Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lecture Notes For Applied Mathematics
Lecture Notes For Applied Mathematics
Joachim Vogt
Course 210221, Fall 2015
1 / 36
Vector operations
Addition, dot product, cross product
Parallel and perpendicular components
Coordinate systems
Cartesian coordinates
Polar and cylindrical coordinates
Spherical coordinates
Distances and angles
Complex numbers
Addition and complex multiplication
Complex exponential function
Appendix
Solutions of the sample problems, references
2 / 36
Vector operations
3 / 36
V1
V = V2 = (V1 , V2 , V3 )T ,
V3
w
v
v+w
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)
W1
W = W2 = (W1 , W2 , W3 )T .
W3
V1
W1
V1 + W1
V2 + W2 = V2 + W2 .
V3
W3
V3 + W3
Coordinates and vectors
4 / 36
V1
aV1
Multiplication with a scalar value a R: a V2 = aV2 .
V3
aV3
V1
W1
W1
V2 W2 = (V1 , V2 , V3 ) W2 = V1 W1 + V2 W2 + V3 W3 .
V3
W3
W3
p
Length of a vector : kV k = V V =
(V1 )2 + (V2 )2 + (V3 )2 .
Also: magnitude, (euclidean) norm, |V |, V .
v
cos = cos (V , W ) =
V W
VW
w
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)
5 / 36
Examples
4
2
2
Addition of two vectors: 2 + 1 = 3 .
4
3
1
4
2
Multiplication with a scalar: 2 1 = 2 .
6
3
2
3
0 = 6+01 = 5 .
Dot (scalar) product between two vectors: 0
1
1
2
3
0
Lengths:
0
= 4 + 0 + 1 = 5 ,
= 9 + 0 + 1 = 10 .
1
1
For the angle between the two vectors we obtain
5
5
1
cos =
= = ,
5 10
5 2
2
thus = 45 .
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)
6 / 36
Cross product
Vector sum, multiplication with a scalar, and dot product can be formed in
linear spaces with arbitrary dimensions.
Cross product and triple product: three-dimensional space only.
Cross (vector, outer) product of two vectors:
V 2 W3 V 3 W2
W1
V1
V W = V2 W2 = V3 W1 V1 W3 .
V 1 W2 V 2 W1
W3
V3
The vector V W is directed perpendicular to both vectors V and W .
Length: kV W k = V W sin = V W sin (V , W ) .
0
3
8
Cross product example: 2 0 = 0 .
0
4
6
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)
7 / 36
sin
0/2 = 0
cos
4/2 = 1
30
45
1/2 = 1/2
3/2
60
90
2/2 = 1/ 2
3/2
4/2 = 1
2/2 = 1/ 2
1/2 = 1/2
0/2 = 0
8 / 36
9 / 36
Sample problems
Dot products and cross products
Compute the angles = (V , W ) between the vectors V and W .
(a) V = (2, 0, 2)T , W = (2, 2, 0)T .
(b) V = (1, 2, 2)T , W = (2, 1, 2)T .
(c) V = (1, 1, 2)T , W = (2, 2, 4)T .
Compute also the cross products V W .
Vector identities
Use the bac-cab rule A (B C) = B(A C) C(A B) to compute the result of
a (b c) + b (c a) + c (a b) .
(1)
c [(a b) d] d [(a b) c] ,
(2)
(a b) (c d)
(a c)(b d) (a d)(b c) .
(3)
10 / 36
Coordinate systems
11 / 36
12 / 36
Cartesian coordinates
7
6
y
x
In 2D: x, y.
In 3D: x, y, z.
x
y
x
Position vector: r = y .
z
x
y
7
2
13 / 36
Freitag, 2. August 13
p
r =
x2 + y 2
= arctan(y/x)
14 / 36
Spherical coordinates
Spherical coordinates r, , give the 3D
position as follows:
radial distance r from a reference
point (origin),
angle (polar angle, co-latitude) of
the radial vector with the z-axis,
angle (azimuth, longitude) of the
projected radial vector with the x-axis.
[Wikipedia Commons / Andeggs (3)]
Transformation formulas:
x = r sin cos = r cos cos ,
y = r sin sin = r cos sin ,
z = r cos
= r sin .
p
In spherical coordinates, r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
15 / 36
Angles
The most popular units to express angles are degrees and radians.
One degree ( ) is 1/360 of a full circle.
One radian is the angle that corresponds to an arc of unit length on a
circle of unit radius. The full circle gives an angle of 2.
