Great Lives from History

477 - 1453
Great Lives from History

477 - 1453

Volume 1
Pietro d’Abano-Kfbf Daishi

Editor
Shelley Wolbrink
Drury University

Editor, First Edition

Frank N. Magill

Salem Press
Pasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey
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Some of the essays in this work originally appeared in the following Salem Press sets: Dictionary of World Biography
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Great lives from history. The Middle Ages, 477-1453 / editor, Shelley Wolbrink.— 1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-58765-164-5 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-165-3 (v. 1 : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-166-1 (v. 2 :
alk. paper)
1. Biography—Middle Ages, 500-1500. 2. Middle Ages—History. I. Wolbrink, Shelley.
CT114.G74 2005
920′.009′02—dc22
2004016696

First Printing

printed in the united states of america

 Contents
Publisher’s Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Roger Bacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii John Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Key to Pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Basil the Macedonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Complete List of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix al-Batt3nt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
List of Maps and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv Baybars I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Maps of the Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii Beatrice of Nazareth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Saint Thomas Becket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Pietro d’Abano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Saint Bede the Venerable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4Abd al-Malik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Saint Benedict of Nursia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4Abd al-Mu$min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Benjamin of Tudela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Saint Bernard of Clairvaux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Peter Abelard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 al-Btrnnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Abn Wantfah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Blanche of Castile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Abul Wefa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Giovanni Boccaccio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Adam de la Halle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Boethius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Adrian IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Bohemond I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Æthelflæd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Saint Bonaventure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Afonso I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Saint Boniface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Awmad ibn Wanbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Boniface VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4Al3$-ud-Dtn Muwammad Khaljt . . . . . . . . . . 39 Boris I of Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Saint Albertus Magnus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Henry de Bracton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Alboin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Brahmagupta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Alcuin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Saint Brigit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Saint Alexander Nevsky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Robert Bruce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Alexander III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Filippo Brunelleschi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Alfonso X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Leonardo Bruni. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Alfred the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Hubert de Burgh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Alhazen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Jean Buridan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Alp Arslan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Amalasuntha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Cædmon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
An Lushan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Canute the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Blessed Angela of Foligno. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Giovanni da Pian del Carpini. . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Fra Angelico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Casimir the Great. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Anna, Princess of the Byzantine Empire . . . . . . 86 Cassiodorus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Anna Comnena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Saint Catherine of Siena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Saint Anselm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Guido Cavalcanti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Saint Anthony of Padua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Charlemagne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Arnold of Villanova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Charles d’Orléans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Arnolfo di Cambio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Charles Martel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Árpád . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Charles the Bald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
#ryabhaza the Elder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Charles IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
al-Ash4art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Alain Chartier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Ashikaga Takauji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Geoffrey Chaucer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Averroës . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Chrétien de Troyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Avicenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Christina of Markyate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
v
 The Middle Ages

Christine de Pizan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Gottfried von Strassburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

El Cid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Gregory of Tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Cimabue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Gregory the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Saint Clare of Assisi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Gregory VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Saint Clotilda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Gregory IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Clovis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Guido d’Arezzo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius . . . . . . . . . . 294 Johann Gutenberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Guy de Chauliac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Enrico Dandolo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Gwenllian verch Gruffydd . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Dante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
David I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Hafiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
David II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 al-Wall3j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Dhuoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Harold II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Dionysius Exiguus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Har;a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Saint Dominic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Hartmann von Aue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Donatello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 H3rnn al-Rashtd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Du Fu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 al-Wasan al-Ba;rt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Duccio di Buoninsegna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Henry the Lion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
John Duns Scotus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Prince Henry the Navigator . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
John Dunstable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Henry I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Henry II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Edward the Confessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Henry II the Saint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Edward the Elder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Henry III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Edward I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Henry IV (of England) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Edward II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Henry IV (of Germany) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Edward III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Henry V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Egbert. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Heraclius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Eleanor of Aquitaine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Saint Hilda of Whitby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Saint Elizabeth of Hungary. . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Hildegard von Bingen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Ethelred II, the Unready . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Hrosvitha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Jan van Eyck and Hubert van Eyck . . . . . . . . 365 János Hunyadi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Jan Hus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Fakhr al-Dtn al-R3zt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Jacqueline Félicie. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Ibn al-4Arabt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Firdusi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Ibn Bazznzah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Saint Francis of Assisi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Ibn Gabirol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Fredegunde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Ibn Khaldnn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Frederick I Barbarossa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 al-Idrtst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Frederick II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Innocent III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Jean Froissart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Innocent IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Fujiwara Michinaga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Saint Irene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Saint Fulbert of Chartres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Isabella of France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Saint Isidore of Seville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Genghis Khan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Itzcóatl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Geoffrey of Monmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Gershom ben Judah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Abn Mns3 J3bir ibn Wayy3n . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Mawmnd Gh3z3n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Jacopo della Quercia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
al-Ghazz3lt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 al-J3wi, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Lorenzo Ghiberti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 James I the Conqueror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Giotto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Joachim of Fiore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
vi
 Contents

Joan of Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 Damia al-K3hina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604

Jfchf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Margery Kempe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
King John. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Khadtja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
John of Damascus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 Khosrow I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Judah ha-Levi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 al-Khw3rizmt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
Julian of Norwich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 Kfbf Daishi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Justinian I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598

