CHAPTER 3

HARDWARE DESCRIPATRION
3.1

Conveyor Belt

3.2

LM324 IC

3.3

LCD display

3.4

P89V51RD2 Microcontroller

3.5

Pulleys

3.6

IR sensor

3.7

D.C motor

3.8

Buzzer

3.9

Power supply

3.10 Component list

3.1 CONVEYOR BELT

Figure Conveyor Belt

Conveyer belt assembly is made by the using conveyer belt on pulley.

This conveyer belt is run by the motor according to Microcontroller
instruction. Also the empty bottles placed on the conveyer belt which
movements controlled by the microcontroller.

A conveyor belt is the carrying medium of a belt conveyor

system (often shortened to belt conveyor). A belt conveyor system is one of
many types of conveyor systems. A belt conveyor system consists of two or
more pulleys (sometimes referred to as drums), with an endless loop of
carrying mediumthe conveyor beltthat rotates about them. One or both of
the pulleys are powered, moving the belt and the material on the belt forward.

The powered pulley is called the drive pulley while the unpowered pulley is
called the idler pulley. There are two main industrial classes of belt conveyors;
Those in general material handling such as those moving boxes along inside a
factory and bulk material handling such as those used to transport large
volumes

of

resources

and

agricultural

materials,

such

as grain,salt, coal, ore, sand, overburden and more.

Today there are different types of conveyor belts that have been
created for conveying different kinds of material available in PVC and rubber
materials.
The belt consists of one or more layers of material. Many belts in
general material handling have two layers. An under layer of material to
provide linear strength and shape called a carcass and an over layer called the
cover. The carcass is often a woven fabric having a warp& weft. The most
common carcass materials are polyester, nylon and cotton. The cover is often
various rubber or plastic compounds specified by use of the belt. Covers can
be made from more exotic materials for unusual applications such as silicone
for heat or gum rubber when traction is essential.

Material flowing over the belt may be weighed in transit using a belt
weigher. Belts with regularly spaced partitions, known as elevator belts, are
used for transporting loose materials up steep inclines. Belt Conveyors are
used in self-unloading bulk freighters and in live bottom trucks. Belt conveyor
technology is also used in conveyor transport such as moving sidewalks or
escalators, as well as on many manufacturing assembly lines. Stores often
have conveyor belts at the check-out counter to move shopping items. Ski
areas also use conveyor belts to transport skiers up the hill.

Some of the major global conveyor belt service providers are Terra
Nova

Technologies, ThyssenKrupp, HESE

Maschinenfabrik

GmbH and Tenova Takraf.

Belt conveyor systems

Conveyors

are

durable

and

reliable

components

used

in

automated distribution and warehousing. In combination with computer

controlled

pallet

handling

equipment

this

allows

for

more

efficient retail, wholesale, and manufacturing distribution. It is considered a

labor saving system that allows large volumes to move rapidly through a
process, allowing companies to ship or receive higher volumes with smaller
storage space and with less labor expense.

Rubber conveyor belts are commonly used to convey items with

irregular bottom surfaces, small items that would fall in between rollers (e.g.
a sushi conveyor bar), or bags of product that would sag between rollers. Belt
conveyors are generally fairly similar in construction consisting of a metal
frame with rollers at either end of a flat metal bed. The belt is looped around
each of the rollers and when one of the rollers is powered (by an electrical
motor) the belting slides across the solid metal frame bed, moving the product.
In heavy use applications the beds which the belting is pulled over are
replaced with rollers. The rollers allow weight to be conveyed as they reduce
the amount of friction generated from the heavier loading on the belting. Belt
conveyors can now be manufactured with curved sections which use tapered

rollers and curved belting to convey products around a corner. These conveyor
systems are commonly used in postal sorting offices and airport baggage
handling systems. A sandwich belt conveyor uses two conveyor belts, face-toface, to firmly contain the item being carried, making steep incline and even
vertical-lift runs achievable.

Belt conveyors are the most commonly used powered conveyors

because they are the most versatile and the least expensive. Product is
conveyed directly on the belt so both regular and irregular shaped objects,
large or small, light and heavy, can be transported successfully. These
conveyors should use only the highest quality premium belting products,
which reduces belt stretch and results in less maintenance for tension
adjustments. Belt conveyors can be used to transport product in a straight line
or through changes in elevation or direction. In certain applications they can
also be used for static accumulation or cartons.

Belt Conveyor systems at a Packing Depot

Baggage Handling BeltConveyor systems

Rollgang for cartons and totes in a fashion distribution centre

Long belt conveyors

The longest belt conveyor system in the world is in Western Sahara. It

is 98 km (61 mi) long, from the phosphate mines of Bu Craa to the coast south
of El-Aaiun.

