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JIMA
4,3

Giving behaviors in Indonesia:

motives and marketing
implications for Islamic charities

306

Rahmatina Awaliah Kasri

Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Indonesia,
Jawa Barat, Indonesia

Received 24 May 2011

Accepted 29 May 2011

Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the motives and giving behaviours of donors
towards Islamic charities in Indonesia by using various demographic, socio-economic, psychographic
and motivational/situational characteristics. Based on these analyses, relevant marketing implications
are also discussed. The study hopes to enrich Islamic marketing literature and contribute further to the
understanding of marketing within the context of the Islamic voluntary sector.
Design/methodology/approach This empirical paper primarily employs a quantitative
approach in analysing the giving behaviours. The primary data is gathered through a survey
conducted in January 2011 involving 300 Indonesian Muslim donors. The results are analysed with
descriptive and correlation statistics.
Findings First, the analysis highlights that the main causes for charitable giving are to help the
poor/needy and support religious causes. Second, most of the donors provide funds through informal
Islamic charities. Third, most of the individual donors are young, educated and possess strong
humanitarian concerns. Interestingly, although there is a positive correlation between income and
donation, individuals who donate more are not the rich but the middle-income earners. Finally, there is
evidence to indicate that donors may increase donations even during economic crisis.
Practical implications Understanding donors characteristics and behaviours are essential in
designing and implementing an effective marketing framework, which is expected to retain and
manage long-term supportive relationships with the donors. Relationship marketing framework and
branding strategy are also worth considered for this purpose.
Originality/value Few studies analyse Islamic charities in the modern marketing perspective,
especially in Indonesia. This study, therefore, fills the gap in the research area.
Keywords Giving behaviours, Islamic charities, Marketing, Relationship marketing,
Islamic voluntary sector, Indonesia
Paper type Case study

Journal of Islamic Marketing

Vol. 4 No. 3, 2013
pp. 306-324
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1759-0833
DOI 10.1108/JIMA-05-2011-0044

1. Introduction
The question of how the current economic downturns and global financial recession
have affected the Islamic financial sector has received immense discussion both in the
Western and Islamic world. There is a strong message that the crises have provided
Islamic finance opportunities for growing and becoming a future mainstream finance
in the world[1]. Nevertheless, while Islamic finance presumably enjoys the benefits,
such opportunities seem to be unclear for other financial sectors and institutions.
If one look at the impacts of the current economic crisis on the Western voluntary
sector, it is evident that it has suffered from the economic downturn. While revenues of
the philanthropic organisations have dropped significantly in many countries[2],
requests for their services have increased during the hard times (Breeze and Morgan,
2009; Mohan and Wilding, 2009; Wilding, 2010). In other words, since demand for the

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2542045

voluntary sectors services increases at the time the donors supply of funds potentially
falls, some kind of double whammy is said to occur during the crisis (Pharoah and
Harrow, 2009).
In Muslim countries and societies, however, such observations and precise statistics
are hardly found. Yet from global figure such as the World Giving Index[3], it is obvious
that the Muslim societies are pretty much generous. The South East Asia region, where
most Muslims live[4], is ranked fourth in the 2010 World Giving Index. The Middle East
and North Africa regions are well-known for their generosity in helping strangers
beyond volunteering time and donating money[5]. Thus, the tradition of voluntary
giving strongly exists in Muslim societies. Indeed, this behaviour is a fundamental part
of Islamic teaching as reflected in many verses of the Quran and the Prophets tradition
explaining the nobility and importance of almsgiving in Muslim societies
(Al Qardawi, 2000).
In such circumstances, it is increasingly important to understand the characteristics
and behaviours of Muslim philanthropists. In this respect, marketing aspect is of a
particular importance, not only because it has assumed greater relevance for the current
landscape of charitable organisations (Anheier, 2005, p. 277), but also because effective
marketing is vital in retaining donors and increasing fundraising results for such
institutions (Sargeant, 1999, 2001). The contribution of marketing, especially marketing
by segmentation, in improving the operations of fundraising activities has also been
documented for decades (Schlegelmilch and Tynan, 1989; Harvey, 1990, p. 1, Rooney, 2001,
in Bennett and Sargeant (2005). Nevertheless, very few studies attempt to analyse Islamic
charities in the modern marketing perspective, especially in the context of Indonesia.
In view of the above, this paper primarily aims to identify characteristics associated
with an increased propensity to donate by understanding the motivations,
characteristics and behaviours of individual Muslim donors. In particular, it explores
whether giving behaviours and characteristics of the donors could be identified by using
various demographic, socio-economic, psychographic and motivations/situational
characteristics suggested by existing literature. It also elaborates on the marketing
consequences of such patterns based on literature and findings of the study. A specific
case of Indonesia, the worlds largest Muslim country, is taken to enable a thorough
analysis which might be difficult if all Muslim countries are considered.
To arrive at conclusive results, analysis of this descriptive and exploratory study is
mainly based on a simple quantitative method. The primary data is gathered through a
two-month survey accomplished in January 2011 which covered around 300 Indonesian
Muslim donors. Results of the descriptive and correlation analyses of the survey are
discussed and contextualized in view of the current state of altruism in Indonesia.
To begin the discussion, the paper is structured as follow. Subsequent to this
introduction, Section 2 reviews the existing literature on voluntary giving behaviours
as well as some general perspective on the role of marketing for non-profit institutions.
Section 3 briefly explains the method and data used, while section 4 explains the
empirical results as well as discusses the relevant implications and marketing
consequences. The final section concludes the study.
2. Theories of voluntary giving behaviours
Giving is a voluntary action favoring someone else or a public cause at a cost for
oneself without requiring a counterpart. It occurs when the givers desire for giving

