APPENDIX

SIGN CONVENTIONS IN ELECTROCHEMISTRY

In representing electrochemical processes, all half-cell reactions (those reactions

that occur at each electrode) are written as reduction reactions, thus:
Na+ + e-Na E = -2.71 V
Fe2+ + Ie -> Fe

E = 0.44 V

The addition of electrons to the system should be shown on the left side of the
reaction. By definition these are cathodic reactions: reduction always occurs at
the cathode and oxidation at the anode.
In the electrolytic cell, the anode may be shown with a minus charge and the
cathode with a positive charge. When the half-cells are coupled, electrons flow
from the anode through the conductor to the cathode.
In electrolysis, an external source of electron flow (a battery, rectifier, or directcurrent generator) is connected to the half-cells. The half-cell receiving electrons
is the cathode, because that is where cations are reduced. The cathode may be
shown with a positive sign, but this is unnecessary and may be confusing. Where
a battery is used as the direct-current source, the negative pole of the battery is
connected to the cathode, which may lead to a common and erroneous impression that the cathode of the electrolytic cell is negatively charged. In fact, the battery is itself an electrolytic cell, and its negative pole is the anode of that cell and
is supplying electrons to the cathode of the cell being electrolyzed.
Confusion is avoided by noting the half-cell reactions being studied and identifying the cathode as that surface where reduction is occurring, with the anode
being that surface where oxidation is occurring.

TABLE A.1

English/Metric Conversions

English unit
2

Acres (43,560 ft )
(640 acres/m2)
Acre-feet (acre-ft)
(325,851 gal/acre-ft)
Barrel (bbl) liquid
(42 gal/bbl)
British thermal units
(Btu)
Btu/lb
Btu/h/ft 2
Cubic feet (ft3)
(1 ft3H2O = 62.4Ib)
(1 ft3 = 7.48 gal)
Cubic feet per second
(ft3/s)
(1 ft3/s = 449
gal/min)
Fahrenheit degrees
(P)
(absolute zero =
-46O0F
or 0 Rankine)
Feet (ft)
(1 ftH20 = 0.434
lb/in2)
Feet per second (ft/s)
Gallons (gal)
(1 gal H2O = 8.345
Ib)
(7.48 gal/ft3)
Gallons per minute
(gal/min)
(695 gal/min = 1
mgd)
gal/min/ft2
(1 gal/min/ft2 = 1.6
in/min)
Grains per gallon
(gr/gal)
(Igr/gal = 17.1
ng/L)
Horsepower (hp)
Inches (in)
Mils(0.01 in)
Miles
Million gallons daily
(mgd)
(695 gal/min = 1
mgd)

Multiplied by
0.405

1234

Equals

Metric unit
Hectares (ha)
Cubic meters (m3)

0.16

m3

0.252

Kilocalories (kcal)

0.556
2.69
28.32
0.0283
1.7

2.45 X 103
0.556

kcal/kg (cal/g)
kcal/h/m2
Liters (L)
( I L = 100OmL = 1000cm3)
m3
m3/min
m3/day
Celsius degrees (C0)*

30.48
0.305

(absolute zero = 2730C

or O kelvin)
Centimeters (cm)
Meters (m)

0.305
3.785
0.00379

m/sec
Liters (L)
m3

3.785 X 10-3
5.45

m3
m3/day

40.6
4.06

L/min/m2
cm/min

0.0406
0.0406
17.1

m3/min/m2
m/min
Milligrams per liter (mg/L)

0.746
2.54
25.4
1.61
3785

2.62

Kilowatts (kW)
Centimeters (cm)
Microns (10~6 m)
Kilometers (km)
m3/day
m3/min

TABLE A.I

English/Metric Conversions (Continued)

English unit
Ounces (oz)
Ounces (fluid)
Pounds (Ib)
Pounds per cubic foot
(lb/ft3)
Pounds per square
inch (lb/in2)
(1 lb/in2 = 2.31 ft
H2O)
Square feet (ft2)
Square inches (in2)
Square miles (mi2)
Tons, long (t, long)
Tons, short (t, short)
Tons of refrigeration
(12,OOQBtu/h)
Yards

Multiplied by

Equals

28.4
29.6
0.454
453.6
0.016

Metric unit
g
Milliliters (mL)
Kilograms (kg)
Grams (g)
g/cm3

kg/m3
Atmospheres (atm) or bars

16.02
0.068

kg/m2

703

kg/cm2
mmHg
m2
cm2
ha
kg
Tons (t)
kcal/h

0.0703
51.7
0.093
6.452
260
1016
0.907
3024
0.9144

* For temperature conversions: (0F 32) X 0.555 = 0C.

TABLE A.2

mega (M)
kilo (k)
deci (d)
centi (c)

Metric Prefixes

106
103 1
io-2

io-

milli (m)
micro (M)
nano (n)
pico (p)

io-63
io-9
ioio-12