The longest conveyor system in an airport is the Dubai International

Airport baggage handling system at 63 km (39 mi). It was installed
by Siemens and commissioned in 2008, and has a combination of traditional
belt conveyors and tray conveyors.

Boddingtons Bauxite Mine in Western Australia is officially

recognized as having the world's longest and second-longest single belts with
a 31-kilometre-long (19 mi) belt feeding a 20 km (12.5 miles) long belt. This
system feeds bauxite through the difficult terrain of the Daring Ranges to the
alumina refinery at Worsley. The longest single-belt international conveyor
runs from Meghalaya in India to a cement factory at Chhatak Bangladesh. It is

about 17 km long and conveys limestone and shale at 960 tons/hour, from the
quarry in India to the cement factory (7 km long in India and 10 km long in
Bangladesh). The conveyor was engineered by AUMUND France and Larsen
& Toubro. The conveyor is actuated by three synchronized drive units for a
total power of about 1.8 MW supplied by ABB (two drives at the head end in
Bangladesh and one drive at the tail end in India). The conveyor belt was
manufactured in 300-meter lengths on the Indian side and 500-meter lengths
on the Bangladesh side, and was installed on-site by NILOS India. The idlers,
or rollers, of the system are unique in that they are designed to accommodate
both horizontal and vertical curves along the terrain. Dedicated vehicles were
designed for the maintenance of the conveyor, which is always at a minimum
height of 5 meters (16 ft) above the ground to avoid being flooded during
monsoon periods.

Belt conveyor safety system

Conveyors used in industrial settings include tripping mechanisms

such as trip cords along the length of the conveyor. This allows for workers to
immediately shut down the conveyor when a problem arises. Warning alarms
are included to notify employees that a conveyor is about to turn on. In the
United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration have issued
regulations for conveyor safety, as OSHA 1926.555.

3.2 LM324 IC

LM324 is a 14pin IC consisting of four independent

operational amplifiers (op-amps) compensated in a single
package. Op-amps are high gain electronic voltage amplifier
with differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. The
output voltage is many times higher than the voltage
difference between input terminals of an op-amp.
These op-amps are operated by a single power supply
LM324 and need for a dual supply is eliminated. They can be
used as amplifiers, comparators, oscillators, rectifiers etc. The
conventional

op-amp

applications

can

be

more

implemented with LM324.

Pin Description:

Pin

Function

Name

No.
1

Output

of

1st

Output 1

easily

comparator
2

Inverting input of 1st

Input 1-

comparator
3

Non-inverting

input

Input 1+

of 1st comparator
4

Supply voltage; 5V

Vcc

(up to 32V)
5

Non-inverting

input

Input 2+

of 2nd comparator
6

Inverting input of 2nd

Input 2-

comparator
7

Output

of

2nd

Output 2

of

3rd

Output 3

comparator
8

Output
comparator

Inverting input of 3rd

Input 3-

comparator
10

Non-inverting

input

Input 3+

of 3rd comparator
11

Ground (0V)

12

Non-inverting

Ground
input

Input 4+

of 4th comparator
13

Inverting input of 4th

Input 4-

comparator
14

Output
comparator

of

4th

Output

Here This IC are used for to compare the liquid level in

the bottle. By sensing the liquid level in the Bottle it
generates the voltage output and gives to the controller. By
using this IC we can check the presence of the liquid at the
time of empty bottle and completely filled bottle. The output
of this IC we can connect any I/o pin of the controller.

3.3

LCD display

We are using JHD 162A LCD having 16 characters and 2

line structures. It is having 16 lines. In which 8 are data lines
D0-D7, 3 control lines are there RS, WR, EN ,3 lines are for
supply Vcc, Vee, GND and two lines LED+ and LED There are
different LCDs having character per line ranges from 8 to
max 64 and no. of lines generally 1 to 4.

Figure 5.27 Inter face of LCD Display to microcontroller

80

81

..

..

8F

C0

C1

..

..

C
F

Address in LCD

COMMANDS FOR LCD DISPLAY

HEX

COMMAND

COD
E
0x01

Clear display screen

H
0x02

Increment cursor(Shift cursor

to right)

0x06

Display on, cursor blinking

H
0x0E

Force cursor to beginning of 1 st

line

0x80

Force cursor to beginning of 2 nd

line

0xC0

2nd line and 5X7 matrix

To set starting address; address of that location is

sended as command. To send command RS pin is cleared. To
send data RS pin is set. Than to Write to LCD WR pin is
cleared and if we want to read LCD screen WR is set. So
generally it is grounded. There is a RAM in LCD stores
characters displayed on screen. LCD will active only when EN
pin goes high to low.

3.4 MICROCONTRLLER:
GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
The microcontroller is the heart of the system. The P89V51RD2 is an
80C51 microcontroller with 64 KB Flash and 1024 bytes of data RAM.