vii
 Publisher’s Note
Great Lives from History: The Middle Ages, 477-1453
is the second installment in the revised and expanded
Great Lives series, initiated in 2004 with Great Lives
from History: The Ancient World, Prehistory-476 C.E. It
will be joined by Great Lives from History: The Renais-
sance & Early Modern Era, 1454-1600, planned for
2005, and in successive years by volumes covering the
Seventeenth Century, Eighteenth Century, Nineteenth
Century, and Twentieth Century—each two or more vol-
umes in length. The entire series, when complete, is ex-
pected to cover more than 2,500 lives in essays ranging
from 3 to 6 pages in length.
Expanded Coverage
This ongoing series is a revision of the 10-volume
Dictionary of World Biography (DWB) series (1998-
1999), which in turn was a revision and reordering of
Salem Press’s 30-volume Great Lives from History se-
ries (1987-1995). The expanded Great Lives differs in
several ways from DWB:
• The original essays are enhanced by the addition of
new entries covering a wider geographical area and in-
cluding many more women. The coverage of each set
has been increased significantly. In the current two
volumes on The Middle Ages, for example, 59 new es-
says have been added to the original 297 for a total of
356 essays covering 361 historical figures (5 essays
address closely allied pairs).
• In an effort to align coverage with curriculum, the new
series provides more logical breaks between eras. For
example, The Ancient World now ends at 476 c.e. (the
fall of Rome), and the current two volumes on The
Middle Ages consequently begin at 477 and end at
1453 (the fall of Constantinople)—as opposed to the
more arbitrary 1400 in the old DWB.
• 109 regnal tables and dynastic lists have been added to
enhance and supplement the text throughout, and a
section of 11 maps has been added to allow students to
locate personages geographically and to place rulers
dynastically.
• Essays from the original DWB on all personages fall-
ing into the new time frame are reprinted in this new
series with updated and annotated bibliographies.
ix
Scope of Coverage
The geographic and occupational scope of the indi-
viduals covered in Great Lives from History: The Middle
Ages, 477-1453 is broad. Coverage is worldwide, with
individuals identified with one or more of the following
areas: 9 with Africa, 52 with the British Isles, 11 with the
Byzantine Empire, 3 with Central Asia, 23 with China or
Mongolia, 51 with France, 25 with German states, 61
with Italy, 15 with Japan, 1 with Korea, 42 with the Mid-
dle East or Persia, 16 with Russia and Central Europe, 17
with Scandinavia and the Low Countries, 9 with South or
Southeast Asia, and 20 with Spain or Portugal. Only 1 in-
dividual, Itzcóatl, represents the Americas; it must be re-
called that the cutoff date for this set, 1453, precluded
identifiable figures who could sustain the minimum length
of the essay, 1,500 words. (Figures such as Deganawida,
Doña Marina, Montezuma II, Huascar, and others from
the Americas are covered in Great Lives from History:
The Renaissance & Early Modern Era, 1454-1600, slated
to appear in 2005.)
The editors have sought to provide coverage that is
broad in areas of achievement as well as geography,
while at the same time including the recognized shapers
of history essential in any liberal arts curriculum. Major
world leaders appear here—emperors, conquerors, kings,
and khans—as well as the giants of religious faith who
were central to the medieval world: popes, monks, and
saints who left their imprint on political as well as spiri-
tual institutions. The set also includes figures who have
received little or no attention in the past—from the sev-
enth century queen of the Berbers Damia al-K3hina to
the eleventh century Italian gynecologist Trotula. By cat-
egory, the contents include more than 120 world leaders,
56 religious figures, 38 writers, 23 artists, 20 historiogra-
phers, 16 philosophers, 13 military leaders, 8 scientists,
7 medical practitioners, 6 musicians, 4 educators, 4 ex-
plorers, 4 figures identified with the law, 4 mathemati-
cians, 3 architects, 3 geographers, 2 patrons of the arts, 2
social reformers, and 2 linguists. Among these architects
of today’s civilization are 53 women of the medieval
world: writers, scholars, scientists, and national leaders.
Essay Length and Format
Each essay ranges from 1,500 to 4,000 words in
length (roughly 3 to 6 pages), with the majority falling in
the range of 2,000 to 2,500 words. The familiar standard
format offers easy access to biographical information.
 The Middle Ages
Ready-reference top matter identifies the person and
provides vital data:
• The essay title is the name of the individual; editors
have chosen the name as it is most commonly found in
Western English-language sources.
• The individual’s nationality or ethnicity and occupa-
tion or historical role follow on the second line, in-
cluding reign dates for rulers.
• A summary paragraph highlighting the individual’s
historical importance indicates why the person is stud-
ied today.
• The Born and Died lines list the most complete dates
of birth and death available, followed by the most pre-
cise locations available, as well as an indication when
these are unknown, only probable, or only approxi-
mate; both medieval and modern place-names (where
different) are listed.
• Also known as lists all known versions of the name, in-
cluding full names, given names, alternative spellings,
pseudonyms, and common epithets.
• Area(s) of achievement lists all categories of contribu-
tion, from Architecture and Art through Warfare and
Women’s Rights.
The body of each article is divided into six parts:
• Early Life provides facts about the individual’s up-
bringing and the environment in which he or she was
reared, as well as the pronunciation of his or her name,
if unusual. Where little is known about the individ-
ual’s rearing, historical context is provided.
• Life’s Work, the heart of the article, consists of a
straightforward, generally chronological, account of
the period during which the individual’s most signifi-
cant achievements were accomplished.
• Significance is an overview of the individual’s place in
history.
• Further Reading is an annotated bibliography, a start-
ing point for further research.
• See also is a list of cross-references to essays in the set
covering related personages.
• Related articles lists essays of interest in Salem’s
companion publication, Great Events from History:
The Middle Ages, 477-1453 (2 vols., 2005).
Special Features
Several features distinguish this series as a whole
from other biographical reference works. The front mat-
ter includes the following aids:
• Key to Pronunciation: a key to in-text pronunciation
guidelines, in both volumes.
x
• Complete List of Contents: this alphabetical list of
contents appears in both volumes.
• List of Maps and Tables.
• Maps: In the front matter to each volume, a section of
11 maps displaying major regions of the world in the
period 477-1453 appear grouped together for easy ref-
erence.
The back matter to Volume 2 includes several appen-
dices and indexes:
• Rulers and Dynasties: a geographically arranged set
of tables listing major rulers and their regnal dates,
covering 37 regions of the world.
• Chronological List of Entries: individuals covered, ar-
ranged by birth year.
• Category Index: entries by area of achievement, from
architecture to women’s rights.
• Geographical Index: entries by country or region.
• Personages Index: an index of all persons, both those
covered and those additionally discussed within the
text.
• Subject Index: a comprehensive index including per-
sonages, concepts, terms, events, civilizations, and
other topics of discussion, with full cross-references
from alternative spellings and to the Category and
Geographical Indexes.
Usage Notes
The worldwide scope of Great Lives from History re-
sulted in the inclusion of many names and words that
must be transliterated from languages that do not use the
Roman alphabet, and in some cases, there is more than
one transliterated form in use. In many cases, transliter-
ated words in this set follow the American Library Asso-
ciation and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) translitera-
tion format for that language. However, if another form
of a name or word was judged to be more familiar to the
general audience, it is used instead. The variants for
names of essay subjects are listed in ready-reference top
matter and are cross-referenced in the subject and per-
sonages indexes. The Pinyin transliteration was used for
Chinese topics, with Wade-Giles variants provided for
major names and dynasties. In a few cases, a common
name that is not Pinyin has been used. Sanskrit and other
South Asian names generally follow the ALA-LC trans-
literation rules, although again, the more familiar form of
a word is used when deemed appropriate for the general
reader.
Titles of books and other literature appear, upon first
mention in the essay, with their full publication and trans-
 Publisher’s Note
lation data as known: an indication of the first date of
publication or appearance, followed by the English title
in translation and its first date of appearance in English;
if no translation has been published in English, and if the
context of the discussion does not make the meaning of
the title obvious, a “literal translation” appears in roman
type.
