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Summary Introduction To Offshore Engineering Oe4606 Complete Lecture 1 16
Summary Introduction To Offshore Engineering Oe4606 Complete Lecture 1 16
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Fatigue
o Repair
o Failure
Response = output, load = action
Tendons= to hang things on
LNG= liquefied natural gas
CNG= compressed natural gas
Waves create responses
o Motions
o Responses
A physical quantity, such as motion, can be either load or response depending on considered
system
Static: s*x=P(t)
Kinematic: d*(dx/dt)+ s*x=P(t)
Dynamic: m*(dx/dt)+ d*(dx/dt)+ s*x=P(t)
o m= mass, d=damping, s=stiffness
Given loads can be classified as either static or dynamic depending on the system they act on. A
given system responds statically or dynamically depending on the loads acting on it
Loads
- Dead loads
o Gravity loads
Weight of structure
Weight of permanent equipment
Permanent ballast
Weight of tendons
o Hydrostatic loads
Hydrostatic pressures
Buoyancy force
Tendons pre-tension forces
- Live loads
o Gravity loads
Weight of non-permanent equipment
Oil, LNG, CNG, Fuel, Consumables
Crew
Furniture
o Operating loads
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Wind loading
- Important
o Wind, waves & current define jointly the direction of loads on weathervaning offshore
structures
- Load combinations
o Sustained wind and extreme waves
o Gust wind only
Wave loading
- Hydrodynamically compact e.g. ship like structures
o Loads are produced by diffracted waves
- Hydrodynamically transparent e.g. jacket structures
o Flow loads Morisons equation
Quiz:
o
The wave pressures used for stress analysis of ships hull are
Quasi-static
Acceleration is too slow to be dynamic
Morisonsequation: approximation
Is this monopile hydrodynamical
Depends on diameter/wave length ratio
Marine growth: close to the equator
o Weight
o Drag force
Punished twice
What is the temperature of LNG under 1 bar?
-160 C
Below 0, cold, think liquid nitrogen
Where do you keep it in the ship
o Calculation shrink coefficient 10^-5: steel
o Steel will break isolate ship
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Sloshing
- Moves the liquid heats the walls of the tank high pressures can destroy the membrane
- Facts about sloshing
o LNG carriers in operation since 1964
o About 350 ships built
o No accident
o We design, build, classify and operate
o Shell is building 3 billion US$ FLNG
- How to mitigate sloshing
o Prevent sloshing conditions
o Increase load carrying capacity
o Mitigate sloshing effects
o Reduce uncertainties
Quiz
- The maximum average impact pressure is with decreasing impact area? ^
o Increasing
- With increasing maximum average impact pressure the average rise time is
o Decreasing
Examples of hull loads
- Static (hours)
o Weight
o Hydrostatic pressures
o Thermal loading
- Quasi-static (seconds)
o Wave induced pressures
o Motion induced pressures
o Inertia forces due to motions
- Dynamic (milliseconds)
o Slamming
o Propeller induced pressures and vortices
o Explosions
FPSO as a beam
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Quiz:
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Welding
Fatigue general
- Damage =(stress range)
- Damage = number of stress cycles
- 20 years = 100 millions of wave (stress) cycles
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Damage is cumulative
Moderate stresses cycles are important
In general, fatigue capacity of structural details does not depend on steel grade and yield stress
Fatigue damage
- Miners rule
- After 24 years fatigue damage of FLNG=0.5 double stresses
o How many years can she operate now?
3 years
Design tips for structured details
- Avoid stress concentrations no stiffness jumps
- Place welds away of stress concentration areas
- Use adequate class of details
- Consider weld dressing
- Protect against corrosion
Conclusion
- You know how to calculate fatigue lifetime of a structural detail when fatigue loading is known
What is
- Fatigue loading
- Fatigue capacity
- Fatigue damage
- Fatigue lifetime : design lifetime / D
o D= damage
Rule of miner
D=ni/Ni
- Fatigue design criterion
Summary
- Select detail
- Select appropriate SN-curve
- Define fatigue loading
- Calculate fatigue capacity
- Apply the rule of Miner
- Calculate fatigue lifetime
Exercise 1: calculate fatigue lifetime
- Follow the summary ^
Fatigue loading
o Fatigue induced by quasi-static wave action depends mainly on moderate sea states
non-linear response is less relevant
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Cabinet
o Wind sensor
o DGPS
o LBSGs
o Strain gauges
o FDSs
o Motion sensor
o Level gauge
o Wave buoy
Benefits of Octopus-Monitas
- Shows, explains and advises on
fatigue integrity of FPSOs.
It explains reasons for potential
deviation of the actual fatigue
consumption from design predictions
and translates the monitoring data
into operational guidance and advice
in an easily understandable format.
- Prevents loss of production
- Prevents unexpected damage
- More time for corrective measures
- Rational lifetime extension
- Feedback to design
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Historical perspective
- Oil and natural gas production began in the arctic in the 1920s. By the 1960s large reserves had
been discovered on Alaskas North Slope, in the Mackenzie Delta, Canada, and in several regions
of Siberia.
- The completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) in 1977 made production viable in
the Prudhoe Bay area in the US.
