Eugenics

the decades following World War II, with the institution

of human rights, many countries gradually abandoned eugenics policies, although some Western countries, among
them Sweden and the US, continued to carry out forced
sterilizations for several decades.
The main critique towards eugenics policies is that regardless of whether negative or positive policies are
used, they are vulnerable to political abuse because the
criteria of selection are determined by whichever group
is in power. Furthermore, negative eugenics in particular
is considered by many to be a violation of basic human
rights, which include the right to reproduction.

Logo from the Second International Eugenics Conference, 1921,

depicting eugenics as a tree which unites a variety of dierent
elds.[1]

1 History

Eugenics (/judnks/; from Greek eugenes

well-born from eu, good, well and genos,
race, stock, kin)[2][3] is the belief and practice which
aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population.[4][5] It is a social philosophy advocating the improvement of human genetic traits through the promotion
of higher reproduction of people with desired traits (positive eugenics), or reduced reproduction and or sterilization of people with less-desired or undesired traits (negative eugenics), or both.[6]
While eugenic principles have been practiced as far back
in world history as Ancient Greece, the modern history
of eugenics began in the early 20th century when a popular eugenics movement emerged in Britain[7] and spread
to many countries, including the United States and most
European countries. In this period eugenic ideas were
espoused across the political spectrum. Consequently,
many countries adopted eugenic policies meant to improve the genetic stock of their countries. Such programs
often included both positive measures, such as encouraging individuals deemed particularly t to reproduce,
and negative measures such as marriage prohibitions
and forced sterilization of people deemed unt for reproduction. People deemed unt to reproduce often included people with mental or physical disabilities, people
who scored in the low ranges of dierent IQ tests, criminals and deviants, and members of disfavored minority
groups. The eugenics movement reached a climax in Nazi
Germany where a state policy of racial hygiene based on
eugenic principles led to the Holocaust and the murder by
the German state of approximately 11 million people. In

Francis Galton was an early eugenicist, coining the term itself

and popularizing the collocation of the words "nature and nurture".[8]

Main article: History of eugenics

The idea of eugenics to produce better human beings has
existed at least since Plato suggested selective mating to
1

2
produce a guardian class.[9] The idea of eugenics to decrease the birth of inferior human beings has existed at
least since William Goodell (1829-1894) advocated the
castration and spaying of the insane.[10][11]
However, the term eugenics to describe the modern
concept of improving the quality of human beings born
into the world was originally developed by Francis Galton. Galton had read his half-cousin Charles Darwin's
theory of evolution, which sought to explain the development of plant and animal species, and desired to apply
it to humans. Galton believed that desirable traits were
hereditary based on biographical studies.[12] In 1883, one
year after Darwins death, Galton gave his research a
name: eugenics.[13] Throughout its recent history, eugenics has remained a controversial concept.[14]
Eugenics became an academic discipline at many colleges and universities, and received funding from many
sources.[15] Three International Eugenics Conferences
presented a global venue for eugenists with meetings in
1912 in London, and in 1921 and 1932 in New York. Eugenic policies were rst implemented in the early 1900s
in the United States.[16] It has roots in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States.[17] Later, in
the 1920s and 30s, the eugenic policy of sterilizing certain mental patients was implemented in other countries,
including Belgium,[18] Brazil,[19] Canada,[20] Japan, and
Sweden.[21]
The scientic reputation of eugenics started to decline
in the 1930s, a time when Ernst Rdin used eugenics as
a justication for the racial policies of Nazi Germany.
Nevertheless, in Sweden the eugenics program continued until 1975.[21] In addition to being practised in a
number of countries, eugenics was internationally organized through the International Federation of Eugenics
Organizations.[22] Its scientic aspects were carried on
through research bodies such as the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics,[23] the Cold Spring Harbour Carnegie Institution for
Experimental Evolution,[24] and the Eugenics Record Ofce.[25] Its political aspects involved advocating laws allowing the pursuit of eugenic objectives, such as sterilization laws.[26] Its moral aspects included rejection of
the doctrine that all human beings are born equal, and redening morality purely in terms of genetic tness.[27] Its
racist elements included pursuit of a pure "Nordic race"
or "Aryan" genetic pool and the eventual elimination of
less t races.[28][29]
As a social movement, eugenics reached its greatest popularity in the early decades of the 20th century. At this
point in time, eugenics was practiced around the world
and was promoted by governments and inuential individuals and institutions. Many countries enacted[30]
various eugenics policies and programmes, including:
genetic screening, birth control, promoting dierential
birth rates, marriage restrictions, segregation (both racial
segregation and segregation of the mentally ill from the

HISTORY

rest of the population), compulsory sterilization, forced

abortions or forced pregnancies, and genocide. Most of
these policies were later regarded as coercive or restrictive, and now few jurisdictions implement policies that
are explicitly labelled as eugenic or unequivocally eugenic
in substance. The methods of implementing eugenics varied by country; however, some early 20th century methods involved identifying and classifying individuals and
their families, including the poor, mentally ill, blind, deaf,
developmentally disabled, promiscuous women, homosexuals, and racial groups (such as the Roma and Jews
in Nazi Germany) as degenerate or unt, the segregation or institutionalization of such individuals and groups,
their sterilization, euthanasia, and their mass murder.[31]
The practice of euthanasia was carried out on hospital patients in the Aktion T4 centers such as Hartheim Castle.

