MEMS technology overview

There are two main types of MEMS technologies. The first is the bulk
micromachining, done via the removing of parts of the semiconductor substrate
for the creation of structures with degrees of mechanical freedom or of functional
cavities; basically, in this technology everything is made directly on the silicon and
with the silicon, for example cantilevers, cavities and membranes, for the
realization of particular MEMS like the labs on chip.
The second type of MEMS technology is
the surface micromachining, where layers of
the material are deposited on the substrate, defined by lithography and
removed without affecting the substrate material for the creation of structures
with degrees of mechanical freedom. In this case, the structural material is
deposited on the surface of the substrate and processed with steps of
lithography and selective etching, while the substrate material (called bulk)
remains unaffected; the release of the structure, in order to gain the
mechanical freedom we need, is obtained by selective etching (wet chemical,
anisotropic plasma or RIE, Reactive Ion Etching) of some sacrificial layers, and thats why a lot of MEMS are
characterized by those diffused holes on their surface.

MEMS - Inertial sensors and accelerometer

Inertial forces
An inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference in
which the Netwo s first law applies, so an object moves
at a constant velocity if it is not acted by an external force;
all inertial frames are in a state of constant and rectilinear
motion in respect to one another. Considering a noninertial reference frame in respect to an inertial one, we
have these equations:

Pa =
P +

P +
+

Pa =
P

P
Pa =
P +
+
P +
P +
So, the relative observer at measures an acceleration
P of the point-like mass at , therefore he assumes

is acting on . If he is interested in measuring the

that a force
P =
Pa
= Pa i
P =
acceleration of his non-inertial reference system in respect to the absolute inertial reference system, he can apply the
equation:

=
Pa
P
Lets ake a si ple exa ple of a o e-dimension motion: we have a car accelerating along the axis (
> ) and
an object completely free to move on it. Without considering friction, we will have
P =
i

P =

,
so
an
observer
on
the
car
can
measure
his
own
acceleration
with
respect
to
the
absolute
reference
P

frame by using a measuring system only looking in his non-inertial reference frame. Another example would be an
object attached to a spring onto an accelerating car: the equations would be more complex, but still can measure
his own acceleration by looking inside his non-inertial reference frame.
The MEMS accelerometer
Lets ow co sider a o -inertial reference system, represented in the figure by a grey
box, which has a free-to-move mass inside it, however connected to the frame of the
box by a spring and a damp. So, the forces applied to our mass will be caused by inertia,
spring and damp, resulting in:

i
= a =

= a p +p i
p i =

a p=
{

Where
=
+
. So:

+
+
=

2
Being 2
= P ,
+
= Pa and 2
= = i , we can write the previous

equation as P = Pa + i . We can then convert our equation to the Laplace domain, being
the position of
the mass with respect to the frame and
the acceleration of the frame:

+
+
=
=
The transfer function will be:

+ +
+
+

And being =

the resonating frequency and

the quality factor, we can write the equation that

describes the position of the two complex conjugate poles of the low-pass transfer function,

2 + +2

or =

approximate

2 2 + .

, then

In particular, for frequencies smaller than the resonating one we can

The capacitive readout of accelerometer

How to measure the displacement
To measure the movement of a seismic mass in one direction, we can attach a
metal plate on the mass (rotor) and another metal plate to the frame (stator), which
is fixed, creating a small capacitance: in this way, when the mass moves, it varies the

capacity of our little system, according to the equation =
; we can also use a

differential capacitance in order to have a more precise measurement.

Capacitive readout of the position of the seismic mass
The displacement of the seismic mass must be quite small in order to avoid non-linear behaviors, so if
we can write:

then

Lets ow e plai the ph si al phe o e a

that rule this system. Considering that the
upper stator is connected to + and the
lower to , the charge stored on the rotor
changes as a consequence
of the
displacement from the equilibrium position. If
= and > , then decreases and increases, so
decreases and + increases, therefore > and > , which is equal to say:
= + = + >
If:

=
=
= =

+
+
+

=
=

= = +

Then:

=
+
=

And, if , we can write

and + , so
. The output signal, of course, will
be:

The parasiti apa ita es do t o e i to pla i this s he e, e ause the would e o

impedance virtual ground of the opamp, keeping their bias null.

=
=

Electrostatic forces between the electrodes

We can evaluate the electrostatic force between the plates of our capacitance
applying the principle of virtual work: in condition of static equilibrium, a
mechanical force balances the electrostatic one; if we apply a virtual incremental
displacement we can say that the voltage generator performs a work equal
to:
=
=

+
+ =
+
Considering that =
=
+ =
, we can write:

=

=
+
=

We can now put everything together; if

=

,
= , =
i
a
p i

, we can write:

e ted to the low-

and =


In particular, if

we have:

( +

=


=


In the physical equation, then, we have to substitute an effective stiffness to the real one of the spring in order to
consider the electrostatic forces as well: this phenomenon is called softening of the spring.