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2542045

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over-compensates the (potential) cost (Kolm and Ythier, 2006, p. 87). Although giving
behaviours have been discussed since the sixteenth century by numerous great
economists such as A. Smith, J. S. Mill and V. Pareto, the studies experienced an
upsurge only in the last third of the twentieth century. Studies on charitable giving
emerge, most notably with analyses of interdependent utilities which assume social
men instead of economic men and involve social motives such as affection,
compassion or a sense of justice (Kolm and Ythier, 2006)[6].
The altruism spirit is in line with Islamic teachings. Islam encourages the
believers to help the unfortunate amongst them through sadaqah (general charity).
This is clearly stated in the Quran, In their wealth and properties (there) is the right of
the poor, he who asks, and he who is deprived (Quran 51:19, translated by Ali, 2000).
Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) also emphasized that, [. . .] sadaqah (charity) is taken
from the rich among them and rendered to the poor among them (Salih, 1999). Not
only that, it has also made the community and state responsible for reducing hardship
and poverty from their societies through the institutionalisation of Zakah. Zakah, an
annual levy on wealth above some threshold (revenue) whose proceeds must be
distributed to the needy (Jehle, 1994), is indeed the third pillar of Islam. These suggest
the importance of Islamic charitable institutions as a social welfare support mechanism
in Islamic societies (Ahmad, 1991; Al Qardawi, 2000; Sadeq, 2002; Ahmed, 2004).
In general, literature suggests that the variables affecting giving behaviours of
individuals could be classified into extrinsic and intrinsic factors. The former includes
the demographic and socio-economic variables such as age (Mindak and Bybee, 1971;
Halfpenny and Saxon-Hamold, 1990; Nichols, 1992; Pharoah and Tanner, 1997), gender
(Halfpenny and Saxon-Hamold, 1990; Piliavin and Charng, 1990), income level (Jones
and Posnett, 1991; Bryant et al., 2003; Lloyd, 2004; Mcclelland and Brooks, 2004) and
education level (Jencks, 1987; Schlegelmilch and Tynan, 1989; Harvey, 1990; Jones and
Posnett, 1991; Schlegelmilch et al., 1997).
Most of the variables above affect the behaviours positively. Higher age, income and
education levels are positively correlated with higher level of giving. Nevertheless, some
studies suggest that donation tends to fall off after the age of 65 due to work retirement in
most countries (Danko and Stanley, 1986; Edmundson, 1986; Halfpenny, 1991). The
positive effect of income on an individuals level of charitable giving is also identified by
a number of studies (Jencks, 1987; Kitchen and Dalton, 1990), although most of the
studies agree that income is not the main factor affecting the behaviours ( Jones and
Posnett, 1991; Lloyd, 2004). Similar finding applies to education, where relatively
higher-educated individuals tend to donate more to charity (Jencks, 1987; Schlegelmilch
and Tynan, 1989; Harvey, 1990; Jones and Posnett, 1991; Schlegelmilch et al., 1997).
Meanwhile, with respect to gender, although some studies suggest that women tend to
be more generous than men (Jones and Posnett, 1991; Caf, 2010) other studies provide
ambiguous results and find no significant differences in the altruistic behaviour between
men and women (Piliavin and Charng, 1990; Guy and Patton, 1993).
As for the intrinsic factors, it is believed that the main determinants of charitable
behaviours are the underlying/psychological motives for giving and electing to
support a non-profit institution (Sargeant, 1999). Significant indicators for altruism
include the feeling of duty and responsibility to help the needy (Sokolowski, 1996;
Lloyd, 2004), desire to make a change (Lloyd, 2004; Breeze and Morgan, 2009), religious
concerns (Pharoah and Tanner, 1997; Schlegelmilch et al., 1997; Jackson, 2001),