Hartheim Euthanasia Centre in 2005

By the end of World War II, many of the discriminatory

eugenics laws were largely abandoned, having become associated with Nazi Germany.[31][32] After World War II,
the practice of imposing measures intended to prevent
births within [a population] group fell within the denition of the new international crime of genocide, set out
in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide.[33] The Charter of Fundamental
Rights of the European Union also proclaims the prohibition of eugenic practices, in particular those aiming
at selection of persons.[34] In spite of the decline in discriminatory eugenics laws, government practices of compulsive sterilization continued into the 21st century. During the ten years President Alberto Fujimori led Peru
from 1990 to 2000, allegedly 2,000 persons were involuntarily sterilized.[35] China maintains its forcible one-child
policy as well as a suite of other eugenics based legislation in order to reduce population size and manage fertility rates of dierent populations.[36][37][38] In 2007 the
United Nations reported forcible sterilisations and hysterectomies in Uzbekistan.[39] During the years 200506
to 201213, nearly one-third of the 144 California prison
inmates who were sterilized did not give lawful consent to
the operation.[40]

3
kins University, claim that the change from stateled reproductive-genetic decision-making to individual
choice has moderated the worst abuses of eugenics by
transferring the decision-making from the state to the patient and their family.[44] Comfort suggests that "[t]he eugenic impulse drives us to eliminate disease, live longer
and healthier, with greater intelligence, and a better adjustment to the conditions of society; and the health benets, the intellectual thrill and the prots of genetic biomedicine are too great for us to do otherwise.[45] Others, such as bioethicist Stephen Wilkinson of Keele University and Honorary Research Fellow Eve Garrard at
the University of Manchester, claim that some aspects of
modern genetics can be classied as eugenics, but that this
classication does not inherently make modern genetics
immoral. In a co-authored publication by Keele University, they stated that "[e]ugenics doesn't seem always to
be immoral, and so the fact that PGD, and other forms of
selective reproduction, might sometimes technically be
eugenic, isn't sucient to show that they're wrong.[46]

2 Meanings and types

A Lebensborn birth house in Nazi Germany. Created with intention of raising the birth rate of "Aryan" children from extramarital relations of racially pure and healthy parents.

Developments in genetic, genomic, and reproductive

technologies at the end of the 20th century are raising
numerous questions regarding the ethical status of eugenics, eectively creating a resurgence of interest in the subject. Some, such as UC Berkeley sociologist Troy Duster,
claim that modern genetics is a back door to eugenics.[41]
This view is shared by White House Assistant Director for Forensic Sciences, Tania Simoncelli, who stated
in a 2003 publication by the Population and Development Program at Hampshire College that advances in preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) are moving society to a new era of eugenics, and that, unlike the Nazi
eugenics, modern eugenics is consumer driven and market based, where children are increasingly regarded as
made-to-order consumer products.[42] In a 2006 newspaper article, Richard Dawkins said that discussion regarding eugenics was inhibited by the shadow of Nazi misuse,
to the extent that some scientists would not admit that
breeding humans for certain abilities is at all possible. He
believes that it is not physically dierent from breeding
domestic animals for traits such as speed or herding skill.
Dawkins felt that enough time had elapsed to at least ask
just what the ethical dierences were between breeding
for ability versus training athletes or forcing children to
take music lessons, though he could think of persuasive
reasons to draw the distinction.[43]

Karl Pearson (1912)

The term eugenics and its modern eld of study were

rst formulated by Francis Galton in 1883,[47] drawing on
the recent work of his half-cousin Charles Darwin.[48][49]
Galton published his observations and conclusions in his
book Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development.

The origins of the concept began with certain interpreSome, such as Nathaniel C. Comfort from Johns Hop- tations of Mendelian inheritance, and the theories of

4
August Weismann.[50] The word eugenics is derived from
the Greek word eu (good or well) and the sux -gens
(born), and was coined by Galton in 1883 to replace the
word "stirpiculture", which he had used previously but
which had come to be mocked due to its perceived sexual
overtones.[51] Galton dened eugenics as the study of all
agencies under human control which can improve or impair the racial quality of future generations.[52] Galton
did not understand the mechanism of inheritance.[53]

2 MEANINGS AND TYPES

Jon Entine claims that eugenics simply means good
genes and using it as synonym for genocide is an alltoo-common distortion of the social history of genetics
policy in the United States. According to Entine, eugenics developed out of the Progressive Era and not Hitlers
twisted Final Solution".[61]