The equilibrium conditions with zero external acceleration

When = , the equilibrium conditions are
= and
which leads to the equation:

=
+
p ing

Which can be written as +

when

= ,

. If we plot

this equation, we can actually see on the graph the points of stable and
unstable equilibrium; in particular, for a stable equilibrium near = it
is necessary that:
>

<

If we do t respe t these o ditio s, a pull-in effect could appear leading to a positive force on the mobile electrode
at = .
The equilibrium conditions with non-zero external acceleration
In this case, we have the equation:

Where =

=
+
p ing

As we can see from the plot, for a stable system

there is a maximum value (usually written in the
datasheet) of the applied acceleration over which
the rotor a t fi d a equilibrium position, so the
maximum useful displacement is lower than .

So, considering , we can easily say that:

=
=

is the electrostatic equivalent stiffness. In particular,

We can now define the sensitivity of an accelerometer, which is:

=
=

However, from the point of view of the MEMS designer, the sensitivity is better defined as =

Being = +

and =

, we can now write:

Spring stiffness
Lets o co sider a ca tile er;
stiffness as:

e ca assu e it as a spri g a d co pute its

=
=
=

Of course, this equation is exactly the same with the direction changed
accordingly if we want to bend the cantilever in a different direction than . We can
now define the Young modulus:
/

Stress
= =
=
=

Strain /
For poly-silicon, the Young modulus is equal to =
9 .
Lets o co sider a s ste i
hich there are ore tha o l o e spri g: for e a ple, lets co ect t o spri g i
parallel. We have the chain of equations:
=
=
=
( + ) = +
= =
{ =
=
If we connect the two springs in series:
=

{
In particular, in the MEMS technology springs with guided end are often used,
for example the one in the figure. We can consider this spring like the sum of two
springs connected in series, leading to this chain of equations:
=

= + =
Since we have

+
=

, we can compute the total stiffness as

=
=
, which is four times bigger than a regular spring with free end. If we

then connect four springs to a seismic mass, we will get a total stiffness equal to four times
the stiffness of the single spring.
This design leads to the folded spring, which can be basically considered as a series
connection of springs with guided end, so its total stiffness can be computed as:

=
=
folds folds

The Brownian noise

Because of the damping, any oscillation of the seismic mass decreases, so we need to include a fluctuation force in
order to prevent the unphysical result of the mass going below the temperature of the surrounding system. We can
evaluate this force as follows:

+
+
=

With the Laplace transform:

+
+
=
We can then write:

= [
] = [ ] =
=

++
Lets o try to e aluate the spe tru

=|

Where = and =

. So:

For a reasonably large ,

has a less wide peak, therefore we can assume that
and then:

We can now compute:

=


=

And then:



=
=
=
4
8
4
0
From the Boltzmann statistic, we can write = =
, so:
8
=
4

of our ra d e for e:

In particular, for low frequencies we have

leads to:
4
4

4
=

and

=4

=4

, therefore

02

, which

MEMS resonators I
We can design a MEMS resonator with a moving differential capacitor, just like the one we use for the
accelerometers, with however a feedback system that can push/pull the mobile part between the two other fixed
plates actually, for practical reasons, the moving part is biased to and only one of the fixed plates, called actuator,
is biased with an oscillating voltage
.
Lets ow a alyze this syste , i particular the electrical forces o the rotor.
Considering and , we have:

=
=
( +
)

=
=
(
)
{
+

If we define the electrical stiffness as =

once again, we can write

that:

+
=

Inserting this result in the classic dynamical equation, we get this chain of equations:

+
+
=
=

+
+ ( )
=

Applying Laplace transform:

+
+ ( )
=

+ +

= =

We can now determine the actuation current

, then we can eventually say that:

Defining =
Where

and

; if , we can also write that =

, we can compute the input admittance

, if , which is

= (

as:

+ =

, which are the values of an

and

parasitic capacitance, thus the transfer function becomes

+ +
+

hypothetical equivalent circuit. The transfer function can be computed as well,

resulting in a low-pass transfer function with two complex conjugate poles
with a resonance peak:

=
=
=
=

+ +
+
+

Where =

( ) =

; we can also consider the feedthrough

+ +

MEMS resonators II
Usually, if we are interested in building a MEMS resonator, we are going to build a
beam resonator. The most used beam resonator is the clamped-clamped one, which
is formed by a sensing bar fixed between two walls, while at its side there are two
electrodes, an actuation one and a sensing one. Under the action of the electrical
forces, the beam is bent and oscillates, following some dynamical equations; if we
assume that
, =
, we can write:

+
+
=

Where we have:

+ =

+ (

The resonance frequency can be computed as, ignoring axial forces for the moment :
=

While considering also axial forces we get:

=

In the case of clamped-clamped resonators

with rectangular cross-section, = . and
= .
.
At this point, we can apply the concepts we have learned
in order to build a new MEMS: the resonant
microaccelerometer. The formulae that rule this device are:

+
=

+
Where

=
.

is the leverage amplification factor. In

particular, since the resonance frequency is

=
, we
can note that it depends on the bias through the equation:

The signal amplitude at resonance is:

=
=
=
( )

= =

( )

=

While the resonance frequency peak delta can be computed as = =
.