- Today , oil and gas acticity is widely distributed around the states that border the arctic
Oil and gas resources of the Arctic
- Among the greatest uncertainties in future energy supply and a subject of considerable
environmetal concern is the amount of oil and gas yet to be found in the Arctic
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By using a probabilistic geology based methodology, the United States Geological Survey has
assessed the are north of the Arctic Circle and concluded that about 30% of the worlds
undiscovered gas and 13% of the worlds undiscovered oil may be found there, mostly offshore
under less than 500 m of water. Undiscovered natural gas is three times more abundant than oil
in the Arctic and is largely concentrated in Russia.
Undiscovered oil
- More than 70% thought to occur in 5 provinces
Undiscovered gas
More than 70% in 3 provinces
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Salt has little pockets pockets melt away over time there is no salt pure ice
The colder the ice, the stronger it is
o At the top there is less salt and colder stronger
Ice regimes, Canadian Arctic
- Ice types depend very much on region, distance from shore, and water depth
- This ice regime is typical for the Canadian (and US) Beaufort Sea
Level ice
- Sea ice of fairly uniform ice thickness, usually land fast
- Depending on location, level ice can grow up to 2.5 m or more
First-year ridge section
-
Icebergs
- Floating remnants of
glacial ice broken away
from glaciers and ice shelves
- Iceberg classification
o Growlers (sail < 1.5m)
o Bergy bits (sail 1.5 to 5 m, mass < 5400 t)
o Small bergs (sail 5 to 15 m, mass 5400 to 180,000 t)
o Medium bergs (sail 15 to 45 m, mass 180,000 to 2,000,000 t)
o Large bergs (mass > 2,000,000 t)
Sea ice extent
-
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Strength profile
- An ice sheet is coldest at the surface and its temperature increases up to the freezing point at its
bottom. Due to the temperature profile in the ice, the ice is strong at the top and weaker at the
bottom.
- The salinity and porosity profiles over the depth of an ice sheet change depending on age. In
young ice, the salinity profile is almost constant, while the salinity for older ice increases with
depth. Nevertheless, the porosity profile is reasonably constant and therefore hardly has an
influence on the strength profile.
How do some physical properties effect strength
- Decrease of temperature yields an increase of density, causing the ice to be stronger.
- Salinity, together with temperature, determines the brine volume and this largely influences the
porosity
- An increase of salinity yields a larger brine volume and thus a higher porosity
- An increase of porosity directly causes the ice to be weaker
Ice interaction with structures
- Crushing and bending main failure models usually considered
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Failure mechanisms
- ^
Compressive action
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The ice deformation is governed by the power-law creep equation where the force between the
ice and the structure is proportional to the 1/n power of the relative velocity, where n is the
exponent in the power law and is approximately 3.
Buckling loads
- If the ice is thin, it buckles under the edge loads applied by contact with a structure.
- If the loading is rapid enough for the deformation to be essentially elastic, the relevant solid
mechanics model is a thin elastic plate on a linear Winkler foundation.
- Elastic buckling is likely to be the governing mode only when the ice is rather thin, usually in the
order of 0.4 m.
- Creep buckling is generally associated with rather slow loading processes, and is unlikely ever
to constitute the design condition for
offshore structures
Evidence from measurements
- This figure is a version of the famous
Sanderson pressure-area diagram.
- It plots observed ice force per unit area
against contact area, in this instance both on
logarithmic scales.
Pressure area data sets
- The first tests on ice-structure interaction are
represented by the group of points to the left of the diagram, marked lab.
- They were on laboratory- scale systems, in which sheets of ice were pushed against rigid
rectangular and circular indenters.
- A typical indenter width was 50 mm. Those tests determined a contact force per unit area, and
that force per unit area could be compared with a compressive strength measured in a
conventional compression test on a cube or a cylinder.
- The next tests (field) were on a larger scale, in the Arctic and much more difficult and
expensive to carry out.
- Square blocks of ice were cut from floating sea ice, and loaded by platens driven by hydraulic
jacks. In a typical test the ice was 1 m thick, the floating block was 5 m square, and the platen
was 150 mm wide.
- The force per unit area was somewhat lower than in the series 1 tests. That could be attributed
to variation of ice properties through the ice thickness, variation of temperature, and eccentric
loading: all those influences were indeed present.
- The next important step forward was made possible by an ice/structure interaction that Nature
generously carries out, on a much larger scale than human beings could possibly arrange.
- Hans Island lies in the Kennedy Channel between Greenland and Canada. It is about 1700 m long
and 1300 m across.
- In July the sea ice breaks up further north, and large multi-year ice floes, sometimes 5000 m
across, drift down the channel.
- The force between the floe and the island decelerates the floe. A helicopter can land on the floe
before it hits the island and install an accelerometer, and the accelerometer measures the
deceleration.
- Simple observations and calculations then give estimates of contact area and loads.