A key feature of the P89V51RD2 is its X2 mode option. The design

engineer can choose to run the application with the conventional 80C51 clock
rate (12 clocks per machine cycle) or select the X2 mode (6 clocks per
machine cycle) to achieve twice the throughput at the same clock frequency.

The Flash program memory supports both parallel programming and

in serial In-System Programming (ISP). Parallel programming mode offers

gang-programming at high speed, reducing programming costs and time to

market. ISP allows a device to be reprogrammed in the end product under
software control. The capability to field/update the application firmware
makes a wide range of applications possible. The P89V51RD2 is also InApplication Programmable (IAP), allowing the Flash program memory to be
reconfigured even while the application is running.

FEATURES:
80C51 Central Processing Unit
V Operating voltage from 0 to 40 MHz
64 KB of on-chip Flash program memory with ISP (In-System
Programming) and IAP (In-Application Programming)
Supports 12-clock (default) or 6-clock mode selection via software or
ISP
SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) and enhanced UART
Four 8-bit I/O ports with three high-current Port 1 pins (16 mA each)
Three 16-bit timers/counters
Programmable Watchdog timer (WDT)
Eight interrupt sources with four priority levels
Second DPTR register
TTL- and CMOS-compatible logic levels

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Block diagram of P89V51RD2 microcontroller is shown in figure 5.2.

This block diagram is same as that of the 80C51, but some advanced features
are included in the P89V51RD2 which are given above.

PSW
Arithmetic and Logic Unit

SFR
RAM
To Port 1 &
Port 3

B
ROM

PC

DPTR DPH DPL

To Port 0
&
Port 2

7
Figure 5.2 Block diagram of P89V51RD2 microcontroller

PIN DIAGRAM:

Figure 5.3 Pin diagram of P89V51RD2 microcontroller

PIN DESCRIPTION:

P89V51RD2 is a 40 pin microcontroller as shown in figure 5.3. Each

pin has some specific function. Description of each pin is given below.
Port 0(0.1-0.7) Pins 39-32: Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional
I/O port. Port 0 pins that have 1 are written to them float, and in this state can
be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 is also the multiplexed low-order
address and data bus during accesses to external code and data memory. In
this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when transitioning to 1s. Port
0 also receives the code bytes during the external host mode programming,
and outputs the code bytes during the external host mode verification.
External pull-ups are required during program verification or as a general
purpose I/O port.

Port 1 1.0-1.7) Pins 1-8: Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with
internal pull-ups. The Port 1 pins are pulled high by the internal pull-ups when
1s are written to them and can be used as inputs in this state. As inputs, Port
1 pins that are externally pulled LOW will source current (IIL) because of the
internal pull-ups. P1.5, P1.6, P1.7 have high current drive of 16 mA. Port 1
also receives the low-order address bytes during the external host mode
programming and verification.
T2: External count input to Timer/Counter 2 or Clock-out from
Timer/Counter 2. Pin 1.0.
Port 2 (2.0-2.7) Pins 21-28: Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port
with internal pull-ups. Port 2 pins are pulled HIGH by the internal pull-ups
when 1s are written to them and can be used as inputs in this state. As inputs,
Port 2 pins that are externally pulled LOW will source current (IIL) because of
the internal pull-ups. Port 2 sends the high-order address byte during fetches
from external program memory and during accesses to external Data Memory
that use 16-bit address (MOVX @DPTR). In this application, it uses strong
internal pull-ups when transitioning to 1s. Port 2 also receives some control
signals and a partial of high-order address bits during the external host mode
programming and verification.
Port 3 (3.0-3.7) Pins 10-17: Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port
with internal pull-ups. Port 3 pins are pulled HIGH by the internal pull-ups
when 1s are written to them and can be used as inputs in this state. As inputs,
Port 3 pins that are externally pulled LOW will source current (IIL) because of
the internal pull-ups. Port 3 also receives some control signals and a partial of
high-order address bits during the external host mode programming and
verification. Signal related to the port 1 are explained below.
RXD: serial input port
TXD: serial output port
INT0: external interrupt 0 input

INT1: external interrupt 1 input

T0

: external count input to Timer/Counter 0

T1

: external count input to Timer/Counter 1

WR : external data memory write strobe

RD : external data memory read strobe

PSEN (Program Store Enable) Active Low Pin 29: PSEN is the read
strobe for external program memory. When the device is executing from
internal program memory, PSEN is inactive (HIGH). When the device is
executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each
access to external data memory. A forced HIGH-to-LOW input transition on
the PSEN pin while the RST input is continually held HIGH for more than 10
machine cycles will cause the device to enter external host mode
programming.
Reset Pin 9: While the oscillator is running, a HIGH logic state on this
pin for two machine cycles will reset the device. If the PSEN pin is driven by
a HIGH-to-LOW input transition while the RST input pin is held HIGH, the
device will enter the external host mode; otherwise the device will enter the
normal operation mode.
EA (External Access Enable) Active Low Pin 31: EA must be
connected to VSS in order to enable the device to fetch code from the external
program memory. EA must be strapped to VDD for internal program
execution. However, Security lock level 4 will disable EA, and program
execution is only possible from internal program memory. The EA pin can
tolerate a high voltage of 12 V.
ALE (Address Latch Enable) Pin 30: ALE is the output signal for
latching the low byte of the address during an access to external memory.