One radian is 180/ degrees (' 57.2958 ).
Celestial coordinates
Declination (DE, , celestial latitude) is
usually given in degrees ( ), arcminutes (0 )
and arcseconds (00 ). Conversion to decimal
degree representation: 1 = 600 , 10 = 6000 .
Right ascension (RA, , celestial
longitude) is usually given in hours (h),
minutes (m), and seconds (s). Here
24 hours correspond to 360 degrees of an
arc: 1h = 15 , 1m = 150 , 1s = 1500 .
[Wikipedia Commons / Tfr000 (4)]
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)
16 / 36
Distances
On a spherical surface, the shortest connection between two points (r1 and
r2 ) is through a great circle, and its length is called great-circle distance.
If = (r1 , r2 ) denotes the angle between the two points expressed in
radian, then their great-circle distance is simply R where R is the radius
of the sphere:
R = R arccos [cos 1 cos 2 cos(1 2 ) + sin 1 sin 2 ] .
To compute the (usual) straight-line distance between two points given in
spherical coordinates, convert first to cartesian coordinates, then proceed
as described above. E.g., for the distance between two stars,
r2 cos 2 cos 2
r
cos
cos
1
1
1
r2 cos 2 sin 2 r1 cos 1 sin 1
=
kr2 r1 k =
r2 sin 2
r1 sin 1
17 / 36
Sample problems
Great-circle distance
On a sphere of radius R, the shortest connection between two points is through a great
circle. Let denote the angle between the two points.
(a) Derive the formula for the great-circle distance:
R = R arccos [cos 1 cos 2 cos(1 2 ) + sin 1 sin 2 ] .
(b) The earthquake observatory Bensberg is located at 1 = 50.96 and 1 = 7.18 .
On 27 February 2008 the station registered an earthquake of Richter magnitude
5.1. The epicenter was located in Lincolnshire (GB) at 2 = 53.166 and
2 = 0.287 . Give the epicentral distance in degrees and also in km. Note that
the radius of the Earth is RE = 6371 km.
(c) According to the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) model, in the
year 2005 the geomagnetic pole on the Northern hemisphere was located at about
1 = 79 440 and 1 = 71 470 . Compute the geomagnetic latitude (i.e.,
angular distance to the geomagnetic equator) of Jacobs University Bremen using
the geographical coordinates 2 = 53 100 and 2 = 8 390 .
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)
18 / 36
Complex numbers
19 / 36
x
1
0
: r =
= x
+ y
y
0
1
: z = x + iy = x 1 + y i
where
z is a complex variable (do not confuse with cartesian coordinate),
x is the real part of z,
y is
the imaginary part of z,
i = 1 is the imaginary unit (i2 = 1).
Addition:
R2 : r1 + r2
C
: z1 + z2
1
0
= (x1 + x2 )
+ (y1 + y2 )
0
1
= (x1 + x2 ) 1 + (y1 + y2 ) i
Coordinates and vectors
20 / 36
21 / 36
r cos
cos
: r =
=
r
r sin
sin
: z = r cos + i r sin = r (cos + i sin ) = r ei
Multiplication
In R2 , there is no proper multiplication of the type
R2 R2 R2
(r1 , r2 ) 7 r1 r2 =
In C, we define
z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) (x2 + iy2 ) = x1 x2 + ix1 y2 + iy1 x2 + i2 y1 y2
= (x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i (x1 y2 + y1 x2 )
22 / 36
Modulus: |z| = r = zz =
x2 + y 2 .
Argument (phase): arg(z) = .
Reciprocal (inverse): z 1 =
Useful identities:
1
z
z
z
=
=
=
.
z
zz
|z|2
r2
23 / 36
Sample problems
Representations of complex numbers
Here you are supposed to convert between the two representations of complex numbers,
namely, the cartesian representation z = x + iy and the polar representation z = r ei .
Complete the following table.
Real part x
z1
z1
1/z1
z2
z2
1/z2
z1 + z2
z1 z2
3/2
Imag. part y
3/2
Modulus r
Phase
2/3
24 / 36
25 / 36
26 / 36
r2 cos 2 cos 2
r
cos
cos
1
1
1
r2 cos 2 sin 2 r1 cos 1 sin 1
=
kr2 r1 k =
r2 sin 2
r1 sin 1
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)
27 / 36
Homework assignment
Stars in the cosmic neighborhood
The following table gives celestial coordinates (right ascension RA, declination DE, and
distance from Earth) of nine bright stars in our cosmic neighborhood.