Final pressure- area curve
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Crushing loads
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Positioning by DP
o >1986, Lorelay
History of pipelines
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Multiple products
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Start-up methods
- Landfall or shore pull
- Start-up anchor
- Start-up pile
- Pull-in to platform
- Start-up structures
- Direct hang-off on platform
Hand-over of first-end steel catenary riser
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Midline tie-in
Subsea tie-in
Saipem CastorOne
o S-lay type
o J-lay tower
o Diameters up to 60-inch
o Triple Joint Factory
o 330 m length (450 m incl. stinger)
o 720 personnel on board
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1943 1st subsea completion (Lake Erie, USA, 9.1 m water depth)
1961 1st subsea well completed in Gulf of Mexico by Shell (15.2 m WD)
1967 1st diver-less subsea completion.
2004 Shell Coulomb: 2,225 m WD, deepest subsea tieback (gas)
2005 BP Thunderhorse: 1859 m WD, deepest subsea tieback (oil)
2006 Statoil Hydro Ormen Lange: 160 km, longest subsea tie-back
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Safety
Solutions which improve recovery from the reservoirs
Tie-backs of small reservoirs/marginal fields into existing facilities
Technology which permits long tie-backs to land
Equipment to unlock ultra-deep water reserves
Subsea wells:
o Can be placed outside the effective drilling reach of existing platforms.
o Higher flexibility with respect to well locations and future expansion.
o Can usually be installed faster than the construction time for a platform.
o Surface facilities may be less expensive or completely avoided.
Financial implications
o Flow assurance problems can be costly (hydrates, wax, sand, etc.).
o Subsea wells cost more to drill, complete and work over.
o Operating costs are higher per well.
o Less reserves are recovered before reaching economic limit.
o Compared to dry wellheads, the access to a subsea well is expensive.
Time demanding
Complex planning
Visibility
Illumination
Maneuverability
Subsea structures
- Subsea wellhead
o Structure placed on the seabed to provide the structural and pressure-containing
interface for drilling and production equipment.
o Typically welded onto the first string of casing to form an integral structure of the well.
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Templates
o A subsea template is a large steel structure which is used as a base for various subsea
structures such as wells and subsea trees and manifolds.
Blowout preventer
o While drilling a well, surface pressure control is provided by a blowout preventer (BOP),
located directly at the wellhead and consisting of several independently operating shutoff valves, each of a different design. If the pressure is not contained by the column of
drilling mud, casings, wellhead and BOP, a well blowout can occur.
Xmas tree
o The set of (control) valves, pressure gauges, spools,
fittings and chokes assembled at the top of a well
to control the flow of oil and gas
after the well has been drilled and completed.
o Surface (dry) Xmas tree
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Manifolds
o Manifolds are used to commingle the flow from adjacent
subsea wells (clustered around the parent manifold) into
flow line headers.
Composed of pipes, valves and control equipment
Usually mounted on a template
Often have a protective structure covering them
Wells sometimes drilled through a common
template structure.
Subsea processing systems
o Extraction and transport of hydrocarbons
o Removal of water and re-injection into drained wells
o Single and multi-phase boosting of well fluids
o Solid (mostly mud) and gas and liquid hydrocarbon separation
o Gas treatment, compression and onward transportation
Pipeline End Terminations and Manifolds
o Connection point between pipeline and subsea structures or flow lines
PLET Pipeline End Termination
Single hub/flange/connector & single valve
PLEM Pipeline End Manifold
Two or more hubs/flanges & two or more valves
Jumpers
o Jumpers are used to connect subsea wells to manifolds and to connect manifolds and
riser bases to flow lines.
Umbilicals
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Subsea tree and manifold enclosed within protective cocoon structure (~9 m tall)
Pre-cast structures
Concrete mattresses
Rock dumping
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Jetting
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Mechanical cutting
Ploughing
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Early theories
It was taken into account that the inflow is not just a reverse jet but an axially
symmetric inward injection that is accompanied by the depressurization at the inlet
o A very important idea.. but a wrong conclusion, as pA=-MU the centrifugal force is zero
and no instability is possible
Reason to doubt
Model
Experiment at TUD
At velocities higher than a critical pipe was observed to perform intermittent unstable
vibrations
o Smaller pipe, velocity 6.9 m/s
Explanation of instability
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Actual design
o Riser bundle
o A shell: a bundle of risers connected to each other
Model
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Instability
Explanation of instability
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Energy exchange
More applications?
o Flow can be used to stabilize the riser during installation
Ice loads
o Main regimes according to ISO
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Desirable model
o A theory of ice-induced vibration based on the idea of frequency and amplitude
dependent added mass and added damping
Nonexistent as yet
Phenomenological modeling
o Empirico-Phenomenological model of ice-induced vibration
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The predictions are reasonable but these are too sensitive to the uncertain
parameters such as the viscous damping in the undamaged ice sheet
By TUD
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Modeling
First phase: bending up to the failure
Second phase: pushing the broken off piece away and reloading the buoy
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Modelling
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Fundamentals
Measurements
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Physics
Modelling
Equation of motion of the structure
Oscillator
Tuning parameters
Model vs experiments
TUD model
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Power generation
Exam questions
- Offshore structures will be approximated by SDOF systems
- Natural frequency, effect of damping, resonance, energy, the dynamic amplification factor
- Understanding of the effect of damping, stiffness and mass on various dynamic effects
- Simple degree of freedom system
- What happens with the natural frequency if you reduce the wall thickness
o W=
Increase weight, frequency increase/decreases
Why does it decrease with 3
o Weight up
more compression
may lead to buckling
Natural frequency =0
What are the damping mechanisms: which lead to reduction of frequencies?