So, basically, the resonators are kept in oscillation at resonance frequency through oscillating circuits, while a
following stage demodulates the two oscillators outputs and computes the differential frequency shift, so the
oscillator output is frequency modulated by the external acceleration: in order to be successful with this approach, we
need a correct electrical modeling
of the micro-mechanical resonator.

How an oscillator works

Let us consider an LC in parallel with a current generator: we clearly obtain an infinite oscillation, however in reality
we also have the resistance of the wires so a resistor in parallel to our circuit that damps our oscillation cycle by
cycle. In this situation we do not have an oscillator, so we have to add an active circuit that provides a negative
resistance equal to the real one in order to restore the ideal oscillation: of course, we have to give the circuit some
power, the same power that the resistance dissipates every cycle. Thus, the voltage does a walk around the circuit and
returns with the same amplitude then, I have a l
= ; however, this leads to an unstable work point (for
example, noise or l
= + can make the system diverge), so I design a l
> and introduce somewhere a
limitation in the currents/voltages running, like a non-linear part.
Ideally, in a MEMS oscillator we will have a nice oscillation at the resonant frequency of our circuit; however, we
need to consider the feedthrough capacitance, whose effect we can kill using opamps. Opamps add another problem,
because they are filtering due to their bandwidth, making the l
> at an angle of and creating a positive
feed a k at a f e ue y we do t wa t: addi g apa ita es o the feed a k of the opa ps eati g little low-pass
filters we can kill this effect too. Now, however, the resonance peak is very poor, so we need to design a feedthrough
capacitance compensating circuit in order to amplify only the peak. We can put an opamps with a capacitance on the
output equal to the feedthrough capacitance, compensating its effect by draining all its current, but this is difficult

because is not clearly known. We can add another opamp with an output capacitance equal to =
2

2 =

. This is a good situation, but l

is quite borderline: we can easily trim a resistance on one of our

opamps in order to increase the loop gain of the desired and need factor.
To improve the design of the circuit, we can add decoupling capacitance in order to avoid saturation of the opamps
when I power on the circuit I want the oscillation to start from noise!

MEMS magnetometer
In order to design correctly a MEMS magnetometer,
we can follow and use the power of Maxwells
equation; however, for the moment we can just
consider the important equation of Lorentzs law, which
is:
= + =

+
So, we can use this
equation to build a
magnetometer, formed by
a mobile mass, which is
kept in place by a couple of
springs, and several stators, in order to measure the
displacement through a capacitive readout; in particular,
we need a current flowing in the sp ings. No
e can see the effect of Lo entzs fo ce: in fact, if the actuation cu ent
is continuously changing, lets say e ual to = sin , the rotor will be
subject to a force equal to:
= = sin

In particular, we should design the MEMS in order to have a current signal at
resonance; as a matter of fact, we have = 0 if or a more important
=

if = .

We can now compute the sensitivity at resonance, which will be

; knowing that

= and =

02

for and

, we can finally write that:

02

with

Ho e e , the es a t ade-off between sensitivity and bandwidth, since we have:

We can now easily calculate also the resolution:

=

{

=
4 =
4

= 4
=

And the S/N:

Where =

=
=
=

4

4
4

; both of these two parameters are inversely proportional to the bandwidth.

With the aim of optimizing our magnetometer, we can increase the

sensitivity: we can decrease the frequency until > ,
increase and which are limited by power dissipation budget or
decrease the dissipation factor improving the internal vacuum. We
can also reduce the number of parallel-plate capacitor, since the
sensitivity is independent on the number of them, which allows its
reduction saving semiconductor area. In particular, we can note that
the quality factor is inversely proportional to the number of
capacitors:
+
=
=
=

Bxby magnetometer
The basic structure and way of functioning of the magnetometer can be
extended in order to make it measure the magnetic field also in the other
two axis, always considering the Lorentz force. In this case, we will
consider a turn through which a current flows: this will trigger the Lorentz
force, and the turn will bend towards one of the sides, rotating. We can
easily measure the displacement by putting a couple of dynamic capacitors on the turn, like always.
Just like the previous model of magnetometer,
this one oscillates during its working, however we
should carefully estimate the frequency of its
oscillation in order to avoid unwanted higher
orders of oscillations that can be dangerous for the
integrity of the MEMS. In particular, in the figure
we can see a complete magnetometer that can be
used to measure the magnetic field in all three
axes.