Throughout, readers will find a limited number of ab-
breviations used in both top matter and text, including
“r.” for “reigned,” “b.” for “born,” “d.” for “died,” and
“fl.” for “flourished.” Where a date range appears ap-
pended to a name without one of these designators, the
reader may assume it signifies birth and death dates.
Finally, in the regnal tables dispersed throughout the
xi
text, the reader will find some names appearing in small
capital letters. These figures are covered in their own sep-
arate essays within these two volumes.
The Editors and Contributors
Salem Press would like to extend its appreciation to
Professor Shelley Wolbrink, Department of History,
Drury University, Editor of Great Lives from History:
The Middle Ages, 477-1453. In addition, we extend ap-
preciation to the many academicians and scholars who
prepared essays for this work. Without their expert con-
tributions, a project of this nature would not be possible.
A full list of contributors and their affiliations appears in
the front matter of volume 1.
The Middle Ages
Pietro d’Abano
Italian scholar and scientist
Abano founded the Paduan school of medicine,
introducing elements of Arabic knowledge into Italy,
and worked toward a synthesis of medieval, classical,
Arabic, and Jewish philosophy.
Born: c. 1250; Abano, near Padua (now in Italy)
Died: 1316; Padua
Also known as: Peter of Abano; Petrus de Apono;
Petrus Aponus; Petrus Aponensis
Areas of achievement: Medicine, philosophy
Early Life
Pietro d’Abano (PYEH-troh duh-BAW-noh) was born in
the village of Abano, now in northern Italy. Not much is
known concerning his family background or early years.
His father was a public notary and seems to have been
reasonably well-to-do, for Pietro was able to receive an
unusually good education. As a youth, he went to Greece
and Constantinople, where he gained a mastery of the
Greek language; among his early writings are translations
of works of Aristotle into Latin. The ability to read the
Greek classics in the original was quite unusual in West-
ern Europe before the invading Ottoman Turks began to
force Greek scholars to flee westward from the collaps-
ing Byzantine Empire in the mid-fifteenth century.
On his return from Constantinople, Pietro attended
the University of Paris, perhaps the best of the few insti-
tutions of higher learning that existed in late thirteenth
century Europe. He studied philosophy, mathematics,
and medicine for a number of years and earned a doctor-
ate. Pietro’s fame as a scholar and teacher quickly spread,
and he became known as “the great Lombard.”
Life’s Work
In addition to his scientific and philosophical studies,
Pietro was very interested in the pseudoscience of astrol-
ogy. He often included astrological considerations and
prayer in his medical prescriptions. Later in his life, he
was responsible for the inscription of some four hundred
astrological symbols on Padua’s city hall. His reaching
for supernatural forces was probably a reaction to the
limited scientific knowledge of the fourteenth century.
Pietro himself, for example, asserted firmly that it was
impossible to determine the constituent parts of a com-
pound. Thus, without outside help, the medieval scientist
was so restricted as to be almost helpless. His astrologi-
cal interests, however, eventually led to trouble with the
Church.
Abano, Pietro d’
Pietro was more a man of the Middle Ages than of the
early Renaissance. His idea of the four elements—earth,
water, air, and fire—was typical of medieval understand-
ing of chemistry, but he went further than most medieval
scholars through experimentation and critical translation
of classical manuscripts. Pietro was also an eager collec-
tor of new information. He left record of an interview
with the explorer Marco Polo held shortly before the lat-
ter returned to Venice in 1295. Pietro inquired about nat-
ural phenomena and drugs such as camphor, aloe, and
brazil, which were imported from Asia. He made no
mention of magic or other supernatural matters.
Pietro is often called a disciple of the Arabic scholar
Avicenna and even more so of Averroës, whose ideas he
is supposed to have introduced into Europe. Pietro’s
ideas about the stages of disease—onset, increase, full-
ness, and decline—correspond to those of Avicenna,
as does his preference for simple, natural medicines.
Scholar Lynn Thorndike, however, argues quite effec-
tively that the supposed influence of Averroës has no ba-
sis in Pietro’s writings. Averroës’ ideas about chemistry
were more sophisticated than those of medieval Europe-
ans such as Pietro, and Thorndike finds no reason to think
that Pietro’s theological ideas came from the same source.
Other writers, however, suggest that Pietro’s adoption of
a corruption of Averroës’ idea of the soul was one of the
principal sources of his trouble with the Church.
In addition to numerous translations from Arabic and
Greek, Pietro wrote at least ten books. The most famous
is the Conciliator differentiarum philosophorum et prae-
cipue medicorum (1472; conciliator of the various medi-
cal philosophies and practices), in which he attempted to
reconcile the teachings of Greek, Arabic, Jewish, and
Latin writers in philosophy and medicine. Although
done with the usual medieval resort to authority and syl-
logism, this work contains much original comment and
makes clear Pietro’s deep commitment to astrology.
Pietro’s second major work, De venenis eorumque
remediis (1473; English translation, 1924), is a descrip-
tion of all important known poisons with descriptions of
symptoms and antidotes or treatments. Reportedly done
for a pope—possibly John XXII—it too is a mixture of
astrology and superstition, but the listing of poisons and
symptoms is well done.
Pietro’s writings other than translations are Expositio
problematum Aristotelis (1475; exposition of Aristote-
lian problems), Hippocratis de medicorum astrologia
1
Abano, Pietro d’
Pietro d’Abano. (Library of Congress)
libellus Graeco in Latinum (1476; Hippocratus’s astro-
nomical medicine translated from Greek to Latin), Textus
Mesue emendatus Petri Apponi medici in librum (1505;
the text of Mesue amended by Dr. Pietro d’Abano),
Astrolabium planum, in tabulis ascendens, continens
qualibet hora atque minuto aequationes domorum coeli,
significationes (1502; clear astronomical tables, contain-
ing the heavenly signs for any hour and minute), Joannis
Mesue additio (1505; additions to John Mesue), Decisi-
ones physiognomicae (1548; judging a person’s charac-
ter by physical features), Geomantia (1549; Magical El-
ements, 1655), and De balneis (1553; on baths). Many of
these works were considered authoritative into the six-
teenth century.
Although the details are in some dispute, Pietro’s re-
turn to Padua from Paris seems to have been marked by
serious trouble with the Church. Either shortly before or
after his arrival in Padua, Pietro was accused of heresy
and necromancy. The charges were made through the
Dominican order of friars and were based on reports of a
physician named Petrus de Reggio. There are a number
of reported accusations, including that he used magic to
get all the money he spent returned to him, that he
2
The Middle Ages
claimed that some biblical miracles had natural explana-
tions, and that he adhered to the rationalistic philosophy
of Averroës. Charged with several others, Pietro had to
face the Inquisition. Thanks to the intervention of influ-
ential patrons—there is one report that Pietro went to
Rome and won the support of Pope Boniface VIII—he
was exonerated in 1306. In 1314, Pietro was offered the
chair of medicine at the new University of Treviso, but he
fell ill and died before he could move there. His death
was fortuitous in one sense, for in 1315, the charges of
heresy were renewed. Posthumously, he was condemned
and orders were issued for the exhumation and burning of
his body. Although most authorities maintain that friends
spirited the body away to a new tomb and only an effigy
was burned in the public square of Padua, Thomas of
Strassburg, Augustinian prior general, claims to have
seen the body burned. The distinction seems academic at
best.
Thorndike, who has made the most thorough study of
Pietro, rejects much of the story of his troubles with the
Inquisition. It was, Thorndike argues, constructed of
whole cloth in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Pietro may have had one brush with Church authorities,
but the embellishments about the body being spirited
away have no basis in original sources. Thorndike is not
even convinced that Pietro died on the traditionally ac-
cepted date of 1316 and suggests that he may, in fact,
have taught for some years at Treviso after that date.
Thorndike’s arguments are well marshaled, but they have
not been widely adopted by other scholars.
Significance
Pietro was a medieval scientist, but he showed some of
the qualities that would mark the Renaissance as well.
His critical attitude and experimental approach were
signs of the future. The importance he placed on astrol-
ogy and prayer as elements in medical prescriptions,
however, harked back to the past.
Pietro played an important role in the development of
Padua and its university into a major intellectual center.
Although in the thirteenth century the University of
Padua was known mostly for the study of law, by 1500 it
could boast of having had many of the major scientists of
the Italian Renaissance as professors or students. Pietro