Platform types
- Caission Structure
Singe well
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Gulf of Mexico
>1500 caisson structures mostly in GoM
Not normally manned
Water depth <30 m
Monotower
Wellhead jacket
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o 480
o Drilling over pearl wellhead jacket
Semisubmersible drilling unit
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220
Hurricanes
- Katrina august 2005
o 45 failures FP
- Rita sept 2005
o 74 failures FP
Change in design load over time North sea and GoM
Old platforms in GoM fail because actual load exceeds design load (x2), not because they
deteriorate
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Cost-Risk trade-off: Total jacket cost = Cost + Risk of failure = Cost + Pf(Service Life)*Loss
Target Pf=5*10^-4/year (RP=2000 years) is appropriate for new L-2 installation
What is appropriate target safety level for L-1 permanently manned installations?
- Potential for loss of lie is major consideration in addition to loss of asset and environmental
release.
- Ensure that targets for extreme storm risk dovetail well with regulatory requirements for storm
risk & overall risk to personnel (Pf <10^-4)
- Ensure that recourses to improve safety are used in the most effective manner considering
relative difficulty of reducing each risk ALARP principle (As Low As Reasonably Practicable)
- Based on above considerations
o Extreme storm target Pf=3*10^-5/year (RP=33000 years) for L-1 installations
Design standards and safety levels for fixed platforms
Exposure level
API RP 2A defines L-1, L-2, L-3 levels and provides performance requirements for each level
ISO also defines L-1, L-2, L-3 but provides different performance standards from those in API
o Different target reliabilities different action factors, RSRs, deck elevation
Safety levels achieved by
- API RP 2A steel platforms
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Reasons for high failure rate of modus (jack ups & semis)
- Difficulty to maintain well control in exploration wells blow out risk
- Punch through risk of jack ups difficult to manage
- Every jack up move needs to be assessed like a new installation time, data & effort
- Lack of uniform industry standards on location assessments
o Return period= 5, 10, 50, 100 year
o Warranty surveyor rules not uniform
- Tow risk of jack ups
- Shell has spent considerable effort since 1990 to improve industry practices with MODUs
Conclusions for MODUs (jack ups & semis)
- Failure rate of MODUs continues to be too high
- Accidents with MODUs are not restricted to GoM hurricane failures only
- Blow-out, punch through risk and tow risk are global risks
o Tend to result in loss of life
- Careful location assessment for every MODU move needed to improve safety
- Location assessment should be based on 50 year return period environmental conditions as per
new ISO 19905 (jack ups)
Fire & explosion risk on production platforms
- Piper Alpha accident in 1988, UK N Sea resulted in 167 fatalities
- Hydrocarbon release led to fire
- Gas riser rupture led to significant escalation
- Key lessons learnt
o Systematic evaluation of process related risks
o Mandatory use of ESD valves
o Living Quarters should function as safe refuge (rated for fire, explosions, smoke)
o Goal setting philosophy to reduce risks to As Low As Reasonably Practicable (ALARP)
Major industry disasters
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What is a hazard?
Something with potential to do harm (e.g. earthquake, gas release)
o What is consequence?
(e.g. earthquake leading to platform loss)
o What is risk?
Frequency x consequence
Asset Integrity Process Safety Management
o Design Integrity:
We design and build so that process safety risks are as low as reasonably
practicable
o Technical & Operating Integrity:
We prevent process safety incidents by maintaining our hardware barriers and
by working within the operational barriers
o Integrity Leadership:
Leaders play an important role in avoiding process safety incidents and must
demonstrate visible and felt leadership in the field
o Overall:
Know your role
Know your barriers and controls
Measures of risk and risk tolerability (ALARP)
Risk to people
IRPA = Individual Risk Per Annum
TRIF= TR Impairment Frequency (yr)
PLL = Potential Loss of Life
o Risk to asset
$= asset damage (risked, i.e. freq*damage)
o Risk to environment
Emissions
Discharges
o Risk may be tolerated if further risk reduction is impractical or if cost or effort is grossly
disproportionate to the benefit gained
Demonstration of ALARP
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Concluding remarks
- Fixed steel platforms outside GoM have shown extremely good reliability (0 failures in 70,000 plyrs)
o Legacy issues with old GoM platforms
- New fixed steel structures designed to ISO 19902 achieve :
o Exposure L-1: Target Pf=3*10-5/yr (Pf=1 in 33,000yrs)
o Exposure L-2: Target Pf=5*10-4/yr (Pf=1 in 2,000yrs)
- Some integrity issues with Floating Systems in all regions
o Especially moorings, risers, hull cracking, corrosion
- Significant integrity issues with MODUs (jack ups, semis)
o Focus on well integrity, tow, punch-through, location assessments
o Industry harmonization
- Ensure learnings from major incidents are not forgotten
o Basic requirements (mandatory)
- Carry out systematic safety assessments - HEMP
o Understand risks and implement measures to reduce to ALARP
- Consistent messages that safety is top priority
- A successful project is a safe project
- Safety is not an after-thought it is our responsibility as engineers
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Permanently moored for around 20-25 years before needing to dock for inspection and
overhaul
o 50 million liters of cold water will be drawn from the ocean every hour to help cool the
natural gas
Basin test
o Even the scale of FLNG models used for lab and field-scale trials have broken records:
the FLNG facility model is more than 8 meters long and weighs around 4.5 tons.
