 timers
5-18V
Monostable (one
shot) multivibrator
True
Astable multivibrator
GROB
applied.
-end(GROB Basic Electronics)
44