Star
Alpha Centauri
Sirius
Procyon
Altair
Vega
Formalhaut
Pollux
Arcturus
Capella
Right ascension
14h 39m 36.5s
6h 45m 8.92s
7h 39m 18.12s
19h 50m 47s
18h 36m 56.34s
22h 57m 39.05s
7h 45m 18.95s
14h 15m 39.67s
5h 16m 41.34s
Declination
60 500 2.300
16 420 5800
5 130 3000
8 520 600
38 470 1.300
29 370 20.100
28 10 34.300
19 100 56.700
45 590 52.800
Distance [pc]
1.34
2.64
3.51
5.13
7.68
7.70
10.36
11.24
12.9
For each star, give right ascension and declination in radians, compute the cartesian
coordinates x, y, z, and then the distance to a reference star, namely Vega, in parallax
seconcs (parsec, pc). Plot the star positions in the (RA,DE) plane.
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)
28 / 36
Appendix
29 / 36
|V | =
22 + 02 + (2)2 = 8 = 2 2 ,
p
|W | =
22 + 2 2 + 0 2 = 8 = 2 2 .
4
1
= , and thus = = 60 .
8
2
3
For the vectors in (b), V W = 1 2 + 2 1 + 2 (2) = 4 4 = 0, and
p
|V | =
12 + 22 + 22 = 9 = 3 ,
p
|W | =
22 + 12 + (2)2 = 9 = 3 .
This gives cos =
= 0, and thus = = 90 .
9
2
30 / 36
12 + 12 + (2)2 = 6 ,
|V | =
p
|W | =
(2)2 + (2)2 + 42 = 24 = 2 6 .
12
This gives cos =
= 1, and thus = = 180 .
12
The cross products are as follows.
2
2
4
0 2 = 4 .
(a) V W =
2
0
4
1
2
6
1 =
6 .
(b) V W = 2
2
2
3
1
2
0
1 2 = 0 .
(c) V W =
2
4
0
31 / 36
= b(a c) c(a b) ,
= c(b a) a(b c) ,
= a(c b) b(c a) .
When we compute the sum of the three contributions, we find that pairs of terms
cancel, and the final result is zero.
The identity (2) follows for A = a b, B = c, and C = d.
To derive identity (3), we first rearrange the triple product of the vectors a b,
c, and d to yield
(a b) (c d) = [(a b) c] d = [c (a b)] d .
The term in square brackets can be rearranged by means of the bac-cab rule to
obtain
c (a b) = a(c b) b(c a)
32 / 36
R cos 1 cos 1
R cos 2 cos 2
r1 r2 = R cos 1 sin 1 R cos 2 sin 2
R sin 1
R sin 2
=
33 / 36
(c) Here denotes the geomagnetic colatitude (i.e., the angular distance of a location
to the geomagnetic pole). The geomagnetic latitude (i.e., angular distance to the
geomagnetic equator) is = 90 , hence = 53.65 .
34 / 36
3/2
3/2
1/2
z2
z2
1/z2
3/2
3/2
1/6
z1 + z2
z1 z2
0
9/2
Imag. part y
3/2
3/2
1/ 12
27/2
27/2
3/6
12
27/2
Modulus r
3
3
1/ 3
Phase
3
3
1/3
12
27
2/3
2/3
2/3
/6
/6
/6
/2
5/6
35 / 36
Figure references
(1) Image credit: Wikipedia Commons, author Djexplo, date 30 May 2011, file
Latitude and Longitude of the Earth.svg. Illustration of geographic latitude
and longitude of the earth. Download from http://en.wikipedia.org on
31 July 2013.
(2) Image credit: Wikipedia Commons, author Tfr000, date 14 March 2012, file
Earths orbit and ecliptic.png. Diagram of Earths orbit, showing ecliptic
plane and celestial equator on the celestial sphere. Download from
http://en.wikipedia.org on 31 July 2013.
(3) Image credit: Wikipedia Commons, author Andeggs, file 3D Spherical.svg.
3D spherical coordinates. Download from http://en.wikipedia.org on
2 August 2013.
(4) Image credit: Wikipedia Commons, author Tfr000, date 15 June 2012, file
Ra and dec on celestial sphere.png. Diagram of a stars right ascension
and declination as seen from outside the celestial sphere. Depicted are the
star, the Earth, lines of RA and dec, the vernal equinox, the ecliptic, the
celestial equator, and the celestial poles. Download from
http://en.wikipedia.org on 31 July 2013.
Joachim Vogt (Jacobs University Bremen)
36 / 36