Do not look at todays market, but at the market in about 3 to 5 years from now
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Local Infrastructure
o Supply of goods, storage on the unit, accommodation
- Rules & Regulations?
Structure types
- What main structure types can be identified in the offshore?
o Bottom Founded Structures (BFS)
o Floating Offshore Structure (FOS)
o Hybrid Offshore Structures (HOS)
Structure type selection
- Mobility, speed, DWT and motion behavior
- Two options: same size hull but unequal displacement
o Slender:
High speed (at same power)
Low carrying capacity
Motions poor (roll)
Less stability
More green water
o Full:
Low speed (at same power)
High carrying capacity
Motions good
Increased stability
Less green water
o To have the best of both options the ship is to be increased (also increased steel and
power requirements) mobility influences costs (with sufficient funding you can
construct anything)
- Structures vs waterdepth
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7. Infrastructure Fixation
8. Infrastructure Support Services
9. Transport to/from Field (Structures & Goods)
1. Renewable Energies (windfarms, current and wave energy)
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7. Infrastructure Fixation
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Heuristic approach
o single degree of freedom, heave (x):
o
o
How to interpret m, k and f initially?
o k =Archimedes law, hydrostatic stiffness
o f = Hydrodynamic interaction: integral of the pressures over the hull
o m =Mass of the floater
But the force f is the result of incoming and diffracted waves as well as the motion of the body,
how to capture that ?
A simplified approach
o Transfer to frequency domain
o
o
o
We still have the problem that the force F is a result of the waves and the motion of the
body; let us split the dynamics in two cases
Pressure variation by incoming and diffracted waves onto the fixed body
Moving body in otherwise still water
The theory used to calculate describes the water is using harmonic functions
Incoming and diffracted waves lead to a frequency dependent Fwave()
Body motions in still water
Potential theory is used to calculate
A frequency dependent Fwave() : forces by incoming and diffracted waves
Frequency dependent added mass A () and damping C () leading to:
Still one step to go, we want to relate wave forces to wave height:
In which H is a transfer function depending on frequency and wave direction a and Z the
surface elevation
The result is the 6-dof equation of motion in the frequency domain:
Assumptions:
Velocity field can be described potentials (no viscosity)
Mathematical simplifications (linearization) based on small motion amplitudes
and low waves
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Wave spectrum
Wave diffraction
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Hull types
- Barge (non-self-propelled, can be HOS)
o Transport, launch, exploration &
production
Derrick barge
(=kraanschip)
Pipe lay barge
Accommodation barge
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Ship
Exploration, Production, construction, pipe lay, surf, survey, servicing & supply,
support
o Advantages
Construction costs
Many yards / docks
Speed
Deadweight
o Disadvantages
Stability?
(Roll) Motion?
Hull deflection
Catamaran
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Advantages
Twin hulls (repeat build)
Large deck area
Stability
Shallow draft
o Disadvantages
Not many yards / docks
Cross loads in seas
Construction costs
Motion behavior (roll)
Semi-submersible
Spar
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Production platform
Advantages
Simple Shape
Motion behavior (extremely limited heave)
Dry production trees
Disadvantages
Complex Installation
VIVs: vortex induced vibrations
Weight sensitivity / stability
Restricted topsides
TLP
Production platform
Advantages
Configurations
Suppressed motions
Deep water
o Disadvantages
Complex Installation
Expensive
Weight sensitivity / Deadweight capacity
No storage capacity
Jack up & SIP
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Slow transfer
Maintenance costs
SWATH
Installation vessel
Advantages
Fast: short transit time
Motion behavior?
Stability?
o Disadvantages
Limited payload
Sensitive to weight variation
Wind moment aspects (sailing)
IPFS: used for heavy lifting
CSD: Cutting Suction Dredges
o
Fixed platform (FP) consists of a jacket or tower (a tall vertical section made of tubular steel
members supported by piles driven into the seabed) with a deck placed on top, providing space
for crew quarters, a drilling rig, and production facilities. The fixed platform is economically
feasible for installation in water depths up to 450 m.
Compliant Tower (CT) consists of a narrow, flexible tower and a piled foundation that can
support a conventional deck for drilling and production operations. Unlike the fixed platform,
the compliant tower withstands large lateral forces by sustaining significant lateral deflections,
and is normally used in water depths between 1,000 and 2,000 feet (300 m - 600m).
SPAR, Anchored semi-sub, FPSO, Subsea systems
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Function
Degree of permanency
Material
Type of foundation
Load carrying mechanism
Temporary structures
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Jack up (drilling)
Installation
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Concrete GBS
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Jacket
o Jacket is fixed structure with leg piles and axial force transfer from the structure and
topsides into the piles at the top of the structure. The jacket provides support for the
foundation piles, conductors, risers, and other appurtenances.