self actualization (Sokolowski, 1996; Lloyd, 2004) and peer pressure (Andreoni et al.,
1996; Glazer and Konrad, 1996).
While most of the intrinsic variables above are self-explanatory, a few elaborations
might be helpful at this point. It is very intuitive that individuals are motivated to
make charitable giving when they have the feeling of duty and responsibility to help
the poor and needy (Sokolowski, 1996). Impact and the donors gifts resulting in
something that otherwise wouldnt have happened (Lloyd, 2004, p. 81) is also found
to be a strong motivator for giving. The gift could be directed to other people, directly
or indirectly[7], or other causes such as environment and culture/art. Similarly, it is
very common that individuals are encouraged to support activities related to their
religion, as part of their support and concern for their faith ( Jackson, 2001; Kochuyt,
2009).
Self-actualisation, defined as realisation of individuals personality and
development of some/all of its aspects, is also found to be a significant driver of
giving especially among rich individuals (Lloyd, 2004, p. 83). Another motive found
among individuals with a high social status is the peer-pressure (status) motive. In this
case, individuals are motivated to make charitable donations because their
peer-groups (friends, colleagues, etc.) also do so. This motive is also a good signal
to people who belong to a peer-group but cannot see the big house or luxury cars of
another memberand thus more prevalent among the high net-worth individuals
(Glazer and Konrad, 1996).
In addition to the above factors, some studies consider perception on financial
security (Edmundson, 1986; Halfpenny, 1991; Schlegelmilch et al., 1997), generosity
(Schlegelmilch and Tynan, 1989; Harvey, 1990; Schlegelmilch et al., 1997) and
perceived-importance of religion (Edmundson, 1986; Halfpenny, 1991; Pharoah and
Tanner, 1997; Schlegelmilch et al., 1997; Jackson, 2001; Kochuyt, 2009) as good indicators
for intrinsic variables affecting the giving behaviours. While these variables have some
overlapping elements with the factors discussed earlier, they could be used to confirm
the previous motives. Perceptions on financial security and generosity, for instance,
could complement the relationship between income level and charitable giving since in
many cases individuals with higher income do not necessarily donate more money to
charities (Lloyd, 2004; Breeze and Morgan, 2009; Breeze, 2010).
To summarize, the literature suggests that altruism is influenced by extrinsic and
intrinsic variables. The former includes demographic and socio-economic indicators
such as gender, age, income and education. Meanwhile, the intrinsic variables (giving
motives) include the feeling of duty and responsibility, desire to make a change,
religious concerns, self-actualization, peer-group pressure, perceived financial security,
perceived generosity and perceived-importance of religion. Most of the variables above
affect the giving behaviours positively, although the influence of some variables such
as gender tends to be ambiguous.
In relation to the theories of giving above, it is worth mentioning that understanding
the donors characteristics have been found to positively contribute in increasing
charitable revenues especially when these information are used effectively in
marketing (Sargeant and Wymer, 2008). The significant contribution of marketing,
particularly marketing by segmentation, in improving the operations of fundraising
activities have been documented for decades especially in developed countries (Harvey,
1990, p. 1). For example, early attempts to include marketing in fundraising strategy in

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the US reportedly increased both awareness and revenues by 33 per cent (Mindak and
Bybee, 1971). More recent evidence has also noted significant increase in charitable
proceeds, following the implementation of various modern marketing techniques
(Rooney, 2001; Bennett and Sargeant, 2005).
There is also ample evidence that marketing tools have been strategically used to
further the goals and objectives of religious organisations especially when religious
institutions such as churches have experienced declining attendance, such as in the UK
and the USA (Mottner, 2008). Studies on other religious organisations, however, are
rarely found in literature. Overall, the existing literature suggest that charitable
institutions increasingly take the benefit of understanding their donors profile in
designing and implementing effective marketing, which eventually contributes in
enhancing their performance.
3. Methodology and data
This study primarily employs a simple quantitative approach to explain and analyse
the patterns of voluntary giving among Indonesian Muslim donors. Specifically, it
explores whether the individual donors behaviours and characteristics could be
identified and analysed by using various demographic, socio-economic, psychographic
and motivational/situational characteristics suggested by the existing literature. The
variables incorporated in this study and the likely directions of their impact are
summarised in Table I.
The variables are incorporated in a two-section structured questionnaire consisting
of questions related to the extrinsic and intrinsic factors[8]. In particular, following
some of the aforementioned studies (especially Schlegelmilch et al., 1997; Sargeant and
Lee, 2004; Sargeant et al., 2006), the intrinsic variables are investigated by analysing
the donors perceptions towards their giving attitudes in different situational contexts
including their perception during a typical economic crisis situation marked by
financial insecurity as discussed earlier. In this respect, the commonly used five-level
Likert scale (from strongly agree to strongly disagree) is used in the construction of the
questionnaire (Saunders et al., 2009).
In order to provide more insights for the case study, general causes of giving
(education, health/medical, environment, etc.) and amounts of regular donations, as
commonly listed in regular charity surveys (Caf, 2010), are also asked. Moreover,
recognising that there are several types of formal Islamic charitable organisations
(government-linked[9], civil-society[10], corporate and private Islamic charities) as well
as informal Islamic institutions for voluntary giving (mosques and family/relatives) in
Indonesia (Wibisono et al., 2010), the donors preferred charities are also investigated.
Thus, the questionnaire essentially asks who the donors are, why they give/donate funds,
where or to which institutions they provide the funds to and how much do they give.
The primary data is collected through an online survey conducted over a two-month
period and completed in January 2011. The target respondents are Indonesian Muslim
donors. They are selected by using a simple random sampling method which takes
advantage of the snowball effect in distributing the questionnaire. The
samples generated this way are likely to be random samples and therefore valid
statistical inferences could be made (Bryman and Bell, 2007; Field, 2009; Saunders et al.,
2009)[11].