Off-resonance magnetometer
We already know that the modulation of the
Lorentz force with a current signal at resonance
is equal to = sin , because

if = then = 0 . However, we can note that if the current signal is off

resonance we obtain = sin , since if then
= 0 ; finally, if the current signal is near resonance, we can say that:

= sin
=
0

We can then approximate the transfer function off-resonance as follows:

=
=

+

|=|
|=
=

| + |

Considering that < ,

|

= ,

and

Since

, we can write that:

= and

. We can also compute

sensitivity and bandwidth through the equations:

=
=
=

for
> , where
Since |
=

is the bandwidth around electronically filtered; the

electronic filter should cut-off efficiently the thermal noise out of , in particular for the noise amplified by the
resonance peak. The signal-to-noise ratio is:

=
=
=
=

In particular, it is possible to
improve the resolution without
affecting the bandwidth by
increasing , provided that the
noise out of the

bandwidth at can be
electronically filtered. Usually,
the readout electronics for
testing purposes is the one in
the figure, and in this case we can expect a
noise pattern like the one in the graphic,
while an example of a current generator for
this type of MEMS can be seen in the other
figure. Typically, the overall power dissipation of these devices is less than . .

Gyroscope I Basics
Relative motion
To understand correctly how a gyroscope works, first we must
master the principles of relative motion. Taking the figure on the side,
we can easily write down some equations that describe the relative
motion:

= +
+

=
In particular, if we define the new vector of dragging velocity as
=

+
, we can write
=
+
; deriving this
equation, we obtain:

=
+
=
+

+


+
+

aggi g a

ai

=C

i i a

ai

=
+

So, we can write that

=

. Of course, the equation regarding the forces will be:

=
=


=
+
+
=
+
i

inert

If we consider a rotating motion where a frame that contains a still point is rotating with a constant angular
speed
in the inertial frame
, we can write down a couple of equations that describe the accelerations, since

=
= :

=


=

=
=
=
, while the total force on is obviously null as seen by
o, the true force on is equal to

, since the point is still. The apparent force on seen by to be balanced by a constraint to keep it still is called

centrifugal force, and is equal to
=
=
.
i

The gyroscope operating principles

The goal of a gyroscope is to determine by means of measurements performed on board of the non-inertial
reference system; if we move the inertial mass with a speed with respect to the rotating reference system along

a path parallel to the axis, the mass will experience an inertial force
=
+
:
i

]
+

=
= [

i
=

{
=

if
is known.
If we manage to measure
, then we can determine
on the spring with a
We can measure
with a spring, and the force
classic capacitor. An oscillation is forced on the seismic mass along at a
frequency equal to the resonance frequency along , so that:
=

= sin
{ = cos
The Coriolis force along is equal to
= cos .
If
we
consider
for the sake of
=
simplicity, we can say that
; then, if we reverse the speed, we get

+ =
+ , so

,
that
+
=
so

+ = .
Considering
,
, we can say in general:
(

) = 4
{
= 4
In a simplified basic structure of a gyroscope, the driving is performed by
interdigitated capacitors, while the sensing is done with differential parallel plate
capacitors, as for an accelerometer.
Lets now consider electrostatic forces in interdigitated capacitors, we can start
from the classic equation
=
and derive it:

Since = + = , we can write that:

=

The capacitance is equal to

, which is derived as =
, we can finally write the equation:

|=
=|

Since there are two stators for each rotor, we obviously have that
=

( +

us to

. If
)

, we have

, while we have

, so

, which leads

. Finally, we have a total elastic force equal to:

=

sin( )

Where should be set at the resonance frequency of the actuation system in order to enhance the effect of
At resonance, we have:


=[
sin( )
= [
] sin( ) =
] cos( )

= cos( )
The Coriolis force can be then computed as:
= = cos( ) = cos( )
Lets note that there is a 9 phase difference between the driving and sensing motions.
The transfer function between the Coriolis force and the displacement along is equal to:

( ) +

If we suppose that the resonance frequencies of driving and sensing motions are the same, we can also write:

| ( )| =

= cos( ) =

So, in order to have an acceptably large displacement we must have a very

good .

cos( )

Gyroscope II Signal readout

At sensing and driving resonance frequency, the displacement
during the sensing mass motion under the effect of the Coriolis force
can be written as:
= cos

{
=

Using the readout circuit in the figure, for

we obtain:

cos

The sensitivity in matched operations can be computed as:

=
=
=
[
]=

/



=
=
=
=

[
]
=

If we suppose that the noise is due only to the sensing part of the device, since

write the noise equation for matched operations:

We can also write the equation as

=

2
0 0

[ ]
6 /

, which then leads us to

, we can

. Another important and used expression of the resolution in gyroscope is the following:

and

If we want to operate off-frequency instead, the transfer function will be somehow different and in order to have a
stable sensitivity it is required that = is stable and it is convenient to electronically stabilize . We
have:

|
=
| | = |

Where =
, obviously. The sensitivity can be written as:

=|

=|

=
=
=
=
=

=





A gyroscope can also be built using a differential configuration, in order to avoid the problem of a single sensing
mass which is also sensitive to the acceleration components along the direction; in this way, the inertial force from
the acceleration produces a common mode displacement of the two sensing masses.