Jacket-pile foundation
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Structural interaction
- Interaction: topsides substructure foundation
Hydrodynamic loads
Soil-pile interaction
Substructure
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For hydrodynamic load calculation use Morison equation and the hydrodynamic model of the
structure to calculate drag and inertial loads.
Select appropriate wave theory to calculate water particle kinematics
Add current velocity profile and wave particle velocity profile for drag load calculation.
Note that drag and inertia loading are out of phase
For extreme wave load conditions for steel jackets and towers, the hydrodynamic drag loading
term is often much larger than inertial load.
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Cost savings
- Reduction of
o Wave & current loading
o Jacket steel weight
o Pile weight
o Jacket anode weight
o Installation time
o Etc.
Questions you may ask yourselves regarding design of BFOS
- What is the difference between a jacket and a tower type offshore support structure?
o We looked at the loads in a steel frame and compared the leg loads.
- Are the foundation loads at seabed different when comparing a tower and a jacket?
- Are the loads in the diagonal braces the same when comparing a tower and jacket?
- How do we determine the deck elevation for a BFOS?
- Why must the deck level be above wave crest level and what could happen to the platform if the
deck is too low?
- What will be the deck elevation for given waterdepth, wave height, subsidence, etc.?
- Why is a structural bracing frame of a steel jacket/tower configured of triangles?
- What are the load carrying mechanisms for dynamic and static loads on a BFOS?
- What are important factors for calculating the hydrodynamic loads on a steel offshore
jacket/tower?
- Which limit states are considered for the design of a BFOS?
- What is the difference between LRFD and WSD approach?
Fixed structure only in shallow waters
- Less materials less expensive
- Less privy to currents
Jacket
- The piles are driven through the legs and connection leg-pile is on top
o Load carry: legs piles
Tower
- The piles go through the pile-sleeves at the bottom
- Load carry
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Installation methods
- Lift (for support structures and topsides)
- Launch and upend (for support structures)
- Float-over (for topsides)
- Self-float and lower (for support structures
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Offshore lifting
- Crane vessels
- SSCV up to 14,000mt capacity
- Monohull up to 5,000mt capacity
- Sheerleg up to 4,100mt capacity
- Lift vessel station keeping
- Traditional mooring (anchors; piles; weight,..)
- Dynamic Positioning (DP)
SSCV: Semi-Submersible Cane Vessel
Lift considerations
- Everything will be engineered and prepared to ensure safe operation taking the following into
account
o HSE
o Balance and equilibrium (CoG underneath the hook)
o Crane lift capacity at radius viz structure weight (incl. dynamic effects)
o Hook height
o Lifting lugs
o Rigging
Rigging design (lift height, sling angle, shackles, spreader bars, etc.)
o Clearances (boom clearance, vessel clearance, etc.)
o Strength of all components (including, structural members, shackles, slings)
o For final positioning
Hook motion envelope (especially heave)
Guides, bumpers and stabbing cones (primary & secondary)
Tugger/Control lines
- Weather during the lift operation
Tandem lift of jacket
Launch barge
- Installation method for large jackets
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o
o
Upending
Installation
Pile
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Connections
o Jacket:
Welding shims
Welding crown plate
Grouting complete annulus
Tower:
Grouting annulus
Hydralok
What is decommissioning?
- To plan, gain approval for and implement the removal, disposal or re-use of an offshore
installation.
- 6 project phases:
o Develop, assess and select options
o Obtain approvals and permits
o Detailed planning and engineering
o Stop production, plug wells and clean facilities
o Removal of structure (wholly or partially)
o Disposal and/or recycling of removed parts
- (Decommissioning is preferred terminology, but is sometimes also referred to as: abandonment
or removal)
Questions
- What are the main stages during construction?
- What are the important considerations for lifting?
- What are the forces in the lifting sling, where do maximum bending moments occur?
- Which installation methods are often used for offshore platforms
o i) for bottom founded support structures,
o ii) for topsides?
- What are important considerations for tow transport?
- Describe launch operations for a jacket structure?
- What is the main purpose of the rocker arms on a launch barge
- Exploration drilling
- Production drilling
- Well testing
- Completions
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Main components
- Drilling
Design considerations
- General lay out
o Vessel and drilling
Payload
o Drilling
Marine drilling riser
Telescopic joint
BOP
Drill pipes, drill collars, casing, etc.