2.1 Implementation methods

Eugenics has, from the very beginning, meant many difAccording to Richard Lynn, eugenics may be divided into
ferent things. Historically, the term has referred to evtwo main categories based on the ways in which the metherything from prenatal care for mothers to forced sterods of eugenics can be applied.[62]
ilization and euthanasia. To population geneticists, the
term has included the avoidance of inbreeding without
1. Classical Eugenics
altering allele frequencies; for example, J. B. S. Haldane
wrote that the motor bus, by breaking up inbred village
(a) Negative eugenics by provision of information
communities, was a powerful eugenic agent.[54] Debate
and services, i.e. reduction of unplanned pregas to what exactly counts as eugenics has continued to the
nancies and births.[63]
present day.[55]
i. Just say no campaigns.[64]
Edwin Black, journalist and author of War Against the
ii. Sex education in schools.[65]
Weak, claims eugenics is often deemed a pseudoscience
iii. School-based clinics.[66]
because what is dened as a genetic improvement of a
iv. Promoting the use of contraception.[67]
desired trait is often deemed a cultural choice rather than
a matter that can be determined through objective scienv. Emergency contraception.[68]
[56]
tic inquiry. The most disputed aspect of eugenics has
vi. Research for better contraceptives.[69]
been the denition of improvement of the human gene
vii. Sterilization.[70]
pool, such as what is a benecial characteristic and what
viii. Abortion.[71]
is a defect. This aspect of eugenics has historically been
(b) Negative eugenics by incentives, coercion and
tainted with scientic racism.
compulsion.[72]
Early eugenists were mostly concerned with perceived
i. Incentives for sterilization.[73]
intelligence factors that often correlated strongly with social class. Some of these early eugenists include Karl
ii. The Denver Dollar-a-day program, i.e.
Pearson and Walter Weldon, who worked on this at the
paying teenage mothers for not becoming
University College London.[12]
pregnant again.[74]
iii. Incentives for women on welfare to use
Eugenics also had a place in medicine. In his lecture
contraceptions.[75]
Darwinism, Medical Progress and Eugenics, Karl Peariv. Payments for sterilization in developing
son said that everything concerning eugenics fell into the
countries.[76]
eld of medicine. He basically placed the two words as
equivalents. He was supported in part by the fact that
v. Curtailment of benets to welfare
Francis Galton, the father of eugenics, also had medical
mothers.[77]
[57]
training.
vi. Sterilization of the mentally retarded.[78]
Eugenic policies have been conceptually divided into two
categories. Positive eugenics is aimed at encouraging revii. Sterilization of female criminals.[79]
production among the genetically advantaged; for examviii. Sterilization of male criminals.[80]
ple, the reproduction of the intelligent, the healthy, and
(c) Licences for parenthood.[81][82][83]
the successful.[58] Possible approaches include nancial
(d) Positive eugenics.[84]
and political stimuli, targeted demographic analyses, in
[59]
vitro fertilization, egg transplants, and cloning.
The
i. Financial incentives to have children.[85]
movie Gattaca provides a ctional example of positive euii. Selective incentives for childbearing.[86]
genics done voluntarily. Negative eugenics aimed to elimiii. Taxation of the childless.[87]
inate, through sterilization or segregation, those deemed
iv. Ethical obligations of the elite.[88]
physically, mentally, or morally undesirable.[58] This
includes abortions, sterilization, and other methods of
v. Eugenic immigration.[89]
[59]
Both positive and negative eugenics
family planning.
2. New Eugenics
can be coercive; abortion for t women, for example, was
[60]
illegal in Nazi Germany.
(a) Articial insemination by donor.[90]

3.3

Losing genetic diversity by classifying traits as diseases

(b) Egg donation.[91]

3
3.1

eugenics is no longer ex post facto regulation of the living

(c) Prenatal diagnosis of genetic disorders but instead preemptive action on the unborn.
and pregnancy terminations of defective With this change, however, there are ethical concerns
fetuses.[92]
which lack adequate attention, and which must be ad[93]
dressed before eugenic policies can be properly imple(d) Embryo selection.
mented in the future. Sterilized individuals, for example,
(e) Genetic engineering.[94]
could volunteer for the procedure, albeit under incentive
(f) Gene therapy.[95]
or duress, or at least voice their opinion. The unborn fe[96]
tus on which these new eugenic procedures are performed
(g) Cloning.
cannot speak out, as the fetus lacks the voice to consent
or to express his or her opinion.[105] The ability to manipulate a fetus and determine who the child will be is
Arguments
something questioned by many of the opponents or, and
even proponents for, eugenic policies.

Doubts on traits triggered by inheriSocietal and political consequences of eugenics call for
tance
a place in the discussion on the ethics behind the eugen-

The rst major challenge to conventional eugenics based

upon genetic inheritance was made in 1915 by Thomas
Hunt Morgan, who demonstrated the event of genetic
mutation occurring outside of inheritance involving the
discovery of the hatching of a fruit y (Drosophila
melanogaster) with white eyes from a family of redeyes.[97] Morgan claimed that this demonstrated that major genetic changes occurred outside of inheritance and
that the concept of eugenics based upon genetic inheritance was not completely scientically accurate.[97] Additionally, Morgan criticized the view that subjective
traits, such as intelligence and criminality, were caused
by heredity because he believed that the denitions of
these traits varied and that accurate work in genetics could
only be done when the traits being studied were accurately dened.[98] In spite of Morgans public rejection
of eugenics, much of his genetic research was absorbed
by eugenics.[99][100]

3.2

Ethics

A common criticism of eugenics is that it inevitably

leads to measures that are unethical.[101] Historically,
this statement is evidenced by the obvious control of
one group imposing its agenda on minority groups. This
includes programs in England, Germany, and America
targeting various groups, including Jews, homosexuals,
Muslims, Romani, the homeless, and those with intellectual disabilities.[102]

ics movement.[106] Public policy often focuses on issues

related to race and gender, both of which could be controlled by manipulation of embryonic genes; eugenics and
political issues are interconnected and the political aspect
of eugenics must be addressed. Laws controlling the subjects, the methods, and the extent of eugenics will need
to be considered in order to prevent the repetition of the
unethical events of the past.
Most of the ethical concerns about eugenics involve issues
of morality and power. Decisions about the morality and
the control of this new science (and the subsequent results
of the science) will need to be made as eugenics continue
to inuence the development of the science and medical
elds.