Allan variance of gyroscopes

Since in a gyroscope we need something to oscillate at a fixed
frequency, we should take into account that this frequency could
vary due to some noise during its oscillation. For example, we can
take the graph that represents the variation rate in the oscillation
frequency, which is obviously random. From the rate, we can get the

angle from the relation = , so that

=
with

= or alternatively = with = . In this way, we

can integrate the angle and
plot the random walks.
Taking as a random
variable, of course we can write the following equations:
=

The dispersion of the final angle is:

sa p es

sa p es

sa

p es

sa

sa p es

p es

Since = , we can write that = , where we have:

+

( ) = ( )

( )
=

However, we have some technical difficulties in defining . Thus, we define the Allan variance as:
=

(
+ )
=

An equivalent filter of Allan variance procedure is =

si 2
2

si 4
2

, while a gated integrator is

. The Allan variance with white noise, so that = , is:

sin4
sin4
/
=
=
= [
]

While, with noise, so that = , it is:

= log

Radiation interactions with semiconductors

The EM radiation spectrum
As we already know, the EM radiation spectrum is divided in categories of wavelenght and frequency. In particular,
4
we will consider in this course infrareds, visible light, ultraviolets, X rays and gamma rays, spacing from
and
. Lets recall that the energy of an EM radiation is equal to = = .

Absorption of NIR, visible and UV photons in silicon

When silicon absorbs a photon, if its energy is somehow
compatible with the energy gap of an electron, what happens
is that the electrons get energized and jumps to a higher level.
In particular, depending on the energy of the EM radiation, we
have different absorption coefficients; the formula is the
following:

=
exp (
)=
exp
Where

The main interactions of X rays with matter

When an X ray collides with silicon, an electron is freed from its bonding and shot away with and energy equal to
; the vacancy that this electron lies behind itself is filled by another electron from an outer shell, and
=
this fall emits an X ray with energy equal to

, while an Auger electron can be emitted as a

=
3
competing process of the X ray emission. This is called photoelectric effect.
Another effect that can be experienced is the Compton scattering, where the X ray interacts with an electron of the

outer shell of the atom, resulting in the ejection of the electron with =
and the loss of some energy of
the X ray, which is also deflected and has now an energy equal to

=
=

+
cos

Instead of a Compton one, we could also experience a

Rayleigh scattering, where the X ray interacts with an
electron of the outer shell but its energy does not change nor
the electron is ejected, the X ray is only deflected.
In particular, if the X ray has an energy higher than
.
, it can interact within the atom disappearing and
generating an electron-positron pair, which then annihilates
producing two gamma rays of .
each, an effect
called pair production.
We can now compute the interaction probability per unit

=
=
; since
length with the formula =
=

is the number of atoms per unit of volume, we can

define the mass attenuation coefficient = and rewrite

the equation as it follows:

=
=
=

X ray fluorescence (XRF)

Of course, the energy of the fluorescence photon is characteristic of the emitting atom and in particular of the
energy difference between the two levels the electron jumps. This information is very important because from the
analysis of the emission spectrum of a material we can identify its constituting elements. This is a direct consequence
of the photoelectric effect.
The charge generation in semiconductor detectors from the X ray interaction
We are interested to these kind of interaction because of the signal generation in radiation detectors: in fact, the
amplitude of the output signal is proportional to the energy of the incoming X ray. Through a cascade of events, the
energy of the incoming photon is transferred to the fast electrons, which then generate electron-hole couples by
breaking covalent bonds, so that we can read the information somehow.

The average number of couples generated

in the detector is equal to:
=

Where is the energy of the incoming

photon while is the average energy
required to generate an electron-hole
couple, which is . in silicon. The
statistical spreading of the number of
couples is =

Radiation detectors
Semiconductor detector structure
Tipically, a radiation detector is fabricated based on a reverse-biased
one sided step pn junction; in fact, electron-hole pairs are separated by
the electric field in the depleted region that is formed inside the
junction, and then those are collected by the readout circuit,
meanwhile in the undepleted region the pairs mostly recombine and
are not collected. Thus, radiation detectors are fully depleted in order
to collect the charge generated in the whole detector thickness.
In order to avoid very large electic fields at the rectifying junction
(avalanche risk) and very high biasing voltages, low doping is required in the depleted region; moreover, to avoid small
drift velocity near the ohmic contact the detector is overdepleted, being biased to have a > , so that in this
case = .

High-res Si detectors
The depletion region should be deeper than a few absorption lengths of the considered radiaton, in order to
approximate the unitary quantum effect. We can write:

= exp = exp (
)
=

Also, we have to choose the right kind of silicon substrate, preferring high resistivity ones in order to use reasonable
voltages. Just like power device junctions that very often must sustain high reverse voltages, in order to avoid
breakdown effects, the maximum electric field have to be limited due to this equation:
|

Thus, must be low and high resistivity wafers are required.

Entrance window effect

Since typically detectors have protective external windows, sometimes some charge can not be correctly collected.
In fact, the electron-hole pairs experience a full charge collection only after a certain amount of diffusion inside the
depleted region, also considering the effective transmission coefficient of the protective window.