founded the Paduan school of medical thought, introduc-
ing both classical and Arabic sources. His willingness to
question established views and to seek new information
rather than depending wholly on authority was important
in shaping the growing scholarly tradition of Padua.
— Fred R. van Hartesveldt
The Middle Ages
Further Reading
Brown, Horace. “De venenis of Petrus Abbonus.” Annals
of Medical History 6 (1924): 25-53. A translation of
Pietro’s work about poisons and their symptoms and
treatments, this is the only conveniently available En-
glish translation of any of Pietro’s writings. It pro-
vides a good sample of the mix of superstition and sci-
ence that marked his approach to medicine.
French, R. K. Medicine Before Science: The Rational
and Learned Doctor. New York: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 2003. This examination of the role of phy-
sicians in the Middle Ages provides information on
the age in which Pietro lived.
Hyde, J. K. Padua in the Age of Dante. New York: Barnes
and Noble Books, 1966. An excellent description of
late medieval Padua that provides valuable background
information about the milieu in which Pietro worked.
Olschki, Leonardo. “Medical Matters in Marco Polo’s
Description of the World.” In Essays in the History of
Medicine Presented to Professor Arturo Castiglioni
on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birth Day, edited by
Henry E. Sigerist. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer-
4Abd al-Malik
Islamic caliph (r. 685-705)
4Abd al-Malik solidified the Islamic Empire under the
Marwanid Dynasty through his victory in the second
fitna, or Islamic civil war. This victory ensured the
continued rule of the Marwanids, a branch of the
Umayyad family. He also introduced the first Arabic
coinage, established Arabic as an official language,
and oversaw the construction of the Dome of the Rock.
Born: c. 646; Medina, Hijaz (now Medina, Saudi
Arabia)
Died: October 705; Damascus, Syria
Also known as: 4Abd al-Malik Ibn Marw3n
Areas of achievement: Government and politics,
warfare and conquest, architecture
Early Life
4Abd al-Malik (ahb-dewl mah-LIHK) was the son of
Marw3n ibn al-Hakam (r. 684-685) during the reign of
4Uthm3n 4Aff3n (r. 644-656), the third caliph. Following
the first fitna, the Umayyad family took control of the ca-
liphate, and Mu$3wiyah (r. 661-680) became the caliph.
The Umayyads had been a large, powerful family well
before their conversion to Islam. Under Mu$3wiyah,
4Abd al-Malik
sity Press, 1944. Contains a discussion of Pietro’s in-
terview with Marco Polo showing the former’s scien-
tific approach to collecting new data.
Thorndike, Lynn. A History of Magic and Experimental
Science. Vol. 2. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1947. A magisterial work in eight volumes
tracing the development of the techniques of modern
science. Contains a thorough study of Pietro.
_______. “Peter of Abano: A Medieval Scientist.” An-
nual Report of the American Historical Association
for the Year 1919 1 (1923): 317-326. Contains a sum-
mary of Pietro’s life but is focused on historiographical
sources. Attempts to show that many common beliefs
about Pietro are misconceptions based on secondary
sources from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
See also: Alhazen; Arnold of Villanova; Averroës;
Avicenna; Boniface VIII; Guy de Chauliac; Paul of
Aegina; Marco Polo; al-R3zt; Trotula.
Related articles in Great Events from History: The
Middle Ages, 477-1453: 1233: Papal Inquisition; 1271-
1295: Travels of Marco Polo.
Marw3n was appointed the governor of the Hijaz, an area
formerly the center of Islam, which included Mecca and
Medina. 4Abd al-Malik was born in Medina, and received
the education and lifestyle that resulted from being a gov-
ernor’s son and member of a powerful Arab family. This
education was due to the nature of Umayyad society,
which consisted of “not so much a nation as a hereditary
social caste which one could enter by birth” (according to
Bernard Lewis in The Arabs in History, 1993).
Following the death of Mu$3wiya in 680, a second
civil war broke out over the succession. Mu$3wiya had
secured the succession of his son, Yaztd (r. 680-683).
Followers of 4Alt (r. 656-661), the fourth caliph, disputed
the succession. This struggle was the second fitna.
In 680, Yaztd massacred 4Alt’s son, al-Wusayn, and
some of his followers at Karbala. This inspired a revolt in
Medina. While putting down this revolt in the Hijaz,
Yaztd died. Following Yaztd’s death in 683, Marw3n and
4Abd al-Malik moved from Medina to Damascus. The
son of Yaztd, Mu$3wiyah II, became caliph but soon died,
and his death fractured the entire Islamic world into com-
peting factions. Two Arabian tribes, the Qays and the
3
4Abd al-Malik
Kalb, both supported contenders for the caliphate. Mar -
w3n was supported by the Kalb and Ibn al-Zubayr was
supported by the Qays. Marw3n was victorious and be-
came caliph in 684. He then negotiated to ensure that one
of his sons, either 4Abd al-Malik or 4Abd al-4Aztz, was
appointed his successor. In 685, Marw3n died of plague,
and 4Abd al-Malik became caliph. On his ascension, this
Islamic world was divided into three main factions: 4Abd
al-Malik controlled Syria, Ibn al-Zubayr controlled the
Hijaz, and al-Mukhtar controlled Iraq. 4Abd al-Malik
was forced to reunite the Islamic world.
Life’s Work
For the first two years of his reign, 4Abd al-Malik con-
cerned himself with securing his center of power. He
struggled with the Byzantine Empire for control of north-
ern Syria and also struggled to contain Zufar, who led the
Qays and was allied with Ibn al-Zubayr. Other revolts in
Syria were from separate members of the Umayyad fam-
ily. In 689, 4Amr ibn Sa4id al-Ashdaq, the head of another
branch of the Umayyads, led a revolt in Damascus. 4Abd
al-Malik brutally suppressed this revolt by killing 4Amr
ibn Sa4id, supposedly under a truce flag.
During 4Abd al-Malik’s struggle for control of Syria,
al-Zubayr’s brother Mus4ab, the governor of Iraq, man-
aged to defeat al-Mukhtar and establish control over
most of Iraq in 687. Mus4ab then concentrated on his
struggle with the Kharijites, a rival faction that would ac-
knowledge only the authority of a caliph they selected.
In 691, while Mus4ab was mainly occupied with the
Kharijites, 4Abd al Malik advanced into Iraq with his
army. The caliph first offered to let Mus4ab keep the gov-
ernorship of Iraq, but Mus4ab refused. Mus4ab was killed
in battle that October. 4Abd al-Malik then established
control over Iraq and continued to suppress opposition
such as the Kharijites. The Kharijites were completely
driven out of Iraq under 4Abd al-Malik. 4Abd al-Malik
then sent his general, al-Wajj3j ibn Ynsuf, to deal with al-
Zubayr. Al-Wajj3j, known for his brutality, advanced on
Mecca, where al-Zubayr was based. The resulting seven-
month siege led to the destruction of the Kaaba. Al-
Wajj3j managed to defeat al-Zubayr in late 692, and then,
in two years as governor of the region, managed to sup-
press all opposition. 4Abd al-Malik had now secured con-
trol over the majority of the Islamic world. Following this
unification, 4Abd al-Malik renewed his struggle against
the Byzantine Empire.
Following the solidification of the Islamic world,
4Abd al-Malik made significant reforms in the govern-
ment and administration of the empire. Under 4Abd al-
4
The Middle Ages
The Umayyad Caliphs, 661-750
Reign Caliph
661-680 Mu$3wiyah I (Mu$3wiyah ibn Abt Sufyna)
680-683 Yaztd I
683 Mu$3wiyah II
684-685 Marw3n I
685-705 4Abd al-Malik
705-715 al-Waltd I
715-717 Sulaim3n
717-720 4Umar II
720-724 Yaztd II
724-743 Hish3m
743-744 al-Waltd II
744 Yaztd III
744 Ibr3htm
744-750 Marw3n II
Malik, the beginnings of a standing army were created.
Also, service in the army became a way to advance one’s
career. 4Abd al-Malik’s general and eventual governor of
Iraq, al-Wajj3j, came from humble origins and gained his
position through military skill. Also, 4Abd al-Malik is
credited with changing the official language of the ad-
ministration to Arabic. Traditionally, the Arabs had as-
similated the languages of the previous administrations
of the areas they conquered; Greek, Coptic, and Persian
were used in various parts of the region. Additionally, the
provincial administrations were standardized, although
they remained under the local governors’ control. This
governmental centralization took time; however, it was a
significant break from previous Arab traditions.
4Abd al-Malik instituted the first Arabic coinage. As
with the administrative languages, the Arabs had previ-
ously adapted existing, mainly Byzantine, coinage for
commerce. According to some accounts, 4Abd al-Malik
began minting Arabic coins called dinars in Kufic script
in response to changes in Byzantine coinage. These
changes were made because of a reported dispute with
the Byzantine emperor. However, the change in Byzan-
tine coinage probably was more a result of changes made
a few years later. The coins were originally minted in Da-
mascus and later in the Hijaz. Because of their high con-
centration of precious metal, they replaced the lesser
quality Byzantine coins rapidly. Additionally, 4Abd al-
Malik began a process of fiscal reforms. The economic
reorganization coupled with the establishment of a cen-
tralized bureaucracy was the beginning of a transforma-
tion from a coalition of tribes to a true empire.
The Middle Ages
The most dramatic example of this transformation