3.3 Losing genetic diversity by classifying

traits as diseases
See also: List of congenital disorders

Eugenic policies could also lead to loss of genetic diversity, in which case a culturally accepted improvement
of the gene pool could very likelyas evidenced in numerous instances in isolated island populations (e.g., the
dodo, Raphus cucullatus, of Mauritius)result in extinction due to increased vulnerability to disease, reduced
ability to adapt to environmental change, and other factors both known and unknown. A long-term species-wide
Many of the ethical concerns from eugenics arise from eugenics plan might lead to a scenario similar to this beundesirable would
the controversial past, prompting a discussion on what cause the elimination of traits deemed[107]
reduce
genetic
diversity
by
denition.
place, if any, it should have in the future. Advances in
science have changed eugenics. In the past, eugenics has Edward M. Miller claims that, in any one generation, any
had more to do with sterilization and enforced reproduc- realistic program should make only minor changes in a
tion laws (i.e. no inter-racial marriage and marriage re- fraction of the gene pool, giving plenty of time to reverse
strictions based on land ownership).[103] Now, in the age direction if unintended consequences emerge, reducing
of a progressively mapped genome, embryos can be tested the likelihood of the elimination of desirable genes.[108]
for susceptibility to disease, gender, and genetic defects, Miller also argues that any appreciable reduction in diand alternatives to reproduction are becoming increas- versity is so far in the future that little concern is needed
ingly common, such as in vitro fertilization.[104] In short, for now.[108]

4 SUPPORTERS AND CRITICS

While the science of genetics has increasingly provided

means by which certain characteristics and conditions can
be identied and understood, given the complexity of
human genetics, culture, and psychology there is at this
point no agreed objective means of determining which
traits might be ultimately desirable or undesirable. Some
diseases such as sickle-cell disease and cystic brosis respectively confer immunity to malaria and resistance to
cholera when a single copy of the recessive allele is contained within the genotype of the individual. Reducing
the instance of sickle-cell disease in Africa where malaria
is a common and deadly disease could indeed have extremely negative net consequences.
However,
some
genetic
diseases
such
as
haemochromatosis can increase susceptibility to illness, cause physical deformities, and other dysfunctions,
which provides some incentive for people to re-consider
some elements of eugenics.

3.4.1 Pleiotropic genes

Pleiotropy occurs when one gene inuences multiple,
seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits, an example being
phenylketonuria, which is a human disease that aects
multiple systems but is caused by one gene defect.[113]
Andrzej Pkalski, from the University of Wrocaw, argues that eugenics can cause harmful loss of genetic diversity if a eugenics program selects for a pleiotropic gene
that is also associated with a positive trait. Pekalski uses
the example of a coercive government eugenics program
that prohibits people with myopia from breeding but has
the unintended consequence of also selecting against high
intelligence since the two go together.[114]

4 Supporters and critics

Autistic people have advocated a shift in perception of

autism spectrum disorders as complex syndromes rather
than diseases that must be cured. Proponents of this
view reject the notion that there is an ideal brain
conguration and that any deviation from the norm is
pathological; they promote tolerance for what they call
neurodiversity.[109] Baron-Cohen argues that the genes
for Aspergers combination of abilities have operated
throughout recent human evolution and have made remarkable contributions to human history.[110] The possible reduction of autism rates through selection against
the genetic predisposition to autism is a signicant political issue in the autism rights movement, which claims
that autism is a form of neurodiversity.

3.4

Heterozygous recessive traits

The heterozygote test is used for the early detection of

recessive hereditary diseases, allowing for couples to determine if they are at risk of passing genetic defects to
a future child.[111] The goal of the test is to estimate
the likelihood of passing the hereditary disease to future G. K. Chesterton in 1905, by photographer Alvin Langdon
Coburn
descendants.[111]
Recessive traits can be severely reduced, but never eliminated unless the complete genetic makeup of all members
of the pool was known, as aforementioned. As only very
few undesirable traits, such as Huntingtons disease, are
dominant, it could be argued from certain perspectives
that the practicality of eliminating traits is quite low.