Demographic and socio-economic characteristics

Variable
(extrinsic factor)
Sex
Krebs (1970) (/2), Schlegelmilch (1988) (), Jencks (1987)
(/2), Harvey (1990) (), Jones and Posnett (1991) (), Piliavin and
Chamy (1990) (), Halfpenny (1990) (), Schlegelmilch (1997) ()
Age
Mindak and Bybee (1971) ( ), Smith and Beik (1982) (),
Clotfelter (1985) (2), Schlegelmilch (1988) ( ), Jencks (1987)
( /2), Harvey (1990) ( ), Piliavin and Chamy (1990) ( ),
Schlegelmilch (1997) ( /2), Pharoah and Tanner (1997) ( )
Income
Keating et al. (1981) (), Smith and Beik (1982) (),
Clotfelter (1985) (), Edmundson (1986) (), Jencks (1987) (/2),
Harvey (1990) (), Jones and Posnett (1991) (),
Diamantopoulos et al. (1993) (2), Pharoah and Tanner (1997) (),
Schlegelmilch (1997) (), Breeze (2010) ()
Education level
Schlegelmilch (1988) ( ), Schlegelmilch and Tynan (1989)
( ), Jencks (1987) ( ), Harvey (1990) ( ), Edmundson (1986)
( ), Jones and Posnett (1991) (), Diamantopolous et al.
(1993) ()
Giving motives (intrinsic factor)
Perceived financial security
Edmundson (1986) ( ), Halfpenny (1990) ( ), Schlegelmilch
(P_finsec)
(1997) ()
Perceived generosity (P_generous) Yavas et al. (1980) ( ), Schlegelmilch (1988) ( ), Schlegelmilch
and Tynan (1989) ( ), Halfpenny (1990) ( ), Harvey (1990) ( ),
Schlegelmilch (1997) ( )
Perceived importance of religion
Edmundson (1986) ( ), Halfpenny (1990) ( ), Schlegelmilch
(P_religion)
(1997) (), Kochuyt (2009) ( )
Religious concerns (p_religious)
Sokolowski (1996) ( ), Pharoah and Tanner (1997) (), Lloyd
(2004) (), Schlegelmilch (1997) ( ), Kochuyt (2009) ()
Feelings of duty and responsibility Sokolowski (1996) ( ), Lloyd (2004) ( )
to help the needy (p_responsible)
Desire to make a change (p_change) Lloyd (2004) (), Breeze (2010) ( )
Self-actualization/utilitarian motive Sokolowski (1996) ( ), Lloyd (2004) ( )
(p_utilitarian)
Peer pressure/status motive
Andreoni et al. (1996) ( ), Glazer and Konrad (1996) ( )
(p_ppressure)
Source: Authors compilation

Initially, more than 300 responses were received. However, some of the responses were
dropped as the respondents were not Indonesian Muslims. Eventually, the study ended
up with 294 valid responses. Descriptive statistics and simple correlation tests among
the variables of interest[12] are conducted by using SPSS 17 software. The results are
presented and discussed in the next section.
4. Results, discussions and implications
In presenting the results, this section begins by illustrating the general findings
regarding the common causes for giving, preferred Islamic charitable institutions,
amounts of regular donations made by the donors and eventually characteristics and
behaviours of the donors. Afterward, the second part of the section analyses and
contextualises the findings as well as draws relevance on the marketing strategies for
Islamic charities.

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311

Table I.
Factors motivating
giving behaviours

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312

Figure 1.
Main causes of
voluntary giving

4.1 Results and discussions

The survey finds that the general causes for charitable giving are helping the poor/needy
or poverty cause (37.1 per cent) and supporting religious activities (29.9 per cent), as
shown in Figure 1. Other popular causes are education and disaster relief, chosen by 10.5
and 7.1 per cent respondents, respectively. Meanwhile, supporting environment and
cultural development are the least popular reasons for giving. These results are not
surprising and consistent with the findings of previous studies (Sokolowski, 1996;
Pharoah and Tanner, 1997; Lloyd, 2004; Kochuyt, 2009). Nevertheless, in other few cases,
some respondents mention very specific reasons for giving[13].
These patterns are intuitive in the context of a developing country such as
Indonesia, where poverty is widespread. Around 31 million (13.3 per cent) of the
Indonesian population are poor (Bps, 2011) and almost half of them live with a daily
income less than USD 2 (The World Bank, 2006). Religious concerns could also be
explained from the fact that around 85 per cent of its population are Muslims[14],
making it the largest Muslim country in the world, and most of them adhere to the
Islamic principles encouraging charitable giving to help the unfortunate member of the
society (Bamualim and Abubakar, 2005).
The donation for education is presumably a reflection of support to increase the
education level in the country where only more than 50 per cent of the population could
enjoy secondary level of education[15] (Kasri and Wibowo, 2010). Similarly, support for
disaster relief is likely due to frequent disasters, especially natural disasters, which
occur in the country[16]. The recently worst natural disasters occurred in the country is
probably the Aceh tsunami in December 2005, which resulted in more than 220,000
deaths and millions of homeless and unemployed people. This tragedy led to massive
supports from Muslim societies, which contributed large amount of donations through
various Islamic charities[17].
The donors regularly give in many ways and through various types of Islamic
charities. As shown in Figure 2(a), around two-third of the donors contributes through
informal charitable institutions including mosque (27.2 per cent), family (8.5 per cent)
and direct donation to the needy (25.2 per cent). Only around 33.7 per cent of them