Mud
Brine
Base oil
Bulk in silos
Bulk in sacks
Drill water
o Vessel
Marine diesel oil
Fresh water
People
Supplies
Stability
o IMU MODU code (for damage stability no
probabilistic analysis is required)
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The natural roll period of the vessel has to be beyond (longer) typical wave
periods in operating area
The natural roll period can be estimated using the following formula
Ixx is roll inertia and it can be calculated assuming the roll radius of
inertia equal to 0.4 ships breath
m44 is added mass for roll inertia. Value of m44 depends on number
of parameters including the hull geometry, natural roll period, etc. As a
rough assumption it can be taken as 25% of Ixx
DP3
o
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Step 1
o
Step 2
o
o
o
o
-
Step 3
o Engine room to front of vessel
o Exhaust above accommodation
Because of low drill floor no problems with exhaust
gasses
No funnel obstruction aft deck
Step 4
o Space in aft end vessel
o Risers in hold below main deck
Lower CoG
Large clear aft deck
Model tests at TU Delft
o Sea keeping tests
o Resistance
o Moonpool studies
Model tests at Marin
o Sea keeping tests
o Free floating DP
Comparison
o Huisdrill
Displacement 54000 mt
GM (fully loaded) = 2m
GM (unloaded) = 2m
VDL: 20000 mt
Wind area 3250 m
Drill floor above water: 12 m
Thruster power: 6 x 3.7 MW
o Typical drill ship
Displacement 100000 mt
GM (fully loaded) = 3.5 m
GM (unloaded) = 4.5m
VDL: 20000 mt
Wind area: 6600 m
Drill floor above water: 26 m
Thruster power: 6 x 5.5 MW
Dual Multi-Purpose Tower
o Features
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Main challenge
o Reducing the cost per kWh
Main area of development: NW Europe (shallow seas & favorable wind conditions)
Fast growing industry sector
Lack of trained engineers
Political background
- Need for independent sources of sustainable energy
- NL government targets 2020
o 16% sustainable energy in 2020
o 6000 MW offshore wind 2020
- EWEA European target 2020:
o 40 GW from offshore wind
History
- Persian deserts
- Windmills
- Power from wind 1888
o Brushmill
o 12 kW
o Auto control
- Poul la Cour (Denmark) 1891
o Step forward
Aerodynamics
o Tests in wind tunnel
o Produced hydrogen
- MW size, 1941, Vermont
o 1.25 MW
o Largest wind turbine ever built until 1979
o Steel blades
o Fatigue of blade
Only 1100 hours operational
- Gedser: test turbine in Denmark
o 1957
o By J.Juul
o 200 kW
o 24 m rotor diameter
o The Danish Concept
Domination of the market well into the 1980s
- 70s-80s: NASA program
o Boeing
o General Electric
o Purpose: develop technology and support emerging market
o Largely unsuccessful
o Light pretty shafts/turbines
o Variables generated
o After time energy prices reduced by 3
- Offshore ideas 1970-80
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o Heerema
o RSV
o Boskalis
o Fugro
o Studying offshore wind
Offshore: detailed plans
o Copy offshore structures
o Adapted to be produced in large numbers
o Conclusion: bigger turbines needed
Nogersund
o Installed 1990
o Decommissioned 1996
o 1 wind world 220 kW turbine
o Rotor diameter 25 m
o Water depth 6 m
o Distance to shore 250 m
o Test facility to study influence of offshore wind turbines on:
Birds
Fish and fishing
Shipping
Public opinion
Operation & maintenance
Vindeby
o Installed 1991
o 11 bonus 450 kW turbines
o Rotor diameter 35 m
o Max. water depth 5 m
o Distance to shore 2.5 m
o Total power 5.0 MW
o Gravity- based foundations
Lely
o Installed 1994
o 4 NedWind 500 kW turbines
o Rotor diameter 37 m
o Max. water depth 10 m
o Distance to shore 750 m
o Total power 2 MW
o 2-bladed turbines
o First driven monopiles
Tuno Knob
o Installed 1995
o 10 Vestas V39 500 kW turbines
o Rotor diameter 39 m
o Max. water depth 4 m
o Distance to shore 6 km
o Total power 5 MW
o Gravity-based foundation
Bockstigen
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o Installed 1998
o 5 WindWorld 500 kW turbines
o Rotor diameter 37 m
o Max.water depth 8 m
o Distance to shore 3 km
o Total power 2.5 MW
o Monopile foundations
Blyth
o Installed 2000
o 2 Vestas V80 2.0 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 80 m
o Max. water depth 6 m
o Distance to shore 1 km
o Total power 4 MW
o Drilled monopile foundations
Middelgrunden
o Installed 2001
o 20 bonus 2.0 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 72 m
o Max. water depth 10 m
o Distance to shore 2 km
o Total power 40 MW
o Gravity-based foundations
o Public involvement/investment
o First windpark with public involvement
Buy shares
o Also in Holland (windcentrale)
Yttre Stengrund
o Installed 2002
o 5 NEG-micon 2 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 72 m
o Max. water depth 12 m
o Distance to shore 4 km
o Total 10 MW
o Monopile foundations
Horns Rev
o Installed 2002
o 80 Vestas 2.0 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 80 m
o Max.water depth 14 m
o Distance to shore 14 km
o Total power 160 MW
o First large offshore wind farm
o Driven monopile foundations
o Helicopter acces
o Problems with gearboxes (80)
Couldnt handle seawater
Samso
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o Installed 2003
o 10 bonus 2.3 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 82 m
o Water depth 18 m
o Distance to shore 2.5 km
o Total power 23 MW
o Gravity- based foundations
Nysted
o Installed 2003
o 72 bonus 2.3 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 82 m
o Water depth 9 m
o Distance to shore 10 km
o Total power 165.6 MW
o Gravity based foundations
Arklow Bank
o Installed 2004