At its peak of popularity, eugenics was supported

by a wide variety of prominent people, including
Winston Churchill,[115] Margaret Sanger,[116][117] Marie
Stopes, H. G. Wells,[118] Norman Haire, Havelock Ellis,
Theodore Roosevelt, Herbert Hoover, George Bernard
Shaw, John Maynard Keynes, John Harvey Kellogg,
Robert Andrews Millikan,[119] Linus Pauling,[120] Sidney
Webb,[121][122][123] and W. E. B. Du Bois.[124] Adolf
Hitler praised and incorporated eugenic ideas in Mein
Kampf and emulated eugenic legislation for the sterilization of defectives that had been pioneered in the United
States.[125]

There are examples of eugenic acts that managed to lower

the prevalence of recessive diseases, although not inuencing the prevalence of heterozygote carriers of those
diseases. The elevated prevalence of certain genetically
transmitted diseases among the Ashkenazi Jewish population (TaySachs, cystic brosis, Canavans disease, and
Gauchers disease), has been decreased in current popu- The American sociologist Lester Frank Ward,[126] the
lations by the application of genetic screening.[112]
English writer G. K. Chesterton, the German-American

7
anthropologist Franz Boas,[127] and Scottish tuberculosis pioneer and author Halliday Sutherland were all early
critics of the philosophy of eugenics. Wards 1913 article Eugenics, Euthenics, and Eudemics", Chestertons
1917 book Eugenics and Other Evils, and Boas 1916 article Eugenics (published in The Scientic Monthly) were
all harshly critical of the rapidly growing movement.[128]
Sutherland identied eugenists as a major obstacle to
the eradication and cure of tuberculosis in his 1917 address Consumption: Its Cause and Cure,[129] and criticism of eugenists and Neo-Malthusians in his 1921 book
Birth Control led to a writ for libel from the eugenist
Marie Stopes. Several biologists were also antagonistic to the eugenics movement, including Lancelot Hogben.[130] Other biologists such as J. B. S. Haldane and R.
A. Fisher expressed skepticism that sterilization of defectives would lead to the disappearance of undesirable
genetic traits.[131]
Some supporters of eugenics later reversed their positions
on it. For example, H. G. Wells, who had called for the
sterilization of failures in 1904,[118] stated in his 1940
book The Rights of Man: Or What are we ghting for?
that among the human rights he believed should be available to all people was a prohibition on mutilation, sterilization, torture, and any bodily punishment.[132]
Among institutions, the Catholic Church was an early
opponent of state-enforced eugenics.[133] In his 1930
encyclical Casti connubii, Pope Pius XI explicitly condemned eugenics laws: Public magistrates have no direct
power over the bodies of their subjects; therefore, where
no crime has taken place and there is no cause present for
grave punishment, they can never directly harm, or tamper with the integrity of the body, either for the reasons
of eugenics or for any other reason.[134]

See also
Biological determinism
Culling
Directed evolution (transhumanism)
Eugenics in the United States
Eugenics manifesto
Genetic determinism
Genetic enhancement
Genism
Human enhancement
In vitro embryo selection (preimplantation genetic
diagnosis)
Liberal eugenics

Life unworthy of life

Social Darwinism
Transhumanism

6 Notes
[1] Currell, Susan; Christina Cogdell (2006). Popular Eugenics: National Eciency and American Mass Culture in The
1930s. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. p. 203. ISBN
0-8214-1691-X.
[2] eugenics. Online Etymology Dictionary.
[3] "". A GreekEnglish Lexicon.
[4] Eugenics. Unied Medical Language System (Psychological Index Terms). National Library of Medicine. 26
September 2010.
[5] Galton, Francis (July 1904). Eugenics: Its Denition,
Scope, and Aims. The American Journal of Sociology
X (1): 82, 1st paragraph. Bibcode:1904Natur..70...82.
doi:10.1038/070082a0. Archived from the original on
2007-11-17. Retrieved 2010-12-27. Eugenics is the science which deals with all inuences that improve the inborn qualities of a race; also with those that develop them
to the utmost advantage.
[6] The exact denition of eugenics has been a matter of debate since the term was coined. The denition of it as a
social philosophythat is, a philosophy with implications for social orderis not meant to be denitive, and
is taken from Osborn, Frederick (June 1937). Development of a Eugenic Philosophy. American Sociological
Review 2 (3): 389397. doi:10.2307/2084871.
[7] Eugenic Ideas, Political Interests and Policy Variance Immigration and Sterilization Policy in Britain and U.S.. 1
Jan 2001. Retrieved 2015-03-20.
[8] Francis Galton (1874) On men of science, their nature
and their nurture, Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 7 : 227-236.
[9] Eugenics. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Center
for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University. Jul 2, 2014. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
[10] The American Journal of Insanity. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
[11] Keeping America Sane. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
[12] Eugenics: Immigration and Asylum from 1990 to
Present. Retrieved 2013-09-23.
[13] Watson, James D.; Berry, Andrew (2009). DNA: The Secret of Life. Knopf.
[14] Blom 2008, p. 336.
[15] Allen, Garland E. (2004). Was Nazi eugenics created in the US?". EMBO Reports 5 (5): 4512.
doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400158. PMC 1299061.

6 NOTES

[16] Barrett, Deborah; Kurzman, Charles (October 2004).

Globalizing Social Movement Theory: The Case of Eugenics (PDF). Theory and Society 33 (5): 487527.
doi:10.2307/4144884. JSTOR 4144884.

Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

See the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide.

[17] Hawkins, Mike (1997). Social Darwinism in European

and American Thought. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 62, 292. ISBN 0-521-57434-X.