Crystal 1 Pin 19: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input
to the internal clock generator circuits.
Crystal 2 Pin 18: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
Power Supply VDD Pin 40: It is connected to +5V power supply.
Ground Pin 20: It is connected to ground.

MEMORY ORGANIZATION:
The device has separate address spaces for program and data memory
Fash program memory:
There are two internal flash memory blocks in the device. Block 0 has
64 Kbytes and contains the users code. Block 1 contains the Philips-provided
ISP/IAP routines and may be enabled such that it overlays the first 8 Kbytes
of the user code memory. The 64 KB Block 0 is organized as 512 sectors; each
sector consists of 128 bytes. Access to the IAP routines may be enabled by
clearing the BSEL bit in the FCF register. However, caution must be taken
when dynamically changing the BSEL bit. Since this will cause different
physical memory to be mapped to the logical program address space, the user
must avoid clearing the BSEL bit when executing user code within the address
range 0000H to 1FFFH.
Data RAM memory:
The data RAM has 1024 bytes of internal memory. The device can also
address up to 64 KB for external data memory.
The device has four sections of internal data memory:
1. The lower 128 bytes of RAM (00H to 7FH) are directly and
indirectly addressable.

2. The higher 128 bytes of RAM (80H to FFH) are indirectly

addressable.
3. The special function registers (80H to FFH) are directly addressable
only.
4. The expanded RAM of 768 bytes (00H to 2FFH) is indirectly
addressable by the move external instruction (MOVX).
Dual data pointers:
The device has two 16-bit data pointers. The DPTR Select (DPS) bit in
AUXR1
Determines which of the two data pointers is accessed. When DPS = 0,
DPTR0 is selected; when DPS = 1, DPTR1 is selected. Quickly switching
between the two data pointers can be accomplished by a single INC
instruction on AUXR1 as shown below in figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4 Data pointer

TIMERS/COUNTERS 0 AND 1:
The two 16-bit Timer/Counter registers: Timer 0 and Timer 1 can be
configured to operate either as timers or event counters in the Timer
function, the register is incremented every machine cycle. Thus, one can think
of it as counting machine cycles. Since a machine cycle consists of six
oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/6 of the oscillator frequency. In the
Counter function, the register is incremented in response to a 1-to-0

transition at its corresponding external input pin, T0 or T1. In this function,

the external input is sampled once every machine cycle.
The Timer or Counter function is selected by control bits C/T in the
Special Function Register TMOD. These two Timer/Counters have four
operating modes, which are selected by bit-pairs (M1, M0) in TMOD. Modes
0, 1, and 2 are the same for both Timers/Counters. Mode 3 is different. The
four operating modes are described in the following text.
TMOD Register:

Table 5
TCON Register:

Table 5.

Mode 0
Putting either Timer into Mode 0 makes it look like an 8048 Timer,
which is an 8-bit Counter with a fixed divide-by-32 prescaler. Figure 5.5
shows Mode 0 operation.
In this mode, the Timer register is configured as a 13-bit register. As
the count rolls over from all 1s to all 0s, it sets the Timer interrupt flag TFn.
The count input is enabled to the Timer when TRn = 1 and either GATE = 0 or
INTn = 1. (Setting GATE =1 allows the Timer to be controlled by external
input INTn, to facilitate pulse width measurements). TRn is a control bit in the
Special Function Register TCON. The GATE bit is in the TMOD register.

Figure 5.5 Timer modes 0

The 13-bit register consists of all 8 bits of THn and the lower 5 bits of
TLn. The upper 3 bits of TLn are indeterminate and should be ignored. Setting
the run flag (TRn) does not clear the registers. Mode 0 operations are the same
for Timer 0 and Timer 1 as shown in figure 4.7.
Mode 1
Mode 1 is the same as Mode 0, except that all 16 bits of the timer
register (THn and TLn) are used. See figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6 Timer modes 1

Mode 2

Mode 2 configures the Timer register as an 8-bit Counter (TLn) with

automatic reloads, as shown in figure 5.7. Overflow from TLn not only sets
TFn, but also reloads TLn with the contents of THn, which must be preset by
software. The reload leaves THn unchanged. Mode 2 operation is the same for
Timer 0 and Timer 1.