o 7 GE 3.6 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 104 m
o Water depth 15 m
o Distance to shore 10 km
o Total Power 25.2 MW
o Monopiles
North Hoyle
o Installed 2005
o 30 Vestas 3.0 MW turbine
o Rotor diameter 90 m
o Water depth 5 m
o Distance to shore 8.5 km
o Total Power 90 MW
o Monopile foundations
Scroby Sands
o Installed 2005
o 30 Vestas 2.0 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 80 m
o Water depth 10 m
o Distance to shore 3 km
o Total Power 60 MW
o Monopile foundations
Kentish Flats
o Installed 2005
o 30 Vestas 3.0 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 90 m
o Water depth 5 m
o Distance to shore 8.5 km
o Total Power 90 MW
o Monopile foundations
Egmond aan zee
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o
o
o
o
o
o
Installed 2005
36 Vestas 3.0 MW turbines
Rotor diameter 90 m
Water depth 23 m
Distance to shore 10 km
Total Power 108 MW
First Dutch offshore wind farm
Monopile foundations
The heads started settling in the
2 filled all the monopoles with concrete
Beatrice
o Installed 2007
o 2 REpower 5.0 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 126 m
o Water depth 45 m
o Distance to shore 25 km
o Total Power 10 MW
o Jacket structure
o Most expensive so far
o Delayed by 1 year
Princess Amalia (Q7)
o Installed 2008
o 60 Vestas 2.0 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 80 m
o Water depth 25 m
o Distance to shore 23 km
o Total Power 120 MW
o Deepest monopile foundations when constructed
Thornton bank
o Installed 2008
o 6 Repower 5.0 MW turbines
o Rotor diameter 126 m
o Water depth 30 m
o Distance to shore 30 km
o Total Power 30 MW
o Deepest gravity-based foundations
o OWF to be built in 3 phases
Alpha Ventus
o Installed 2009/2010
o 6 Repower 5M turbines
o 6 Areva Multibrid M5000 turbines
o Rotor diameter 126 m
o Water depth 20 m
o Distance to shore 45 km
o Total Power 60 MW
o Demonstration project
o Tripod & jacket foundations
o Extensively used for research (RAVE)
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Hywind
o Installed 2009
o Floating
o 2.3MW Siemens turbine
o Test project
o Water depth: 100m
o Distance to shore: 10km
- London Array
o Fully operational April 2013
o 175 3.6 MW Siemens turbines
o Area: 100 km2
o Maximum water depth: 23 m
o Distance to shore: 20 kW
o Worlds largest offshore wind farm
o First with about the same size as a large coal or nuclear plant
Danish concept
- Simple turbine
- 3 blades
- Horizontal axis
Key statistics by the end of 2013
- 2080 Offshore Wind Turbines installed and grid connected
- Totaling 6562 MW
- 69 Wind Farms
- 11 European countries
- Average offshore wind turbine size is 4 MW
o Siemens 3.6 MW cape
- 2 Full-scale grid connected floating turbines
Trends in the Industry
- Installed in deeper water
- Larger turbines
- Larger wind farms
Offshore wind farm components
- Wind turbine
- Support structure
o
o
o
Monopile
Gravity-based
Jacket
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o Tripod
o Floating?
MET mast
o Placed 2-3 years before OWF
o Map environmental conditions
Wind
Waves
Current
o Use for detailed design
Electrical infrastructure
o Infield transmission cables
o Substation
o Shore connection cables
o Onshore substation/tie-in
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Morison
o Waves
o Currents
o Wind BEM
Dynamic interactions
- Aerodynamic damping induced by operating rotor
- Hydrodynamic forces and structural response
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Multimember structures
- Jacket
- Tripod
- Tripile
Why multi-member systems
- Deeper waters, larger turbines
o and increase
o Natural frequency decreases
- For same environmental loading, we
require:
o Increase in EI, without significantly increasing (mass) of support structure per
unit length)
o Place material as far away from the neutral line as possible
- Large diameter piles
OR
- Multi-member structures
Monopiles
- Becomes more impractical and less economic
- Solutions required with higher stiffness for equal mass
- Multi-member structures
- Monopile is the most ideal because it doesnt have complicated joints but the needed diameter
is becoming impractical
Jackets
- Definitions
- Disadvantages
o Fabrication and welding of many
geometrically complex joints
Expensive
o Weld details susceptible to higher
stress concentrations/fatigue
Extra material requirements
o Step down in width necessitates provision of substantial transition section
Heavy!
o Piles needed to attach jacket to seabed
- Transport
- Lifting & landing
Tripod
-
Definitions
Fabrication & installation
Load out
Transport of tripod
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Tripile
-
foundations
o Towed on a barge
Lifting and landing
Pile driving
Turbine installation
o Crane
Jacket load out
Not that optimal
o Still heavy
o Install foundations piles to connect it to the sea bed
Concept selection
- Consider:
o Structural design (strength and fatigue)
o Fabrication (onshore)
o Transportation to offshore site
o Installation in-situ
- Keep operation & maintenance firmly in mind
Support structure optimization
- Computer-aided (vs manual) optimization widely used in automotive and aerospace industry,
but not for the design of offshore wind turbine structures
o Why?
o Large number of parameters
o Complexity of working with many engineering disciplines, often using different
assumptions
o Uncertainty about soil conditions
o Simplified models required (large number of load cases)
o Etc.
CapEx
- Capital expenditure
- Shows that wind turbines become more and more expensive
Piles second: postpile