[34] Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union:

Article 3, Section 2.

[18] The National Oce of Eugenics in Belgium.

Science 57 (1463):
46.
12 JanBibcode:1923Sci....57R..46..
uary
1923.
doi:10.1126/science.57.1463.46.

[35] CNN, Peru will not prosecute former President over

sterilization campaign, Retrieved August 30, 2014.
http://www.cnn.com/2014/01/25/world/americas/
peru-sterilization/

[19] dos Santos, Sales Augusto; Hallewell, Laurence (January 2002). Historical Roots of the 'Whitening' of
Brazil. Latin American Perspectives 29 (1): 6182.
doi:10.1177/0094582X0202900104. JSTOR 3185072.

[36] Diktter, F. (1998). Imperfect conceptions: medical knowledge, birth defects, and eugenics in China.
Columbia University Press.

[20] McLaren, Angus (1990). Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 18851945. Toronto: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-7710-5544-7.
[21] James, Steve. Social Democrats implemented measures
to forcibly sterilise 62,000 people. World Socialist Web
Site. International Committee of the Fourth International.
[22] Black 2003, p. 240.
[23] Black 2003, p. 286.
[24] Black 2003, p. 40.
[25] Black 2003, p. 45.
[26] Black 2003, Chapter 6: The United States of Sterilization.
[27] Black 2003, p. 237.
[28] Black 2003, Chapter 5: Legitimizing Raceology.
[29] Black 2003, Chapter 9: Mongrelization.
[30] Ridley, Matt (1999). Genome: The Autobiography of a
Species in 23 Chapters. New York: HarperCollins. pp.
2901. ISBN 978-0-06-089408-5.
[31] Black 2003.
[32] Lynn 2001. p. 18 By the middle decades of the twentieth
century, eugenics had become widely accepted throughout
the whole of the economically developed world, with the
exception of the Soviet Union.
[33] Article 2 of the Convention denes genocide as any of the
following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole
or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as
such as:
Killing members of the group;

[37] Edge. Chinese Eugenics. Retrieved on August 30, 2014.

http://edge.org/response-detail/23838/
[38] Dikotter, F. (1999). Director, Contemporary China Institute, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London,"'The legislation imposes decisions; laws
about eugenics in China,. UNESCO Courier, 1.
[39] BBC News, Uzbekistans policy of secretly sterilizing
women, retrieved on August 30, 2014. http://www.bbc.
com/news/magazine-17612550
[40] Johnson, Corey G (June 20, 2014). Calif. female inmates sterilized illegally. USA Today. Retrieved August
30, 2014.
[41] Epstein, Charles J (1 November 2003). Is modern genetics the new eugenics?". Genetics in Medicine 5 (6): 469
475. doi:10.1097/01.GIM.0000093978.77435.17.
[42] Tania Simoncelli, Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis
and Selection: from disease prevention to customised
conception, Dierent Takes, No. 24 (Spring 2003).
http://genetics.live.radicaldesigns.org/downloads/
200303_difftakes_simoncelli.pdf Retrieved on Sept. 18,
2013.
[43] From the Afterward, by Richard Dawkins, The
Herald, (2006).
http://www.heraldscotland.com/
from-the-afterword-1.836155 Retrieved on Oct 17,
2013
[44] Comfort, Nathaniel (12 November 2012). The Eugenics
Impulse. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved
9 September 2013.
[45] Comfort, Nathaniel. The Science of Human Perfection:
How Genes Became the Heart of American Medicine. New
Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-16991-1.

Deliberately inicting on the group conditions of

life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;

[46] Eugenics and the Ethics of Selective Reproduction,

Stephen and Eve Garrard, published by Keele University
http://www.keele.ac.uk/media/keeleuniversity/
2013.
ri/risocsci/eugenics2013/Eugenics%20and%20the%
20ethics%20of%20selective%20reproduction%
20Low%20Res.pdf Retrieved on Sept. 18, 2013

Imposing measures intended to prevent births

within the group;

[47] Galton, Francis (1883). Inquiries into Human Faculty and

its Development. London: Macmillan Publishers. p. 199.

Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members

of the group;

[48] Correspondence between Francis Galton and Charles

Darwin. Galton.org. Retrieved 2011-11-28.
[49] The correspondence of Charles Darwin, volume 17:
1869. Darwin Correspondence Project. University of
Cambridge. Retrieved 2011-11-28.

[71] Lynn 2001. pp. 182185

[72] Lynn 2001. pp. 187204
[73] Lynn 2001. pp. 188189
[74] Lynn 2001. pp. 189190

[50] Blom 2008, pp. 335336.

[75] Lynn 2001. pp. 190191

[51] Lester Frank Ward; Emily Palmer Cape; Sarah Emma

Simons (1918). Eugenics, Euthenics and Eudemics.
Glimpses of the cosmos. G. P. Putnams sons. pp. 382.
Retrieved 11 April 2012.

[76] Lynn 2001. pp. 191192

[52] Cited in Black 2003, p. 18

[79] Lynn 2001. pp. 199201

[53] Galton and the beginnings of Eugenics, James Watson ::

DNA Learning Center. Retrieved 2 May 2015.