Giving behaviors
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313

(a) Types of Institutions

(b) Types of Formal Islamic Charities

Figure 2.
Main institutions
for voluntary giving

provide donations through the formal channel. Interestingly, although some of them
make regular donations through the informal channel, most of them (87.8 per cent) also
have an experience of donating through the formal agencies (Figure 2(b)). The most
preferred formal charities are private charities (55.8 per cent) and government charities
(16.7 per cent). Some others, however, prefer to donate through international NGOs
such as Green Peace and UNICEF fund. These results somewhat suggest that despite
preference to the informal charities, there is some kind of portfolio of giving through
institutions observed amongst the donors.
How much money have they donated regularly? Most respondents (68 per cent)
donate up to Rp. 250.000 or around USD 28[18] per month (Figure 3). However, a small
percentage (9.2 per cent) contributes more than Rp. 1 million per month. While this
might be strongly correlated with their income and other factors, which will be
elaborated later, these results are quite intuitive considering that Indonesia is a
relatively lower middle income country with GDP/capita of USD 2,952 or an individual
monthly income of around USD 246 in 2010[19].
With respect to the characteristics of donors, the main results of the study, Table II
depicts the descriptive statistics based on the profiles of 294 respondents. In general,

Figure 3.
Amount of monthly
donations

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314

the survey findings reveal that most of the individual Muslim donors are men, aged
25-54 and educated with income levels ranging between Rp. 1 and 5 million.
Table III highlights the results of the correlation tests between the level of donations
and the socio-economic characteristics of the donors. Income, education and age are
found to be positively and significantly correlated to the regular amounts of charitable
donations made by the donors. Meanwhile, gender is not significantly related to the
giving behaviours.
Looking at the gender of the donors (Table II), men apparently contribute more to
charities than women with proportions of 62 and 38 per cent, respectively. Although
this result seems to contradict the literature noted earlier which mostly suggests the
generosity of women (Jones and Posnett, 1991; Caf, 2010), the relative proportion of
men making the typical charitable donation up to Rp. 250.000 per month (69 per cent)
is only slightly higher than that of the women (66 per cent). Interestingly, if the
extremes (lowest and highest) amounts of donation are considered, men are found to
be absolutely more generous than women (Figure 4(a)). Thus, women do not appear to
be necessarily more generous than men as also found in some studies (Piliavin and
Charng, 1990; Guy and Patton, 1993). Combined with the correlation result shown
above ( p-value 0.217), the overall results tend to be ambiguous and indicate that
there is no statistically significant difference between men and women in their
voluntary giving behaviours.
Variables
Sex
Age (in years)

Education

Income level (in million rupiah)

Table II.
Descriptive statistics
of respondents

Categories

Percentage

Male
Female
,25
25 to 34
35 to 44
45 to 54
55 to 64
.64
Up to high school
Undergraduate (S1)
Magister (S2)
Doctoral (S3)
0-1
1-5
5-10
10-25
.25

62.2
37.8
10.2
54.1
27.2
6.1
2.4
0
9.2
33.0
50.3
7.5
5.8
49.0
12.2
3.1
29.9

x 2 tests
Statistical values
Table III.
Correlation with level
of donations

Pearson x
Asymp. sig. (two-sided)

Gender

Age

5.773
0.217

24.245
0.084

Variables
Education
29.956
0.003

Income
74.527
0.000

Giving behaviors
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315

(a) Gender and Donations

(b) Age and Donations

Figure 4.
Distributions of donations
based on gender and
age groups

The survey also finds that almost 90 per cent of the donors are individuals aged 25-54 years,
the productive working age group in Indonesia[20]. For all levels of donation, especially the
lower amount, this age group constitutes the majority of donors. The results appear to
highlight that being relatively older is correlated with higher amounts of charitable giving,
although the correlation is slightly weak ( p-value 0.08). Nevertheless, after the age of 54
the trend reverses. As can be inferred from Figure 4(b), almost one-third of donors in the
second age group makes regular donations between Rp. 250,000 and Rp. 500,000;
meanwhile almost half of the respondents aged 45-54 donates Rp. 1 million or more. This
trend is consistent with previous findings suggesting that charitable donation tends to fall
off after the retirement age (Danko and Stanley, 1986; Edmundson, 1986; Halfpenny, 1991).
Figure 5 shows the distributions of donors charitable amounts based on education
and income levels. Previously, the descriptive statistic results showed that most
respondents are educated with 33 and 57.8 per cent possess undergraduate and
postgraduate education, respectively. Therefore, there is an indication that the majority
of donors are highly educated. Indeed, this tendency is supported by the result of
correlation test showing a strong positive correlation between education level and
amounts of regular donation made ( p-value 0.03). Therefore, this study concurs with
the results of previous studies suggesting that higher educated individuals tend to
donate more to charity (Jencks, 1987; Schlegelmilch and Tynan, 1989; Harvey, 1990;
Jones and Posnett, 1991; Schlegelmilch et al., 1997).