during 4Abd al-Malik’s reign was the construction of the
Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, completed sometime in
the 690’s and built on the rocky outcropping called the
Temple Mount, where the caliph 4Umar I is believed to
have entered the city during the Muslim conquest. The
building was funded by seven years’ worth of revenues
from Egypt, 4Abd al-Malik’s richest province. There are
several explanations for why 4Abd al-Malik built the
Dome of the Rock. Tradition says that it was to replace
the Kaaba as the destination of the pilgrimage (hajj) dur-
ing the struggle with al-Zubayr. This reason would allow
4Abd al-Malik to gather revenues from the hajj as well as
increase his legitimacy as the rightful caliph. This expla-
nation, however, has generally been discarded.
During the second fitna, four opposing factions jointly
made the pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca, and during
the siege of Mecca, 4Abd al-Malik’s army requested en-
try to the city for a pilgrimage. Additionally, by trying to
usurp Mecca as the center of the Islamic world, 4Abd al-
Malik would have lost legitimacy, instead of gaining it.
Others believe the dome was built to demonstrate the le-
gitimacy of Islamic culture. The region around Jerusa-
lem was predominantly Jewish and Christian, with gran-
diose temples and churches. The dome’s shape was
unique to Muslim buildings, and it more closely resem-
bled Christian architecture. Regardless of 4Abd al-Malik’s
original motives, the Dome of the Rock was a significant
architectural achievement, and it demonstrated the ongo-
ing transformation of a unified civilization between Jews,
Christians, and Muslims. The Dome of the Rock also has
important historical significance in regard to Islam as a
religion. The inscriptions on the inside of the building are
the earliest datable Qur$3nic texts, and they provide the
first reference to the religion of Muwammad as “Islam.”
Significance
The reign of 4Abd al-Malik marked a significant transi-
tional point in Islamic history. For the previous sixty
years, the Middle East had seen the rise of Islam and the
subsequent conquest of most of the region. The organiza-
tion of this conquest was mostly tribal, with little central-
ization. During 4Abd al-Malik’s reign, he managed to de-
feat several factions vying for control of this empire,
unifying it once again. Concurrent with unification, he
also began the long process of transforming a collection
of tribal conquests into a centralized civilization. Instead
of adapting the bureaucracy and currency of previous or
neighboring empires, he instituted the Arab language as
the official language of government and began minting
4Abd al-Malik
Islamic coins. A result of this centralization was the cre-
ation of a standing army and the resulting, albeit small,
amount of social mobility through martial skill. This
change meant that instead of seasonal campaigns in areas
near their home, armies were stationed or deployed from
North Africa to Iraq and were units designed to control
and expand the empire.
Finally, 4Abd al-Malik solidified the caliphate as a dy-
nastic monarchy. 4Abd al-Malik had four sons who later
became caliphs, and the only interruption of this was by a
cousin, 4Umar bin 4Abd al-4Aztz (r. 717-720). While all
Umayyad caliphs after 685 were descendants of Marw3n,
4Abd al-Malik was the true founder of the Marwanid Dy-
nasty. The Umayyad family became the first dynasty of
Islam, and through the success of 4Abd al-Malik, the
Marwanid branch dominated the empire. 4Abd al-Malik
turned the Islamic Empire into a true imperial empire.
The significance of this unification and transforma-
tion was seen by the success of the Islamic Empire during
and following 4Abd al-Malik’s death. Under 4Abd al-
Malik’s son and successor al-Waltd (r. 705-715), the
Umayyads conquered Spain and built the Umayyad
Mosque in Damascus. Initial military probes into India
were also conducted. The conquest into Europe contin-
ued until the Battle of Tours in 732, which halted the
Muslim advance. Finally, the Islamic Empire became a
major world center of science and the arts during a time
when Western Europe was still in the Dark Ages.
— Paul C. Gaige
Further Reading
Flood, Finbarr Barry. The Great Mosque of Damascus:
Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Cul-
ture. Boston: Brill, 2001. Examines the visual culture,
including architectural elements, of the Umayyads
and the empire’s far-reaching cultural influences. Il-
lustrations, extensive bibliography, and index.
Goitein, Shelomo Dov. “The Historical Background of
the Erection of the Dome of the Rock.” Journal of the
American Oriental Society 70, no. 2 (April-June
1950). This article discusses the various explanations
for the construction of the Dome of the Rock as well
as details the significance of the building.
Hawting, G. R. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umay-
yad Caliphate A.D. 661-750. New York: Routledge,
2000. Provides an excellent historical narrative of the
Umayyad caliphate’s development into a dynasty. In-
cludes excellent genealogical tables and a good expla-
nation of the tribal organization and history of the
Arabs. Maps, bibliography, index.
5
4Abd al-Mu$min
Lewis, Bernard. The Arabs in History. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1993. Provides a general, narrative
overview of the Arabs and their historical signifi-
cance, with a concentration on social and economic
history. Focuses mostly on the social, everyday im-
pact of historical events.
Raby, Julian, and Jeremy Johns, eds. Bayt-al-Maqdis:
4Abd al-Malik’s Jerusalem. New York: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, for the Board of Faculty of Oriental
Studies, 1992-1999. Vol. 1 in a two-volume set that
explores the architecture of al-Malik and the history
of religious architecture in the city of Jerusalem. Part
4Abd al-Mu$min
Berber founder of the Almohad Dynasty (r. 1130-1163)
Through military prowess and administrative skill,
4Abd al-Mu$min founded the Almohad Empire in North
Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, initiating a period of
thriving commerce and artistic creativity.
Born: 1094; Tagra, Kingdom of the Wamm3dids (now
in Algeria)
Died: May 2, 1163; Rabat, Almohad Empire (now in
Morocco)
Also known as: 4Abd al-Mu$min ibn-4Alt ibn
Makhlnf ibn Yu4la ibn Marw3n (full name); Abn
Muwammad al-Knmi; Amir al-Mu$minin
Areas of achievement: Government and politics,
warfare and conquest, patronage of the arts
Early Life
Born 4Abd al-Mu$min ibn-4Alt ibn Makhlnf ibn Yu4la ibn
Marw3n in Tagra in 1094, 4Abd al-Mu$min (ab-dool-
MOO-mihn) was the son of Alt, a humble potter and
member of the Koumiya, an Arabized section of the Ber-
ber Zanata tribe. Legends arose concerning marvelous
happenings in his youth: Swarms of bees were said to
have alighted on him without stinging, and a holy man
prophesied that the boy would conquer countries at the
four cardinal points.
Al3 decided that his son must have an education.
Thus, 4Abd al-Mu$min studied at the school in Tagra and
then at the mosque in the important Algerian city of
Tlemcen. One historian noted his intelligence: “In the
time it takes a man to grasp one question, he understood
ten.” To further his knowledge, 4Abd al-Mu$min, accom-
panied by uncle Ya4lu, determined to go to the East. In
1117, that plan was scrapped at Mallala, Algeria, be-
6
The Middle Ages
of the Oxford Studies in Islamic Art series. Some text
in French. Bibliography.
See also: al-Wasan al-Ba;rt; John of Damascus; Damia
al-K3hina; 4Umar I.
Related articles in Great Events from History: The
Middle Ages, 477-1453: c. 610-632: Muwammad Re-
ceives Revelations; 685-691: Building of the Dome of
the Rock; April or May, 711: Z3rik Crosses into
Spain; October 11, 732: Battle of Tours; 843: Treaty
of Verdun.
cause of 4Abd al-Mu$min’s momentous meeting with Ibn
Tnmart.
Ibn Tnmart, a Masmuda Berber of southern Morocco,
founded the Almohad movement, the name being a cor-
ruption of the Arabic al-muwawwidnn, meaning “the
movement of the unitarians.” Ibn Tnmart placed special
stress on the oneness of God and introduced into North
Africa the Sht4ite notion of an infallible mahdt (divinely
guided one). It was as he was returning from his pilgrim-
age to Mecca that Ibn Tnmart met 4Abd al-Mu$min at
Mallala. According to tradition, Ibn Tnmart had prophe-
sied their meeting.
4Abd al-Mu$min became Ibn Tnmart’s first disciple,
accompanying him to Morocco. In 1121, Ibn Tnmart es-
tablished headquarters at his native village, Igliz, moving
to Tinmel three years later. In 1125, Ibn Tnmart pro-
claimed himself the mahdt, the imam known and infal-
lible. 4Abd al-Mu$min served as Ibn Tnmart’s trusted
lieutenant, spreading his doctrine, helping to organize
Almohad society, and fighting against the Almoravid re-
gime. In May, 1130, 4Abd al-Mu$min suffered wounds in
the Almohad defeat by the Almoravids at the Battle of al-
Buhaira. On August 13, 1130, Ibn Tnmart died, having
designated 4Abd al-Mu$min as the Almohad leader. For
three years, Ibn Tnmart’s death was concealed because
certain Almohads disputed 4Abd al-Mu$min’s succes-
sion, arguing that he was an outsider. By 1133, however,
his supporters had managed to establish his leadership.
Life’s Work
4Abd al-Mu$min determined to conquer the entire Ma-
ghreb for the Almohad cause. For several years, he pre-
The Middle Ages 4Abd al-Mu$min