[80] Lynn 2001. pp. 201203

[77] Lynn 2001. pp. 194195

[78] Lynn 2001. pp. 196199

[81] Lynn 2001. pp. 205214

[54] Haldane, J. (1940). Lysenko and Genetics. Science and
Society 4 (4).
[55] A discussion of the shifting meanings of the term can be
found in Paul, Diane (1995). Controlling human heredity:
1865 to the present. New Jersey: Humanities Press. ISBN
1-57392-343-5.
[56] Black, Edwin (2004). War Against the Weak. Thunders
Mouth Press. p. 370. ISBN 978-1-56858-321-1.
[57] Salgirli SG (July 2011). Eugenics for the doctors:
medicine and social control in 1930s Turkey. Journal of
the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 66 (3): 281
312. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrq040. PMID 20562206.

[82] Wired.
Its time to consider restricting human breeding.
Zoltan Istvan (August 2014)http:
//www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2014-08/14/
time-to-restrict-human-breeding
[83] Lynn 2001. pp. 211213. Richard Lynn argued that to
have an eective licensing program, reversible sterilization methods should be used. Those who wish to have
children would obtain the licence and have the sterilization
reversed. Lynn stated that the proposals made by Francis
Galton, Hugh LaFollette and John Westman would not be
eective from the eugenics viewpoint, since those without
licences could still have children. The proposal by David
Lykken would be only slightly eective.

[58] http://journals1.scholarsportal.info.myaccess.library.
utoronto.ca/tmp/15510468026065759357.pdf|date=
September 2013

[84] Lynn 2001. pp. 215224

[59] Glad, John (2008). Future Human Evolution: Eugenics

in the Twenty-First Century (PDF). Hermitage Publishers.
ISBN 1-55779-154-6.

[86] Lynn 2001. pp. 217219

[60] Pine, Lisa (1997). Nazi Family Policy, 19331945. Berg.

pp. 19. ISBN 978-1-85973-907-5. Retrieved 11 April
2012.
[61] Lets (Cautiously) Celebrate the New Eugenics"". The
Hungton Post. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
[62] Lynn 2001. Part III. The Implementation of Classical Eugenics pp. 137244 Part IV. The New Eugenics pp. 245
320
[63] Lynn 2001. pp. 165186
[64] Lynn 2001. pp. 169170
[65] Lynn 2001. pp. 170172
[66] Lynn 2001. pp. 172174
[67] Lynn 2001. pp. 174176
[68] Lynn 2001. pp. 176178
[69] Lynn 2001. pp. 179181
[70] Lynn 2001. pp. 181182

[85] Lynn 2001. pp. 215217

[87] Lynn 2001. p. 219

[88] Lynn 2001. pp. 220221
[89] Lynn 2001. pp. 222224
[90] Lynn 2001. p. 246
[91] Lynn 2001. p. 247
[92] Lynn 2001. pp. 248251
[93] Lynn 2001. p. 252
[94] Lynn 2001. p. 253
[95] Lynn 2001. p. 254
[96] Lynn 2001. pp. 254255
[97] Blom 2008, pp. 3367.
[98] Flaws in Eugenics Research, by Garland E. Allen, Washington University. http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/html/
eugenics/essay5text.html retrieved on Oct. 03, 2013.
[99] Scientic Origins of Eugenics, Elof Carlson, State University of New York at Stony Brook. http://www.
eugenicsarchive.org/html/eugenics/essay2text.html Retrieved on Oct. 03, 2013.