(a) Education and Donations

(b) Income and Donations

Figure 5.
Distributions of donations
based on education
and income

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With respect to the income levels and amounts of donation, it is found that almost half of
the donors (48.95 per cent) admit that their monthly income is around Rp. 1-5 million which
is only slightly higher than the national average income. Thus, it appears that most of the
donors are middle-income earners. Furthermore, the result of the x 2 test finds that there is
a very strong positive correlation between income and level of donations made which is
consistent with the findings of previous studies (Jencks, 1987; Kitchen and Dalton, 1990).
However, an interesting pattern is also noticeable here. Although most of the donors under
the lowest income groups (group one and two) provide the least contribution to charities,
individuals who donate more are presumably not the richest group but those with median
income levels. Around one-third of the middle-income group donate more than Rp. 500,000
to Islamic charities, compared to only 11 per cent of the richest group. These lead to a
general understanding that being rich does not seem to guarantee a higher level of
charitable donation, at least not amongst the sample under study.
Finally, by using motivational/situational characteristics, the survey finds that the
charitable giving behaviours are also significantly influenced by perception of
financial security, perceived importance of religion, feeling of duty and responsibility
to help the needy, desire to make change, religious concerns and self-satisfactions from
making the charitable donations (Table IV). These evidence are consistent with the
results of earlier studies (Edmundson, 1986; Sokolowski, 1996; Schlegelmilch et al.,
1997; Lloyd, 2004; Breeze and Morgan, 2009). However, only less than half of the
individual Muslim donors regard themselves as generous or influenced by others
(peer-pressure) in making the rational giving decision suggesting that these motives
are not the main motives for voluntary giving in Indonesia.
Table IV also shows that religion is perceived as the strongest motivator for
charitable giving. In fact, most donors believe that helping other in all situations is a
religious (Islamic) obligation. Around 87.8 per cent confess that they will increase their
donation to support Islamic purposes when the need arise. Moreover, the majority of
them (87.1 per cent) have confidence that they will give more money to the needy
because they feel responsible to help others in need. Similarly, around 87.4 per cent
sense a desire to make a change in their society through their donations. Further,
87.1 per cent feel that giving to others provides them a sense of self-satisfaction. The
strong influence of these intrinsic variables also implies that the majority of Muslim
donors are likely to increase their donations during an economic recession typically
followed by increasing socio-economic problems that subsequently leads to more
requests for the services of charitable organisations.

Perceptions

Table IV.
Perception of donors
towards their giving
behaviours

Strongly
disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
agree
Total

P_fin
sec
(%)

P_
P_
p_
P_
p_
P_
P_
generous religion responsible change religious utilitarian ppressure
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)

57.8
27.2
7.8
4.1

11.9
22.8
45.6
15.6

4.1
0.0
2.4
12.2

1.7
3.7
7.5
42.5

1.0
4.1
7.5
45.6

2.7
3.1
6.5
38.4

3.7
3.4
5.8
35.4

16.3
33.0
32.7
11.6

3.1
100.0

4.1
100.0

81.3
100.0

44.6
100.0

41.8
100.0

49.3
100.0

51.7
100.0

6.5
100.0

To summarise, the survey notes several interesting findings. First, it is revealed that the
main reason for charitable giving is helping the poor/needy. Second, despite a preference
on the informal channel, a portfolio of giving through various types of Islamic charities is
observed amongst Muslim donors who mostly donate up to around USD 28 on a monthly
basis. Third, while most of the donors are young, educated and earn a relatively decent
income, individuals that donate more are presumably not the rich but those with average
incomes. Fourth, the Muslim donors are significantly influenced by the intrinsic motives
such as feeling of duty and responsibility to help the needy, desire to make change,
religious concerns and self-satisfactions in giving to charities. Finally, there is an
indication that the donors will increase donations even during economic crisis.
4.2 Exploring the marketing implications
The findings discussed above imply several practical implications. First, Islamic
charities in Indonesia should focus on programmes that attempt to increase economic
conditions and reduce poverty as this is the main reason the donors contribute to the
charities. Although this seems to be a challenging task in Indonesia (Muhtada, 2007), it is
possible that the charities make innovations and design programmes which meet both
the consumption and productive needs of the poor. In this regard, from a marketing
perspective, these programmes should be well-planned and well-communicated to all
stakeholders through an effective marketing framework. In addition to regular
advocacy and educational communications intended to increase awareness of the
potential donors, all important aspects of the programmes should be disclosed to the
donors. The significant contribution of such marketing efforts has been found to
increase fundraising results of non-profit institutions (Bennett and Sargeant, 2005),
which could also be implemented for Islamic charities.
The finding that the donors prefer to donate though the informal Islamic charities,
second, suggests that there are inherent problems with the marketing and management
of the formal Islamic charities. One possibility is that the organisations lack the
credibility needed in managing such institutions. A thorough study by Sargeant (2001,
p. 8) finds that donors commitments to support charity institutions in the UK is
primarily determined by their trust towards the organisations and confidence that their
monies will be used appropriately and have impacts on society. Accordingly, it is
important to enhance accountability practices of Islamic charities through proper
accountability mechanisms. Appropriate disclosure and performance assessment
especially in poverty-focused programmes, arguably, are important accountability
mechanisms that need to be regularly practiced. These have not been well-practised in
Indonesia (Antlov et al., 2006).
Another possibility is that the charities have not implemented the appropriate
marketing framework to maintain the commitment and trust of the donors. In this
context, some theorists argue that an appropriate marketing framework for maintaining
the commitment-trust association in the non-profit sector is the so-called relationship
marketing (Money et al., 2008). The relationship marketing concept emphasises the
importance of developing long-term relationships with existing donors (Gronroos, 1999)
and posits that energy and resources are better spent on this group (Sargeant, 2001;
Burnett, 2002). This is especially true for high-earning donors who are mostly concerned
with good relationships with the charities (Lloyd, 2004). Indeed, the lack of donations
from the high-income group found in this study could be an indication that the charities