Figure 5.7 Timer modes 2

Mode 3
When timer 1 is in Mode 3 it is stopped (holds its count). The effect is
the same as setting TR1 = 0. Timer 0 in Mode 3 establishes TL0 and TH0 as
two separate 8-bit counters. The logic for Mode 3 and Timer 0 is shown in
figure 5.8. TL0 uses the Timer 0 control bits: T0C/T, T0GATE, TR0, INT0,
and TF0. TH0 is locked into a timer function (counting machine cycles) and
takes over the use of TR1 and TF1 from Timer 1. Thus, TH0 now controls the
Timer 1 interrupt. Mode 3 is provided for applications that require an extra
8-bit timer. With Timer 0 in Mode 3, the P89V51RD2 can look like it has an
additional Timer.

Figure 5.8 Timer modes 3

Note: When Timer 0 is in Mode 3, Timer 1 can be turned on and off

by switching it into and out of its own Mode 3. It can still be used by the serial
port as a baud rate generator, or in any application not requiring an interrupt.

RESET:
A system reset initializes the MCU and begins program execution at
program memory location 0000H. The reset input for the device is the RST
pin. In order to reset the device, a logic level high must be applied to the RST
pin for at least two machine cycles (24 clocks), after the oscillator becomes
stable. ALE, PSEN are weakly pulled high during reset. During reset, ALE
and PSEN output a high level in order to perform a proper reset. This level
must not be affected by external element. A system reset will not affect the 1
Kbytes of on-chip RAM while the device is running; however, the contents of
the on-chip RAM during power up are indeterminate.

Power-on Reset:
At initial power up, the port pins will be in a random state until the
oscillator has started and the internal reset algorithm has weakly pulled all
pins HIGH. Powering up the device without a valid reset could cause the
MCU to start executing instructions from an indeterminate location. Such
undefined states may inadvertently corrupt the code in the flash.
When power is applied to the device, the RST pin must be held HIGH
long enough for the oscillator to start up (usually several milliseconds for a
low frequency crystal), in addition to two machine cycles for a valid power-on
reset. An example of a method to extend the RST signal is to implement a RC
circuit by connecting the RST pin VDD through a 10 mF capacitor and to VSS
through an 8.2 kW resistor as shown in figure 5.9

.
Figure 5.9 Power on reset
Note that if an RC circuit is being used, provisions should be made to
ensure the VDD rise time does not exceed 1 millisecond and the oscillator
start-up time does not exceed 10 milliseconds.
Software reset
The software reset is executed by changing FCF[1] (SWR) from 0 to
1. A software reset will reset the program counter to address 0000H. All SFR

registers will be set to their reset values, except FCF[1] (SWR), WDTC[2]
(WDTS), and RAM data will not be altered.

SECURITY BIT:
The Security Bit protects against software piracy and prevents the
contents of the flash from being read by unauthorized parties in Parallel
Programmer Mode. It also protects against code corruption resulting from
accidental erasing and programming to the internal flash memory.

3.5PULLEYS:
A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support
movement and change of direction of a cable or belt along its circumference.
Pulleys are used in a variety of ways to lift loads, apply forces, and to transmit
power. In nautical contexts, the assembly of wheel, axle, and supporting shell
is referred to as a "block."
A pulley may also be called a sheave or drum and may have a groove
between two flanges around its circumference. The drive element of a pulley
system can be a rope, cable, belt, or chain that runs over the pulley inside the
groove.
Hero of Alexandria identified the pulley as one of six simple machines
used to lift weights. Pulleys are assembled to form a block and tackle in order
to provide mechanical advantage to apply large forces. Pulleys are also
assembled as part of belt and chain drives in order to transmit power from one
rotating shaft to another.

Block and tackle

Fig. Various ways of rigging a tackle.

A set of pulleys assembled so that they rotate independently on the
same axle form a block. Two blocks with a rope attached to one of the blocks
and threaded through the two sets of pulleys form a block and tackle.

A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed

mounting point and the other is attached to the moving load. The ideal
mechanical advantage of the block and tackle is equal to the number of parts
of the rope that support the moving block.

In the diagram on the right the ideal mechanical advantage of each of

the block and tackle assemblies shown is as follows:

Gun Tackle: 2

Luff Tackle: 3

Double Tackle: 4

Gyn Tackle: 5

Threefold purchase: 6

Rope and pulley systems

Fig. Pulley in oil derrick

A hoist is using the compound pulley system yielding an advantage of 4. The

single fixed pulley is installed on the hoist (device). The two movable pulleys
(joined together) are attached to the hook. One end of the rope is attached to
the crane frame, another to the winch.

A rope and pulley system -- that is, a block and tackle -- is

characterized by the use of a single continuous rope to transmit a tension force
around one or more pulleys to lift or move a loadthe rope may be a light
line or a strong cable. This system is included in the list of simple identified
by Renaissance scientists.
If the rope and pulley system does not dissipate or store energy, then
its mechanical advantage is the number of parts of the rope that act on the
load. This can be shown as follows.