pared meticulously, gaining adherents to the Almohad displacing Abn Hafs 4Umar, the first designee. 4Abd al-
message and attracting mountaineers to his army in Mu$min sent his other sons to the principal provinces as
Tinmel. Then, systematically employing guerrilla tactics governors. With each of them, 4Abd al-Mu$min sent a
against the Almoravid Dynasty, he conquered the west- leading Almohad sheikh as counselor, thus joining the
ern mountain ranges of North Africa one after another: religious leaders to his family. 4Abd al-Mu$min used Abn
the High Atlas, the Middle Atlas, the Rif, and the range Hafs 4Umar as his first vizier and then as a personal
south of Tlemcen. Emboldened, 4Abd al-Mu$min moved adviser; the latter’s family ranked next to the sayyids.
from the mountains. In 1144, he defeated the Almoravid Ibn Tnmart’s Council of the Fifty, a consultative assem-
ally Reverter and his Christian militia. A year later, 4Abd bly that had representatives from the original tribes of
al-Mu$min crushed the Almoravid monarch Tashfin ibn the Almohad movement, was retained. These elements
Alt ibn Yusuf and took Oran and Tétouan. Next, after formed the aristocracy of the empire.
a nine-month siege, 4Abd al-Mu$min captured Fez, and, Using Ibn Tnmart’s teachings, 4Abd al-Mu$min aimed
in 1147, following an eleven-month siege, Marrakech, to build a unified Muslim community in the Maghreb.
where he executed the last Almoravid ruler. 4Abd al- The bases for legislation were the Qur$3n, the tradition of
Mu$min made Marrakech the Almohad capital and pro- Muwammad, and the concord of Muwammad’s compan-
ceeded to massacre the Lemtuna Berbers. ions. Practical needs of justice, however, drove 4Abd al-
Thereupon, 4Abd al-Mu$min turned his attention to Mu$min to tacit toleration of the Malikite system of law.
the Iberian Peninsula, where the Christians had been re- To maintain and enforce Ibn Tnmart’s doctrine, 4Abd al-
covering territory because of the Almoravid decline. Be- Mu$min devised special training for provincial adminis-
cause of their rigid doctrine, the Almohads encountered trators. He personally selected young men from the
resistance from Iberian Muslims and Christians alike. As Masmuda tribes and trained them in Ibn Tnmart’s writ-
a result, by 1148, 4Abd al-Mu$min’s authority extended ings, archery, horsemanship, and swimming. The ruler’s
to only the southwestern part of the Andalus. Regarding sons received this education as well.
the Iberian Peninsula as a diversion from the task of con- As an administrator, 4Abd al-Mu$min shone in master-
solidating Almohad rule in the Maghreb, 4Abd al-Mu$min minding an immense geographical survey of the Ma-
pushed no farther into Europe. ghreb. According to a Muslim historian, one-third of this
After conquering Morocco, 4Abd al-Mu$min focused area was deducted for mountains, rivers, salt lakes, roads,
attention on the central Maghreb. Here the Wamm3did and deserts, and the remainder was made subject to the
kingdom existed in decline under Yawy3. In 1151, by land tax (kharaj), with a fixed amount in grain and money
forced marches and in secrecy, 4Abd al-
Mu$min and his army reached Algiers and
then Bougie, the Wamm3did capital, which Almohad Caliphs (Spain and North Africa)
surrendered. Next, 4Abd al-Mu$min’s son
took and sacked Qal4a. In 1152, the Hilalians, Reign Caliph
Arab Bedouins of the region, joined the at- 1130-1163 4Abd al-Mu$min
tempt to push the Almohads to the far west. 1163-1184 Abn Ya4qnb Ynsuf
4Abd al-Mu$min, who had been returning to 1184-1199 Abn Ynsuf Ya4qnb al-Man;nr
Morocco, hurried back and met the enemy at 1199-1213 Muwammad ibn Ya4qnb
Sétif, where he triumphed after a four-day 1212 Christians defeat Almohads at Las Navas de Tolosa
1213-1224 Ynsuf II Abn Yaqnb
battle. In this case, however, he treated the
1224 4Abd al-W3wid Abn Muwammad
vanquished leniently. 1224-1227 4Abd All3h Abn Muwammad
4Abd al-Mu$min devoted the years be- 1227-1235 Yawy3 Abn Zakariyy34
tween 1152 and 1159 to organizing his state. 1227-1232 Idrts I ibn Ya4qnb
He had taken the title caliph of Ibn Tnmart, 1228-1229 Retreat from Spain
imitating Abn Bakr, caliph of Muwammad. 1232-1242 4Abdul-W3wid ibn Idrts I
He also became Amir al-Mu$minin (prince 1242-1248 4Alt ibn Idrts I
of the faithful), the first non-Arab to be so 1248-1266 4Umar ibn Isw3q
honored. Members of his family, known as 1266-1269 Idrts II ibn Muwammad
sayyids, formed the elite. In 1154, 4Abd al- 1269 End of Almohad domination in North Africa
Mu$min proclaimed his son as successor,
7
4Abd al-Mu$min
to be paid by each tribe—a first in Barbary. 4Abd al-
Mu$min used the survey to ascertain his fiscal resources.
The treasury drew revenue from the taxes imposed by the
Qur$3n and from a large part of the kharaj. The latter ap-
plied to “unbelievers,” paying the tax as a sort of rent on
their former property, its ownership having been taken by
the state. The unbelievers comprised all non-Almohad
Muslims and also those Almohads who were judged
unzealous.
The pragmatic 4Abd al-Mu$min did not subject all
tribes to the kharaj. He needed the help of nomads for
manning his army in the Iberian Peninsula and for keep-
ing order in the Maghreb. These nomads included the
Hilalians, who were brought to Morocco from Tunisia,
the Zanata Beni 4Abd al-Wad in the area between Mina
and the Moulouya, and another tribe camped in the
Bougie district. Members of these tribes enforced the
payment of the kharaj on settled tribes.
4Abd al-Mu$min encountered internal opposition to
his regime. His restricting the succession to the Almohad
leadership to his own family caused a rebellion in 1155.
The ringleaders were Ibn Tnmart’s brothers, 4Abd al-
4Aziz and 4Isa. They besieged Marrakech but were de-
feated and executed. Along with them, 4Abd al-Mu$min
executed numerous chiefs of the Hargha tribe who had
been suspected of fomenting treason. Sensitive to oppo-
sition, 4Abd al-Mu$min dealt cautiously with the proud
Masmuda tribes, which claimed Ibn Tnmart as their own
son. 4Abd al-Mu$min allowed only the Masmuda to have
the honor of being called Almohads; they were also the
sole group permitted to discuss and elaborate Ibn
Tnmart’s doctrine. Furthermore, 4Abd al-Mu$min gave
the Masmuda preferential treatment in taxation.
While organizing his government, 4Abd al-Mu$min
gave thought also to Ifriqiya (Tunisia). Muslims there
sought his help against the Norman occupation under
King William I of Sicily. In two years of preparation,
4Abd al-Mu$min built seventy warships and an army of
200,000. In 1159, he led the army into Ifriqiya, his navy
following along the coast. He sent one force to besiege
Tunis, whose ruler was a Muslim Sanhaja chief under
Norman protection. 4Abd al-Mu$min led his main army
against heavily fortified Mahdia, the major Norman
stronghold. On January 22, 1160, a seven-month siege
ended, the Almohad navy having defeated a Norman re-
lieving fleet from Sicily. 4Abd al-Mu$min and the Nor-
mans negotiated: The Normans evacuated Mahdia, and