Signal readout I
The resolution in the measurement of the charge delivered to the detector by the interaction depends obviously on
the device properties and the noise of the electronic circuit. Basically, the incident photon delivers a monoenergetic
pulse, that is then spread by the number of couples electron-hole and the subsequent electronic noise contribution,
which must be kept as low as
possible.
In the figure, we have the
block diagram of a typical
detection system for X ray
detection. In this case, the
noise in parallel to the input
signal is a white noise and is
equal to:
=
White the noise at the minus terminal of the opamp comprises both white and noise, being equal to:

+
=

In the circuits we are going to realize,

we will need a charge preamplifier,
however for what concerns signal-tonoise ratio it is equivalent to use a
voltage preamplifier, which is simpler
to a alyze. Lets
o sider the
simplified circuit in the figure, where
the capacitor comprises every
capacitance, so that = + + . We will have an input current equal to
=

Thus, the maximum output voltage is equal to

Now, for the oise. Lets defi e the

as:

+
|

We will obtain:

=( +

||

The signal-to-noise ratio can be computed as follows:

( ) =

max (

max (

Then, we can define the Equivalent Noise Charge (ENC), which is the charge
=

= +

e ie

i e

( +

||

i e

+ +

+
).

= , leading to:

||

that makes
|

| +

= :

= /||
||

llel i e

Basi ally, the ENC represe ts the i i u sig al that a e dete ted. Lets ow a alyze this parti ular para eter,
and note that
depends on the shape and on the time duration of the output pulse of the shaping amplifier; if
we make a substitution ( = ) in the previous equation, we will obtain:
=

||

 = +

+ +
+

Writing the equation in this way, if a different choice of

= is performed, we can easily write:
=
=
=

Since

= (

The graph here shows the predominant noise effect as the

shaping time changes.
We can also rewrite the ENC in terms of the transistor
parameters, with cutoff frequency, noise corner and

= :
+
+

The Full Width at Half Maximum can be computed as:

The resolution is

+ ) , we can rewrite the equation as follows:

= . 5 = . 5

Signal readout II
In order to optimize the ENC, we can do a number of things. For example, we can choose the optimal shaping time,
which is equal to:

= +

= +

1
3

Also, we usually want to match the detector capacitance with the gate capacitance to minimize the series white and
noise; also, reducing the detector capacitance in matched conditions helps, because it reduces the lowest value of

the curve in the graph. Obviously, another way is to reduce the parallel noise sources by cooling the detector,
reducing its active volume, improving its technology or increasing the value of the resistors connected to the FET
inputs, and we should make sure to choose the best transistor.
One last thing to keep in mind is the signal processing, as this can heavily impact on the noise. If only white series
and parallel noise source are present, the best ENC is obtained by using an ideal filtering amplifier which gives at its
output an infinte cusp-shaped pulse, with

time costant = +

||

= , where the shaping time is set equal to the noise corner

. However, we need to use actual real and practical signal processors; in the figure,

we have a little table with their shape factors.

SDD basic concepts

The extremely important advantage of the Semiconductor Drift Detector
(SDD) in the the field of X ray spectroscopic detectors is its very low output
capacitance that is moreover independent on the detector active area, thus
reducing obviously the overall noise.
The new concept behind this kind
of device is the depletion from the
two sides, which can more easily and
fully deplete the semiconductor
wafer. In fact, the semiconducor can
be fully depleted by a small lateral
anode,
and
for
the
same
semiconductor
thickness
the
deplection voltage is a quarter:
2

2
This also is the cause of the low capacitance of the anode. Moreover, this
kind of device can determine the position of the interaction of ionizing
particles, via a number of rectifying electrodes which change the
potential depending on the diffusion length; the drift time is proportional
to the distance from the anode to
the interaction point of the
ionizing particle. This requires an
auxiliary trigger that gives the
start and the anode providing a stop signal.
The SSD can be used with an integrated JFET, which allows the reduction of
parasitic capacitances and the improvement of the capacitive matching
between detector and transistor. The main advantage of this strategy is the
very high resolution at fast shaping times.

SDD XRF applications

One SDD application that we are going to see is the FELIX,
Fast ELemental mapping Imaging with X ray, which is
composed by a polycapillary lens that allows a high photon
flux in a small excitation spot and low power X ray
generation, that collide with the sample. Due to the
effects we already studied, the detector will receive a
certain amount of electrons; the choice of a ring detector
centered on the beam allows a larger collection angle, and
the use of an SDD allows a high energy resolution along
with a high detection rate, without the need of a liquid
nitrogen cooling with respect to previous technologies.

Scintillators
For particular applications of detectors, we need to use gamma ray instead of classic X rays, so we need detectors
that can work with this other kind of rays. However, these rays have a range of interest that is a bit more difficult with
respect to the others, because the efficiency and the absorption coefficient are both minor.
We then include a scintillator that break the covalent bonds inside the atoms, giving energy to a fast electron that
goes to an excited state; then it falls onto the ground state, emitting a visible photon that is further detected by a
classic optical detector. The main properties of a scintillator are the attenuation length, the light generation efficiency,
the emission spectrum, the time of light decay, the refraction index and the physical properties of the material. The
average number of optical photons can be
computed as:

=
2 =
= =
The total is then computed as:
2

2 = 2

The resolution of this kind of system is:

The scintillator-photodetector-amplifier system

works with the following equations:
= =
2
2 =
2

+ 2 +
2

= . 6
= . 6

= 2

+ +

+ +

. 62 +

Image sensors and PD integration

The pixel sensors used nowadays in cameras use
array of detectors in order to capture the light. In
particular, since in the visible and near-visible range
every photon generates an electron-hole pair
regardless of its wavelenght thus creating a
monochromatic image, to have a color image we need
to superpose an array of color filters over the sensors,
like we can see in the image. This system somehow resembles the human vision during light conditions: in fact, on the
retina there are a series of cones that provide photopic vision and are sensible to three different wavelenght, opposed
to the rods that provide scotopic vision and a single spectral sensitivity during low light conditions.
There are two main types of imaging sensor. The first is the CCD (Charge-Coupled Device), that is simply a series of
column-connected detectors: when the light arrives, a certain amount of
charge is stored inside the various detectors in potential wells; then, a control
circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its content to its neighbor just like a
shift register, while the last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a
charge amplifier, converting the information in a voltage. In this way, the
whole content of the array is converted in a sequence of voltages.
The second is the CIS (CMOS Image Sensor), which utilizes an array of
photodiodes connected to CMOSs, and a circuitry that is able to read singularly every pixel by deciding its coordinates
(column and row). The photodiode, in this case, is thus used roughly like a capacitor.
Lets i parti ular a alyze this kind of image sensor, and the photodiode
operation mode. The device is firstly reset so that its voltage is zero, then when
light hits it there is an integration: the diode collects the charges and builds up a
certain voltage, which is the information we wanted. In particular, we have:

I side the p ju tio , lets o sider the Fer i le els of the t o differe t
parts. Initially, the difference between the two levels is equal to
; then,

when the charge is generated and integrated, the levels get closer and their difference becomes

, while

the double charge layer is reduced by the charge generation.

For e a ple, lets o pute the depletio la er harge at the egi i g a d the e d of the i tegratio ti e a d the
final anode voltage of a photodiode. So, the initial depletion charge is equal to
= + ;

since the photocurrent is

and the dark current is

generated in is equal to
=
+
= (

and
the
final
voltage
is
equal
to:

, we will have that the charge

; thus, the final depletion charge is

Then, we can use some simplifying assumption, for example the unitary quantum efficiency = and that the

dark current can be evaluated on the basis of the initial depletion width as .

If we take an integration time that goes to infinite, however, we can reach saturation; this is stable condition where
the light generation current is balanced by a diffusion current and the diode becomes slightly forward biased. In this
case, the simplifying assumption we have to make are the unitary
quantum efficiency = once again, the diffusion current equal

to

and, because =

= log

Now, if we take the charges =

and

we get:

, we can compute the extension of the depleted region as

) and then the voltage:

Which says that the voltage does not decrease linearly during the integration time, as we can see from the picture.
We could even make a more extreme approximation, modelling the reverse biased photodetector as a fixed value
=

capacitor of

, leading to a voltage equal to:

The dynamic range is:

=

Image sensors CMOS-PPS and APS

Lets o co sider the i age se sors that use CMOS. The first ki d of this de ice used a tech ology called PPS
(Passive Pixel Sensor), which has only one transistor per pixel and every pixel in the same column shares an amplifier;
finally, we have obviously a mux and an amplifier per chip. The CMOS-PPS readout sequence is quite simple: it begins
with the reset of the column charge amplifiers, then all the photodiode of the selected rows are connected to
preamplifiers and thus reset as well, letting the capacitor integrate signal and
dark current. Once the integration time is over, the sequence begins again until
the readout of all the rows.
Lets o e aluate the readout ti e usi g the si ple circuit i age on the left.
The values are:

= +
=
+

=( +
)
While the values of the transfer functions are:

=
= | =
+

Thus leading to a final value of the gain:

=
=
=

+
+

+
And the output voltage is equal to

( +

. This sensor, however, is too slow is

a high number of pixel is implemented.

This led to a new technology that brought the amplifier in each pixel, using three transistor for every pixel, one for
the reset and two that formed a source follower. This technology is called APS (Active Pixel Sensor) and it is the
nowadays most spread technology to realize image sensors. The CMOS-APS readout sequence is even simpler,
because the readout of photodiodes is performed at the end of the integration time by memorizing their voltages on
the column capacitors: basically, every pixel is read sequentially.
These sensors, however, brings to the table also another
problem, the rolling shutter artifacts, because the rows are not
read simultaneously. It is possible to develop CIS sensors with
global shutters or even just add a mechanical shutter on the focal
plane to prevent this kind of artifacts.
So, we can compute the readout time of these CMOS-APS if we
know the resistances and capacitances in play, that are:

=
=

Fi ally, lets ote that APSs are usually pro ided ith a icrole s on the
top of each photodiode, that redirects the light directly on the top of the
photodiode itself without harming the transistors around it, like we can
see in the figure.