Consider the set of pulleys that form the moving block and the parts of
the rope that support this block. If there is p of these parts of the rope
supporting the load W, then a force balance on the moving block shows that
the tension in each of the parts of the rope must be W/p. This means the input
force on the rope is T=W/p. Thus, the block and tackle reduces the input force
by the factor p.

A gun tackle has a single pulley in both the fixed and moving blocks
with two rope parts supporting the load W.

Separation of the pulleys is in the gun tackle show the force balance that
results in a rope tension of W/2.

A double tackle has two pulleys in both the fixed and moving blocks with four
rope parts are supporting the load W.

Separation of the pulleys is in the double tackle show the force balance that
results in a rope tension of W/4.

How it works
The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the
pulleys and lines are weightless, and that there is no energy loss due to
friction. It is also assumed that the lines do not stretch.

In equilibrium, the forces on the moving block must sum to zero. In

addition the tension in the rope must be the same for each of its parts. This

means that the two parts of the rope supporting the moving block must each
support half the load.

Fig. Fixed pulley

Diagram 1: The load F on the moving pulley is balanced by the tension in two
parts of the rope supporting the pulley.

Fig. Movable pulley

Diagram 2: A movable pulley lifting the load W is supported by two rope parts
with tension W/2.

These are different types of pulley systems:

Fixed: A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a

supporting structure. A fixed pulley changes the direction of the force
on a rope or belt that moves along its circumference. Mechanical
advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a movable
pulley or another fixed pulley of a different diameter.

Movable: A movable pulley has an axle in a movable block. A single

movable pulley is supported by two parts of the same rope and has a
mechanical advantage of two.

Compound: A combination of fixed and a movable pulleys are forms

a block and tackle. A block and tackle can have several pulleys
mounted on the fixed and moving axles, further increasing the
mechanical advantage.

Diagram 3: The gun tackle "rove to advantage" has the rope attached to the
moving pulley. The tension in the rope is W/3 yielding an advantage of three.

Diagram 3a: The Luff tackle adds a fixed pulley "rove to disadvantage." The
tension in the rope remains W/3 yielding an advantage of three.

The mechanical advantage of the gun tackle can be increased by

interchanging the fixed and moving blocks so the rope is attached to the
moving block and the rope is pulled in the direction of the lifted load. In this
case the block and tackle is said to be "rove to advantage." Diagram 3 shows
that now three rope parts support the load W which means the tension in the
rope is W/3. Thus, the mechanical advantage is three.

By adding a pulley to the fixed block of a gun tackle the direction of

the pulling force is reversed though the mechanical advantage remains the
same, Diagram 3a. This is an example of the Luff tackle.

Free body diagrams

The mechanical advantage of a pulley system can be analyzed
using free body diagrams which balance the tension force in the rope with
the force of gravity on the load. In an ideal system, the mass less and
frictionless pulleys do not dissipate energy and allow for a change of direction
of a rope that does not stretch or wear. In this case, a force balance on a free
body that includes the load, W, and n supporting sections of a rope with
tension T, yields:

The ratio of the load to the input tension force is the mechanical
advantage MA of the pulley system,

Thus, the mechanical advantage of the system is equal to the number

of sections of rope supporting the load.

Belt and pulley systems

Fig. Flat belt on a belt pulley

Fig. Belt and pulley system

Fig. Cone pulley driven from above by a line shaft

A belt and pulley system is characterized by two or more pulleys in

common to a belt. This allows for mechanical power, torque, and speed to be
transmitted across axles. If the pulleys are of differing diameters, a mechanical
advantage is realized.

A belt drive is analogous to that of a chain drive, however a belt

sheave may be smooth (devoid of discrete interlocking members as would be
found on a chain sprocket, spur gear, or timing belt) so that the mechanical
advantage is approximately given by the ratio of the pitch diameter of the
sheaves only, not fixed exactly by the ratio of teeth as with gears and
sprockets.

In the case of a drum-style pulley, without a groove or flanges, the

pulley often is slightly convex to keep the flat belt centred. It is sometimes
referred to as a crowned pulley. Though once widely used on factory line
shafts, this type of pulley is still found driving the rotating brush in
upright vacuum

cleaners,

in belt

sanders and

band

saws. Agricultural tractors built up to the early 1950s generally had a belt
pulley for a flat belt (which is what Belt Pulley magazine was named after). It
has been replaced by other mechanisms with more flexibility in methods of
use, such as power take-off and hydraulics.

Just as the diameters of gears (and, correspondingly, their number of

teeth) determine a gear ratio and thus the speed increases or reductions and the
mechanical advantage that they can deliver, the diameters of pulleys
determine those same factors. Cone pulleys and step pulleys (which operate
on the same principle, although the names tend to be applied to flat belt
versions and V belt versions, respectively) are a way to provide multiple drive
ratios in a belt-and-pulley system that can be shifted as needed, just as
a transmission provides this function with a gear train that can be shifted. V
belt step pulleys are the most common way that drill presses deliver a range of
spindle speeds.