4Abd al-Mu$min gave them safe passage to Sicily. Thus
ended Norman rule in Africa. At this time, the Almohads
captured Tunis and the interior of Ifriqiya. Now, more-
8
The Middle Ages
over, the Muslims of Tripolitana, who had evicted the
Normans in 1157, swore allegiance to 4Abd al-Mu$min.
4Abd al-Mu$min’s achievements extended to still an-
other activity: patronage of architecture. He ordered the
construction of a palace and of the impressive Kutubia
mosque at Marrakech, as well as the mosque at Taza. To
commemorate Ibn Tnmart, 4Abd al-Mu$min built a
mosque at Tinmel. The design of this structure reveals in-
fluences from the surrounding area, the East, and Moor-
ish Spain. Another of his buildings was the fortress of
Ribat al-Fath.
On May 2, 1163, 4Abd al-Mu$min died at Rabat. He
was buried near Ibn Tnmart at Tinmel.
Significance
4Abd al-Mu$min created a new chapter in the history of
North Africa. Designated by the mahdt, Ibn Tnmart, as
his successor in leading the Almohad movement, 4Abd
al-Mu$min converted that spiritual body into a political
regime lasting from 1130 to 1269. Throwing off his defer-
ence to Abn Hafs 4Umar, 4Abd al-Mu$min built by war an
empire in North Africa and southern Spain which his
family, the Mu$minid, ruled. His long military activity an-
gered some of the original Almohads, who tried unsuc-
cessfully to assassinate him in 1160. The conspirators also
hated his magnanimous policy toward the empire’s Arabs.
The reigns of 4Abd al-Mu$min, his son Abn Ya4qnb
Ynsuf (r. 1163-1184), and his grandson Abn Ynsuf
Ya4qnb al-Man;nr (r. 1184-1199) marked the golden age
of Barbary. They brought a general revival of commerce,
for the Almohads had the best fleet in the Mediterranean,
and they opened the sea to Christian and Muslim traffic.
Urban life continued the development begun under the
previous Almoravid rule, with a new burst of creative ac-
tivity stemming from Ibn Zufayl and Averroës.
Art flourished in Morocco and Spain under 4Abd al-
Mu$min and his dynasty. 4Abd al-Mu$min was the
founder of a new architectural style—the most original
and impressive in North Africa. He gave to Andalusian
artists a new spirit: an austere and simple style that re-
sulted in a magnificent union of Andalusian subtlety and
Moroccan strength.
Nevertheless, 4Abd al-Mu$min contributed to the ulti-
mate Almohad decline and fall. The mechanical and offi-
cial nature of his piety began to loosen the Mu$minid
state from the passionate and radiant zeal of Ibn Tnmart,
whose uncompromising stand had created the Almohad
movement. Furthermore, 4Abd al-Mu$min settled some
Arab Bedouin tribes in Morocco, where he wanted to
train them to further his realm in Spain. Later, members
The Middle Ages
of these tribes became unruly, causing anarchy in the
heart of the Almohad Empire.
Still, 4Abd al-Mu$min’s great achievement cannot be
denied: He led the Berbers in the first unification of
North Africa.
—Erving E. Beauregard
Further Reading
Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. A History of the Maghrib. 2d ed.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,
1975. This compact account of 4Abd al-Mu$min links
his creation of a unified Muslim community to Ibn
Tnmart’s doctrine. The relationship of the Almohad
regime with previous and later dynasties is discussed.
Brief bibliography; index, map.
_______. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,
1987. A brief but excellent depiction of 4Abd al-
Mu$min, more scholarly treatment than Abun-Nasr’s
book. Unannotated bibliography, index, map.
Falola, Toyin, ed. Africa. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Aca-
demic Press, 2000. A good history of the continent.
Bibliographic references, index.
Hopkins, J. F. P. Medieval Muslim Government in Bar-
bary Until the Sixth Century of the Hijra. London:
Luzac, 1958. One section describes the Almohad hi-
erarchy. The entire system may have existed solely on
paper. Treatment of the elaborate organization may be
of interest only to scholars. One map.
4Abd al-RaWm#n III al-N#:ir
Spanish emir (912-929) and caliph (929-961)
4Abd al-Rawm3n became the first full-fledged caliph of
Córdoba, on the Iberian Peninsula, inaugurating the
Umayyad caliphate in Spain. His reign, characterized
by sound administrative, fiscal, and religious policies,
military successes, astute diplomacy, and patronage of
learning, marked the apex of Islamic power in Spain.
Born: January, 891; Córdoba (now in Spain)
Died: October 15, 961; Córdoba
Areas of achievement: Government and politics,
religion and theology, military, patronage of the arts
Early Life
The grandson of Emir 4Abd All3h and his Christian wife,
great-grandson of Emir al-Mundhir and a Christian prin-
cess from Navarre, and grandnephew of the powerful
4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir
Julien, Charles-André. History of North Africa: Tunisia,
Algeria, Morocco. Translated by John Petrie, edited
by C. C. Stewart and Roger Le Tourneau. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970. Very good treat-
ment of the Almohads (forty-seven pages), placing
4Abd al-Mu$min on center stage in his varied roles.
Apt quotations from sources; one map, fine bibliog-
raphy.
Ki-Zerbo, Joseph, and Djibril Tamsir Niane, eds. Africa
from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1997. Includes several
chapters on the Maghreb, including “The Unification
of the Maghrib Under the Almohads.” Illustrations,
maps.
Le Tourneau, Roger. The Almohad Movement in North
Africa in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Prince-
ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969. Excellent
in integrating 4Abd al-Mu$min into the Almohad move-
ment and showing his strengths and weaknesses. Brief
but good treatment of contemporary accounts and his-
torical studies. Helpful index.
See also: Afonso I; Averroës; Ibn Khaldnn; al-Idrtst;
James I the Conqueror.
Related articles in Great Events from History: The
Middle Ages, 477-1453: 1062-1147: Almoravids Con-
quer Morocco and Establish the Almoravid Empire;
1190: Moses Maimonides Writes The Guide of the
Perplexed; 1230: Unification of Castile and León.
Navarrese queen Toda, 4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir
(uhb-dool-rahk-MAHN uhl-NAH-sihr) spent his youth
in the wealth and culture of his grandfather’s palace in
Córdoba. This ancestry illustrates the complex nature of
Spanish society in the tenth century. Clearly the Chris-
tians and the Muslims were in conflict, but the conflict
was rooted more in political and economic rivalries than
in religious or cultural antagonisms. This background
provided 4Abd al-Rawm3n with perspective and connec-
tions that he was able to exploit effectively, as his grand-
father had not. When 4Abd al-Rawm3n inherited the
emirate, his authority extended only to the area around
Córdoba.
During the preceding decades, Arab aristocrats and
Berber military men had amassed huge landed estates
9
4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir The Middle Ages