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are relatively unsuccessful in marketing their programmes to the specific group of

philanthropists. As such, a long-term supportive relationship and an appropriate
marketing framework need to be designed and implemented for the donors.
The relationship marketing framework is also deemed appropriate for donors who are
young, educated and sensitive to social-religious motives, as indicated in this study. At the
practical level, this implies that effective marketing strategies employing numerous
marketing techniques/tools to retain such donors must be strengthened. In addition to
utilizing various marketing techniques ranging from traditional media such as speeches,
letters, pamphlets in public places and advertisements in newspaper/radio/television
(print and electronic media of communication) to modern and new electronic media such
as the internet and marketing through social networks (Sargeant and Shang, 2010), the
promotional message should also stress the contribution of even a small gift to alleviate
the pain and suffering of the poor which are likely to be effective for these group of donors
(Sargeant and Wymer, 2008, p. 132).
Third, to acquire more and higher-income donors, it is necessary to further understand
their behaviour. As mentioned earlier, the higher socio-economic groups usually provide
donations not only for the amelioration of suffering but also for a long-term change in the
condition of beneficiaries. They are also less sensitive to (external) changes, such as
economic crisis, in making regular donations. Moreover, profession of the donors itself may
be associated with the giving behaviour. In a study of high-earning male professionals,
Kottasz (2004) finds that lawyers tend to donate larger amounts of money to charity and on
a more regular basis than respondents working in financial services because the former are
more empathetic than the latter. This is where the traditional marketing by segmentation
strategy should be maximized (Schlegelmilch and Tynan, 1989; Harvey, 1990).
Another marketing strategy worth considered is branding strategy (Conrad, 2008).
Although it is initially used extensively with great success in the commercial domain
(Hatch and Schultz, 2008), it has been adopted by many non-profit institutions, with
some modifications, and the results were promising (Hudson, 2008). Indeed, many
literature suggest that that branding could actually enhance the donors choice as well
as the unique sets of values owned by the non-profit organisations, while emphasizing
the organizations strengths and achievement alongside its missions (Hankinson, 2002;
Sargeant and Jay, 2004).
Overall, the findings suggest the importance of recognising and understanding the
behaviours of individual Muslim donors. Subsequently, the appropriate and effective
marketing framework should be designed and implemented. Relationship marketing,
which emphasises the importance of trust, credibility and accountability towards all
stakeholders, is a framework worth considering in retaining and managing a long-term
supportive relationship with donors. Meanwhile, in addition to the traditional
marketing by segmentation, branding could be considered as an alternative marketing
strategy, which has successfully contributed to increase the revenues of charitable
organisations in many countries.
5. Conclusions
The study is an empirical case study exploring connections between charitable giving
behaviours and characteristics of Indonesian Muslim donors by using various
demographic, socio-economic, psychographic and motivational/situational
characteristics. Several interesting findings are noted. First, the main reason for