10

6 NOTES

[100] Retrospectives, Eugenics and Economics in the [114] Jones, A (2000). Eect of eugenics on the evolution of
Progressive Era, Journal of Economic Perspectives
populations. European Physical Journal B 17 (2): 329
(2005). http://www.princeton.edu/~{}tleonard/papers/
332. doi:10.1007/s100510070148.
retrospectives.pdf Retrieved on Oct. 03, 2013
[115] Winston Churchill and Eugenics. The Churchill Centre
and Museum. 2009-05-31. Retrieved 2011-11-28.
[101] Lynn 2001. The Ethical Principles of Classical Eugenics
Conclusions P. 241 A number of the opponents of eugenics have resorted to the slippery slope argument, which [116] Margaret Sanger, quoted in Katz, Esther; Engelman, Peter
(2002). The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger. Chamstates that although a number of eugenic measures are
paign, IL: University of Illinois Press. p. 319. ISBN 978unobjectionable in themselves, they could lead to further
0-252-02737-6. Our ... campaign for Birth Control is not
measures that would be unethical.
merely of eugenic value, but is practically identical in ideal
with the nal aims of Eugenics
[102] Kessler, K. (2007). Physicians and the Nazi euthanasia
program. International Journal of Mental Health, 36(1),
[117] Franks, Angela (2005). Margaret Sangers eugenic legacy.
4-16. doi: 10.2753/IMH0020-7411360101
Jeerson, NC: McFarland. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-78642011-7. ... her commitment to eugenics was constant ...
[103] Fischer, B. A. (2012). Maltreatment of people with seuntil her death
rious mental illness in the early 20th century: A focus
on Nazi Germany and eugenics in America. Journal
of Nervous and Mental Disease, 200, 1096-1100. doi: [118] Jacky Turner, Animal Breeding, Welfare and Society
Routledge, 2010. ISBN 1844075893, (p.296).
10.1097/NMD.0b013e318275d391
[104] Hoge, S. K., & Appelbaum, P. S. (2012). Ethics and neu- [119] Judgment At Pasadena, Washington Post, March 16,
2000, p. C1. Retrieved on March 30, 2007.
ropsychiatric genetics: A review of major issues. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 15, 1547[120] Mendelsohn, Everett (MarchApril 2000). The Eugenic
1557. doi: 10.1017/S1461145711001982
Temptation. Harvard Magazine.
[105] Baird, S. L. (2007). Designer babies: Eugenics repack[121] Gordon, Linda (2002). The Moral Property of Women: A
aged or consumer options? Technology Teacher, 66 (7),
History of Birth Control Politics in America. University of
12-16.
Illinois Press. p. 196. ISBN 0-252-02764-7.
[106] Bentwich, M. (2013). On the inseparability of gender
[122] Keynes, John Maynard (1946). Opening remarks: The
eugenics, ethics, and public policy: An Israeli perspecGalton Lecture. The Eugenics Review 38 (1): 3940.
tive. American Journal of Bioethics, 13 (10), 43-45.
doi:10.1080/15265161.2013.828128
[123] Okuefuna, David. Racism: a history. BBC. Archived
from the original on 14 December 2007. Retrieved 2007[107] (Galton 2001, 48)
12-12.
[108] Miller, Edward M. (1997). Eugenics: Economics for the [124] Awakenings: On Margaret Sanger. Retrieved 2 May
Long Run. Research in Biopolitics 5: 391416.
2015.
[109] Williams CC (2005). In search of an Asperger. In Stod- [125] Black 2003, pp. 274295.
dart KP. Children, Youth and Adults with Asperger Syndrome: Integrating Multiple Perspectives. Jessica Kingsley. [126] Ferrante, Joan (1 January 2010). Sociology: A Global
pp. 24252. ISBN 1-84310-319-2. The life prospects of
Perspective. Cengage Learning. pp. 259. ISBN 978people with AS would change if we shifted from viewing
0-8400-3204-1.
AS as a set of dysfunctions, to viewing it as a set of dif[127] Turda, Marius (2010). Race, Science and Eugenics in
ferences that have merit.
the Twentieth Century. In Bashford, Alison; Levine,
[110] Baron-Cohen S (2008). The evolution of brain mechaPhilippa. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugennisms for social behavior. In Crawford C, Krebs D (eds.).
ics. Oxford University Press. pp. 7273. ISBN 0-19Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology. Lawrence Erl988829-9.
baum. pp. 41532. ISBN 0-8058-5957-8.
[128] Lecture 36: Eugenics and Other Evils, By Dale Ahlquist.
[111] http://www.drze.de/in-focus/predictive-genetic-testing/
http://www.chesterton.org/lecture-36/
modules/heterozygote-test-screening-programmes
|Heterozygote test / Screening programmes, German [129] Consumption: Its Cause and Cure An Address by Dr
Halliday Sutherland on 4 September 1917, published by
Reference Centre for Ethics in the Life Sciences, (Last
the Red Triangle Press.
retrieved Nov. 28, 2014).
[112] Fatal Gift: Jewish Intelligence and Western Civilization. [130] Lancelot Hogben, who developed his critique of eugenics
and distaste for racism in the period...he spent as ProfesArchived from the original on 13 August 2009.
sor of Zoology at the University of Cape Town. Alison
[113] Stearns, F. W. (2010).
One Hundred Years of
Bashford and Philippa Levine, The Oxford Handbook of
Pleiotropy: A Retrospective. Genetics 186 (3): 767773.
the History of Eugenics. Oxford; Oxford University Press,
doi:10.1534/genetics.110.122549.
2010 ISBN 0199706530 (p.200)

11

[131] Whatever their disagreement on the numbers, Haldane,

Fisher, and most geneticists could support Jenningss
warning: To encourage the expectation that the sterilization of defectives will solve the problem of hereditary
defects, close up the asylums for feebleminded and insane, do away with prisons, is only to subject society to
deception. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics.
University of California Press, 1985. ISBN 0520057635
(p. 166).
[132] Andrew Clapham, Human Rights:A Very Short Introduction. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN
9780199205523 (pp. 29-31).
[133] Criticism of Eugenics. Image Archive on the American
Eugenics Movement. Dolan DNA Learning Center and
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
[134] Pope Pius XI. "Casti connubii".

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14

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Images

File:Alkoven_Schloss_Hartheim_2005-08-18_3589.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Alkoven_

Schloss_Hartheim_2005-08-18_3589.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dralon
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wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1973-010-11%2C_Schwester_in_einem_Lebensbornheim.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part
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License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division
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This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Coburn, Alvin Langdon, (1882 - 1966), photographer

File:Karl_Pearson,_1912.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Karl_Pearson%2C_1912.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Google Books - Nock, Albert Jay (1912-03). "A New Science And Its Findings". The American Magazine
LXXIII: 579. The Phillips Publishing Co.. Original artist: Unknown
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Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

8.3

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Content license

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