Noise sources in image sensors

The first kind of noise source in image sensors if the noise or reset
noise, which is the one given by the switch on and off of the sensor itself. This
can be modeled as the circuit in the figure, where we have:
=4

4
{
=| | =
=
+
+
So:

=
=

= =

+
Since we have =

=
, we can write that, neglecting the
transitory regime after the opening and closing of the switch, the noise is
=
.
Lets no analyze the Poisson noise of the photocurrent; given a photon flux on the pixel , the average number
of photons interacting in the pixel during a sample of time is
= , obviously, and the photon noise is the
= because of the Poisson statistic. The average number of photoelectrons generated during
same =
that time is
= , and its noise is =
= ; the same goes with the average charge

generated is =

= . Remembering that =
with its noise is = =
, we can write that = . For example, we can use a sample image as a source and a per-pixel
Poisson to model an
otherwise perfect camera,
and we can note that the
quality increases rapidly
past ten photons per
pixel. Regarding the dark
current, we have an

average of thermally generated electrons

=
= , while the dark charge noise is =

, so we get

Other sources of noise can be the fixed pattern noise, whose offset is

and gain is equal to

electronics noise, .
The total noise is thus equal to:
= +

and dependent from pixel signal; lastly, we have the readout

So, we have the following signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range:

=
log

+ +
+ +
=

log

log

log

log

And we should note that the useful signal coming out from the
incident light is just a part of it, in fact we have reflected photons,
photons that hit the non-active part of the pixel (FF) and photons that
are not collected (QE).
In order to reduce some noise, we could introduce the Correlated
Double Sampling (CDS), that removes
noise and offset fixed
pattern noise, while however worsening the readout noise. In fact,
we have the following equations regarding signal-to-noise ratio and
dynamic range:

=
log

+ +
=

and independent from pixel signal

Now we can further analyze the readout sequence in a CMOS-PPS image sensor. Beginning from the end of the
readout , the detector is readout and reset at the voltage , while a charge fluctuation
remains on the
capacitor , so that
=
. The voltage fluctuation due to the amplifier noise is also memorized on ,
and the total noise is

, given that

Then, the integration starts and lasts , where a charge fluctuation is stored on
because of the statistics of
photons and thermal generation, resulting in = and = ; in the mean time, the
capacitor is reset through a switch, so a charge fluctuation remains there, resulting in =
. At the end of
integration , the charge on
is actually readout and transferred on , thus summed to the charge fluctuation
already present on : this leads to =
+ + ( + ) +
. On the output, the total
noise is equal to:

=
=
(
+ + ( + ) +
)
However, during the readout, at the output of the circuit there is also the usual output noise

equal to

the amplifier output.

, where

hose ariance is

is the bandwidth of a filter which is supposed to be connected to

CMOS APS image sensors

Lets talk about the latest innovations in CMOS APS
image sensors. In particular, it has been developed the
back illuminated sensor, where the silicon substrate of
the photodiode is placed just right after the on-chip
lenses and color filters, while the metal wiring is after
that instead of the front illuminated ones where the
wiring is in between the light source and the
photodiode. This newly developed image sensor
achieves a signal-to-noise ratio of +8 ( +6
sensitivity and 2 noise) in comparison to existing sensors of the same pixel size.
Another innovation is the pinned-diode APS pixel with four transistors, where in this case the PD discharge is not
affected by noise because it is not a reset to a given voltage but ideally a full depletion from all the integrated
charge. The main advantage of the 4T configuration is the negligibility of the discharge of the two storing capacitors
and because the photodiode voltage readout sequence is carried out in a very short time indepent on the
integration time. In this case, with the CDS configuration, we have:

= 20 log

+ + 2 +

So,

contributions disappear and the

= 20 log

= 20 log

term doubles.

+ 2

Photogate and CCD transfer cell

Basics about the ideal MOS structure
Obviously, in thermal equilibrium in the MOS and MS junctions the Fermi level is at the same height in the whole
system, and a double layer of charge is formed. In MOSM junctions instead, where the thermal equilibrium is
= + = =

, we have:
= + + = + +

= + +
In flat band conditions, instead, we have < and thus:
+ = =
In inversion conditions, we have = .
The voltage drop in MOSM in depletion conditions is = + + =
+ + =

2
2

; at the threshold of inversion is

+ + ; in inversion conditions is

= = log

= = log

and =

and

+ .
From the threshold of inversion on, the voltage drop in the depleted region of the semiconductor keeps the value of
about . The threshold voltage of the MOS junction is defined as:

=
+ +

Over the threshold voltage, we have = .

The photo-gate and the CCD transfer cell in non-equilibrium conditions

The evolution of the MOS junction after a voltage step at the gate is depicted in the figure. Regarding the potential
well, immediately after the voltage step at the gate is:

+ + =
+ +
= + + =

Some charge in the potential well, thermically or optically generated:

=
+
+ +

Then, the equilibrium state is reached with the saturation of the well:

+
+ +
=

In this case, analyzing the depth of the potential well versus accumulated charge,
we have:
|

| | +
= +
+ =

|
| | |

| |
0

We obtain that:
= (
)

And, in particular, we have

= and

| |