3.6IR SENSOR:
GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
IR Proximity Sensor
This sensor can be used to measure the speed of object moving at a
very high speed, like in industry.

Object Detection using IR light

It is the same principle in ALL Infra-Red proximity sensors. The basic

idea is to send infra red light through IR-LEDs, which is then reflected by any
object in front of the sensor.

One of the most useful sensors finds its application while detecting
object/hurdles, edges of surface etc. With a long range of 20 cm, TLL
interface and ambient light protection makes it easy and reliable to use.
Features:
Range:

20

Ambient
Easy

cm

light
interface

On board LED to indicate logic signals

protection
with

microcontroller

IR modules have three pins which are connected to 8051 as

Ground pin connected to any GND pin of board.

+5V provided by the 8051 board.

Connect output pin of IR module to any i/o pin of 8051 board by using its
pin header.
Here we have use the IR proximity sensor to check the bottle detection
at the particular place where the liquid filling system is planted. If the IR
sensor detect the bottle on the conveyer belt than the IR sensor gives it output
to the controller and controller stops the movement of the bottle.

3.7 DC MOTOR:
DC Motors convert electrical energy (voltage or power source) to
mechanical
They

energy
run

(produce

rotational

on

direct

motion).
current.

The Dc motor works on the principle of Lorentz force which states that when
a wire carrying current is placed in a region having magnetic field, than the
wire

experiences

This Lorentz force provides a torque to the coil to rotate.

force.

A commonly used DC Motor is shown in the image above.

The above image shows the brushes of the DC motor which helps the
motor to take input current to the coil.The brushes always remain connected
with any two commutators and supplying the input current to the coil while it
is rotating.
Closer Look
You can have a closer look as to how the electrical coil is arranged in
the permanent magnet.

When DC current is passed through the coil, it works as

electromagnet. As you can see the iron plates attached around the coil helps
the coil to keep in center and movable. Permanent magnet attracts these three
iron plates equally; resultantly it stays in the center of the permanent magnet.
There are three commutators shown in the image. Each one is directly
connected with the coil to supply the current in. The permanent magnet is
cascaded in the body of the motor. The permanent magnet is cascaded in the
body of the motor. The coil working as electromagnet moves in the magnetic
field of this magnet. A motor speed control IC is used to control the rotating
speed of compact DC motor. The IC integrated in the circuit has an inbuilt
reverse voltage protection circuit.

Working:
As we have discussed, DC motor work on Lorentz force concept.
When we pass the input DC current to the coil through the brushes, it directly
goes to the coil inside the motor body. This makes coil to work as an
electromagnet. Magnetic fields of both magnets interact with each other that
results in a force which in turn produces the necessary torque required to
move the coil. This torque drives the coil to move round and a shaft attached
with the coil moves too.

How Geared DC Motor works

Geared DC motors can be defined as an extension of DC motor. A

geared DC Motor has a gear assembly attached to the motor. The speed of
motor is counted in terms of rotations of the shaft per minute and is termed as
RPM .The gear assembly helps in increasing the torque and reducing the
speed. Using the correct combination of gears in a gear motor, its speed can be
reduced to any desirable figure. This concept where gears reduce the speed of
the vehicle but increase its torque is known as gear reduction. This Insight
will explore all the minor and major details that make the gear head and hence
the working of geared DC motor.
External Structure:
At the first sight, the external structure of a DC geared motor looks as
a straight expansion over the simple DC ones. Also, an internally threaded
hole is there on the shaft to allow attachments or extensions such as wheel to
be attached to the motor. The outer body of the gear head is made of high
density plastic but it is quite easy to open as only screws are used to attach the
outer and the inner structure. The major reason behind this could be to
lubricate gear head from time to time. The plastic body has a threading
through which nut can be easily mounted and vice versa from the gear head.

Rear view

The rear view of the geared motor is similar to the DC motor and it has
two wires soldered to it.

Internal Structure

On opening the outer plastic casing of the gear head, gear assemblies
on the top as well as on bottom part of the gear head are visible.

These gear assemblies are highly lubricated with grease so as to avoid

any sort of wear and tear due to frictional forces.

Shown below is the top part of the gear head. It is connected to

rotating shaft and has one gear that allows the rotation.

A strong circular imprint shows the presence of the gear that rotates
the gear at the upper portion.

Connection of the shaft with the gear is shown in the image under. The cap
that accommodates the gear has an arc cut from its side to avoid frictional
resistance forces with the bottom gear assembly.

The bottom houses the gear mechanism which is connected to the DC

motor through screws. This mechanism rotates the gear at the top which is
connected to the rotating shaft.