charitable giving is to help the poor. Second, despite preference of giving through informal
channels, a portfolio of giving through various Islamic charities is also observed amongst
the Muslim donors. Third, while most of the donors are young and educated, those donating
more are not the rich but the middle-income earners. Fourth, the donors are significantly
influenced by intrinsic motives such as feeling of duty and responsibility to help the needy,
desire to make a change and self-satisfaction in giving to charities. Finally, there is a strong
indication that the donors will increase donations even during economic crisis.
The findings suggest the importance of recognising and understanding the donors
behaviours and accordingly design an effective marketing framework to better
manage relationships with donors. Relationship marketing, which emphasises the
importance of trust, credibility and accountability towards all stakeholders, is deemed
suitable for retaining and managing a long-term supportive relationship with the
donors. Segmented marketing and branding strategies are also recommended for the
charities. The framework and strategies are expected to contribute further in
enhancing the long-term performance of Islamic charities.
Finally, it should be noted that this study is a descriptive and general study aimed
at providing a global picture and insights into giving behaviours of Indonesian Muslim
donors. Thus, it must be interpreted within the appropriate context and limitations.
Further studies could be done to investigate more specific issues such as giving
behaviours of specific donors (high-income donors, etc.), giving behaviours in specific
areas/sector/occupations (urban and rural areas, public and private sector jobs, etc.) or
case studies of specific Islamic charitable organisations. Similar studies which employ
more data, variables and improve models specifications and methodologies are also
possible. Such studies would contribute towards a further understanding of marketing
and management practices of Islamic organisations.
Notes
1. International media, such as Bloomberg Business Week (15 October 2008) and Financial Times
UK (13 May 2010), believe that Islamic finance is less affected by the crisis and has a huge
potential market in the future. While noting the risk of Islamic financing, The Economist (15 April
200) also acknowledges that Islamic finance indeed has ample opportunity during the crisis.
Meanwhile, in more academic frameworks, many seminars/conferences especially in Europe
discussed the issue of Islamic finance and financial crisis from various perspectives. Most of the
participants have confidence that the crisis sent many conventional finance institutions into
turmoil and therefore provides Islamic finance with some form of blessing in disguise, provided
that it is able to take the opportunities to develop various aspects of the emerging sector.
2. In the USA, for example, total charitable giving fell by 3.6 per cent from 2008 to 2009, which
is the steepest drop since 1956. Although individual giving only declined by less than
1 per cent, it is found that almost two-thirds of the charities experienced a decline in their
revenue during the period (CSHCO, 2010). The same trend occurred in the UK, where
almsgiving is reported to drop from 11.3 billion (2007/2008) to 10.6 billion (2009/2010),
a drop of almost 7 per cent during the crisis period (Caf, 2010).
3. The index is constructed by asking people in 153 countries regarding their charitable
acts (donating money, volunteering time for social activities, and helping strangers).
For more information about the index, see The World Giving Index, 2010 Report, Charity
Aid Foundation, http://www.cafonline.org/pdf/0882A_WorldGivingReport_Interactive_
070910.pdf

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4. Mapping the Global Muslim Population, Pew Research Center, October 2009, http://pewforum.
org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf
5. Op cit.
6. For further discussion on the theories of giving from multi disciplinary perspectives (such as
economic, sociology, psychology, anthropology and political economics), Kolm and Ythier
(2006).
7. Indirectly implies that the gift or support is channeled through charitable institutions. For
example, helping cancer patients could be done through giving to cancer foundations.
8. The questionnaire is in Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian Language) and is available upon
request.
9. Government-linked Islamic charitable organisations refer to Islamic charities established
and managed by the government or semi-government organisations.
10. Civil-society based Islamic charitable organisations refer to Islamic charities established and
managed by public or mass-organisation (organisasi massa) and other public-and-religious
interest groups.
11. The questionnaire was initially sent to ten mailing lists joined by the author, with a note to
the recipients to forward it to their friends. This is intended to get larger and random
samples while enjoying the benefit of the so-called snowball effect.
12. The correlation statistic used is the standard Pearson correlation statistic which is widely
used in any statistical analysis. Therefore, a detailed discussion on this statistic is not
included. For more discussion on this, refer to Lind et al. (2008) and Field (2009).
13. For example, some respondents mention that their main reasons for giving are to support
Palestine and anti-corruption programmes in Indonesia.
14. Latest official estimation (2005), available at: http://indonesia.go.id/id/index.php?optioncom_
content&taskview&id112&Itemid1722
15. Secondary education here refers to Junior high school (SMP) or level 7-9 of (common)
elementary education.
20. Most Indonesians retire after 55, except for some positions (businessmen, politician, etc.)
and/or for highly skilled individuals (senior government officers, academics, etc).
16. Geologically, Indonesia is located in a volcano ring and earthquake zone which makes it
highly exposed to numerous natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
(Van Bemmelen, 1970). Floods are also regular in Indonesia, which presumably related to the
increasing environmental damage done to the landscape.
17. It is reported that the amount of zakah and other Islamic charitable funds, known as ZIS
funds, collected through formal Islamic charities in Indonesia nearly doubled from Rp. 271
billion to 414 billion during the 2005-2006 period, a period when the tsunami disaster
occurred (PEBS-FEUI and CID, 2009).
18. Assumption: 1 USD Rp. 9,090.4. This is the official exchange rate in 2010, as cited from the
World Bank data.
19. Data from the World Bank web site: http://data.worldbank.org/country/indonesia
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About the author
Rahmatina Awaliah Kasri specialises in Islamic economics, banking and finance as well as
international and development economics, with experience both in academic and practical fields.
Currently, she is a PhD research student in Durham Islamic Finance Program (DIFP) at Durham
University United Kingdom. Previously she was the Academic Manager and researcher at the
Center for Islamic Economic and Business (PEBS) University of Indonesia as well as a lecturer at
the Department of Economics in the same university. She gained her BA in Economics from
University of Indonesia; MA in International and Development Economics from Australian
National University, and MBA in Islamic Banking and Finance from International Islamic
University of Malaysia. Her works has been published in various international conferences and
several reputable journals including International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance
and Management, journal of King Azis University: Islamic Econ and Journal of Islamic
Economic, Banking and Finance. Rahmatina Awaliah Kasri can be contacted at:
unirahma@yahoo.com

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