Bottom Gear Assembly

A closer look at the bottom gear assembly shows the structure and
connection with other gears.

Gear assemblys association with the motor (bottom gear assembly)

can be understood with the help of the image shown below. The gear
assembly is set up on two metallic cylinders whose working can be
called as similar to that of an axle. A total of three gears combine on
these two cylinders to form the bottom gear assembly out of which two
gears share the same axle while one gear comes in between them and
takes a separate axle.

The gears are basically in form of a small sprocket but since they are
not connected by a chain, they can be termed as duplex gears in terms
of a second cog arrangement coaxially over the base. Among the three
gears, two are exactly same while the third one is bigger in terms of
the number of teeth at the upper layer of the duplex gear. The third
gear is connected to the gear at the upper portion of the gear head. The
manner in which they are located near the upper part of the gear head
can be seen through the image shown.

The combination of bottom gear assembly with the upper one can be
seen down under.

After the gear assembly is removed, gear heads connection to the DC

motor and its gear can be easily seen. The machine has a smaller gear in
comparison to the gear heads gear assembly.
Working of the DC Geared Motor

The DC motor works over a fair range of voltage. The higher the input
voltage more is the RPM (rotations per minute) of the motor. For
example, if the motor works in the range of 6-12V, it will have the
least RPM at 6V and maximum at 12 V.

In terms of voltage, we can put the equation as:

RPM= K1 * V, where,

K1= induced voltage constant

V=voltage applied

The working of the gears is very interesting to know. It can be

explained by the principle of conservation of angular momentum. The
gear having smaller radius will cover more RPM than the one with
larger radius. However, the larger gear will give more torque to the
smaller gear than vice versa. The comparison of angular velocity
between input gear (the one that transfers energy) to output gear gives
the gear ratio. When multiple gears are connected together,
conservation of energy is also followed. The direction in which the
other gear rotates is always the opposite of the gear adjacent to it.

In any DC motor, RPM and torque are inversely proportional.

Hence the gear having more torque will provide a lesser RPM and
converse.

In a geared DC motor, the concept of pulse width modulation is

applied.

The equations detailing the working and torque transfer of gears are
shown below:

In a geared DC motor, the gear connecting the motor and the gear head
is quite small, hence it transfers more speed to the larger teeth part of
the gear head and makes it rotate.

The larger part of the gear further turns the smaller duplex part.

The small duplex part receives the torque but not the speed from its
predecessor which it transfers to larger part of other gear and so on.
The third gears duplex part has more teeth than others and hence it

transfers more torque to the gear that is connected to the shaft.

3.8 BUZZER

Fig. Buzzer

Buzzer is used for alert the people who are going on the Bridge for
crossing the railway.

Electromechanical
The first electric buzzer was invented in 1831 by Joseph Henry. They
were mainly used in early doorbells until they were phased out in the early
1930's in favor of musical chimes, which had a softer tone.

Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric buzzers, or piezo buzzers, as they are sometimes called,
were invented by Japanese manufacturers and fitted into a wide array of
products during the 1970s to 1980s. This advancement mainly came about

because of cooperative efforts by Japanese manufacturing companies. In 1951,

they established the Barium Titanate Application Research Committee, which
allowed the companies to be "competitively cooperative" and bring about
several piezoelectric innovations and inventions.

Type of Buzzers
Electromechanical
Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to
an electric bell without the metal gong. Similarly, are lay may be connected to
interrupt its own actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these
units were anchored to a wall or ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The
word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers
made.

Mechanical
A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer. They
require a driver.

Piezoelectric

Piezoelectric disk beeper

A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic
circuit or other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio
amplifier. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed
are a click, a ring or a beep.

Modern Applications
While technological advancements have caused buzzers to be
impractical and undesirable, there are still instances in which buzzers and
similar circuits may be used. Present day applications include:

Novelty uses

Educational purposes

Annunciator panels

Electronic metronomes

Game show lock-out device

Microwave ovens and other household appliances

Sporting events such as basketball games

Electrical alarms

Joy buzzer- a mechanical buzzer used for pranks

3.9 POWER SUPPLY

To active any device voltage source is required. For different device

different voltage source is required. In our project we use +5V and +3.3V DC
power supplies. The +5V is required for controller unit. For sensor unit +5V
and +3.3V is also required. To get +5V we use 7805 voltage regulator IC. To
get +3.3V we use LM117 voltage regulator IC. Refer figure.

Figure Power supply

3.10 Component List

SR.
NO
.

NAME
OF
COMPONENT

NO. OF
COMPONENT
USED

1.

Conveyor Belt

2.

IR Sensor

3.

LM324 IC

4.

Microcontroller Board

5.

Pulleys

6.

Shaft

7.

DC Motor

8.

Boxes

9.

Buzzers

As per requirement
1