that gave them a power base from which to ignore central Córdoba’s Umayyad Caliphs, 756-1031
authority. This independence was apparent particularly
in certain areas of Aragon, Toledo, and Estremadura. Re- Reign Ruler
ligious fanatics of one kind or another were in repeated 756-788 4Abd al-Rawm3n I (emir)
revolt. Through sporadic raids and warfare, the Christian 788-796 Hish3m I (emir)
princes in the north had regained vast tracts of land that 796-822 al-Hakam I (emir)
the emirate had controlled earlier. The absence of politi- 822-852 4Abd al-Rawm3n II (emir)
cal unity and social stability had devastated the economy 852-886 Muwammad I (emir)
of Spain. Although 4Abd All3h was not the strongest or 886-888 al-Mundhir (emir)
wisest of emirs, he did make one outstanding decision: 888-912 4Abd All3h (emir)
912-961 4Abd al-RaWm#n III al-N#:ir
From among his many grandchildren, he chose 4Abd al-
(emir 912-929, caliph 929-961)
Rawm3n as his heir. 961-976 al-Hakam II al-Mustan;ir
976-1009 Hish3m II al-Muayyad
Life’s Work 1009-1010 Muwammad II al-Mahdt
In 912, when 4Abd al-Rawm3n was twenty-one, he be- 1009-1010 Sulaim3n al-Musta4tn
came the emir. He immediately undertook to rectify the 1010-1013 Hish3m II (restored)
political, economic, and social problems that he had in- 1013-1016 Sulaim3n (restored)
herited. His interests were many, but he gave primary at- 1016-1018 Alt ben Hammud
tention to three major activities: the unification of his 1018 4Abd al-Rawm3n IV
kingdom, the construction of the Madinat az-Zahra pal- 1018-1021 al-Qasim
ace, and the promotion of an economic revolution. 1021-1022 Yawy3
1022-1023 al-Qasim (restored)
The first of these tasks, the unification and centraliza-
1023-1024 4Abd al-Rawm3n V
tion of his kingdom, took the first twenty years of 4Abd 1024-1025 Muwammad III
al-Rawm3n’s reign. He neutralized the power of the aris- 1025-1027 Yawy3 (restored)
tocracy and curbed the bellicosity of the Berber tribes 1027-1031 Hish3m III
by establishing a standing army, made up of slaves and 1031 End of Umayyads; dissolution of
foreigners from the whole of the Mediterranean world, Umayyad Spain into small states
soldiers whose first loyalty was to the caliph. This army
ultimately numbered one hundred thousand and was sup- Note: Islamic rulers on the Iberian Peninsula were emirs until 929.
ported by a third of the royal revenues.
4Abd al-Rawm3n defeated the religious rebels whose
power centered on Bobastro and who had virtually de- eastern Islamic kingdoms commissioned emissaries to
clared their independence from the central government. his court.
He deliberately broke the independence of the gover- To add to his prestige and focus his authority, in 929,
nors of Saragossa, Toledo, and Badajoz, restoring their 4Abd al-Rawm3n declared himself caliph of Islamic
function as frontier marches whose purpose was to pre- Spain, based on his Umayyad lineage. He also took the ti-
vent Christian intrusion into the Córdoban kingdom. tles “commander of the believers” and “defender of the
He campaigned repeatedly, though not always success- religion of God,” tacitly supporting the Malikite theolog-
fully, against the Christian kingdoms of León, Castile, ical position, which was then dominant among Muslims
Navarre, and Galicia. In the end, it was to the caliphate in Spain. His assumption of these titles allowed petty
that the Christians went in search of physicians, musi- chieftains in North Africa to recognize the Spanish ca-
cians, architects, negotiators, tutors, and marriage alli- liph as their sovereign, rather than the schismatic and fa-
ances. natical F3zimids. It also did much to focus the emerging
By the end of his reign, 4Abd al-Rawm3n had central- patriotism and loyalty of his Spanish subjects.
ized his authority over Islamic Spain. He had made the In the economic sphere, 4Abd al-Rawm3n met with
Christian kingdoms tribute states but allowed them to re- equal success. Production of gold, iron, silver, lead, and
tain governmental autonomy. By 937, he had stopped the rubies increased. He improved and extended the canals
westward expansion of the F3zimids out of Tunis, extend- and irrigation systems. Despite the Qur$3nic dictates
ing his sovereignty over Morocco and western Algeria. against wine drinking, the growing of grapes and the
In recognition of his power, rulers of all European and making of wine became important economic enterprises.
10
The Middle Ages
Agriculture was diversified and expanded. Rice, peaches,
oranges, apricots, sugar, cotton, pomegranates, figs, and
saffron had been introduced by the Muslims into Spain;
traditional crops such as wheat, other grains, and olives
also continued to be cultivated.
This diversification and increased agricultural pro-
duction were key elements of the prosperity of 4Abd al-
Rawm3n’s caliphate, but industry played a crucial role as
well. The caliphate became known for its fine leather, su-
perb steel, olive oil, and paper. These products were
traded as far east as India for slaves, cloth, and exotic
spices. 4Abd al-Rawm3n expanded the navy in order to
protect trade routes and the merchant fleet from attacks
by the Normans, Byzantines, or 4Abb3sids. In the end,
4Abd al-Rawm3n’s navy and merchant marine came to
dominate the western Mediterranean.
In 936, 4Abd al-Rawm3n embarked on the construc-
tion of his great palace, Madinat az-Zahra (which means
“she of the shining face”). Az-Zahra was the caliph’s fa-
vorite wife; curiously, initial funding for the palace came
as a gift to the caliph from one of his concubines. The
construction of the palace became a major public works
project, employing ten thousand workers and three thou-
sand animals for twenty-five years at an expense of one-
third of the annual royal revenues. Materials such as
ebony, gold, and ivory were imported to decorate the pal-
ace; luxurious gifts for its embellishment were received
from other rulers. This sprawling palace complex, lo-
cated about three miles outside Córdoba, provided a
beautiful view of the city and surrounding countryside.
Some have deemed it the crowning achievement of 4Abd
al-Rawm3n’s reign.
Significance
4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir died at the age of seventy,
leaving the caliphate to al-Hakam II, his son by his
Basque Christian wife, Subh. 4Abd al-Rawm3n had been
a determined and successful ruler. His energy was
boundless, his ability undisputed, his power immense
and wisely controlled. He demanded respect; he ex-
tended charity. He carefully and intelligently tended to
the demands of state and religion, while conscientiously
expanding the culture, refinement, and economic well-
being of his realm. He had established not only the most
magnificent but also the most powerful kingdom in Eu-
rope—and nowhere was this better exemplified than in
his capital, Córdoba.
Half a million people populated the city, whereas Lon-
don had perhaps five thousand; indeed, the population of
Spain as a whole had exploded during 4Abd al-Rawm3n’s
4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir
reign. The streets of the city were paved and lighted. Re-
splendent with palaces, seven hundred mosques, and at
least three hundred public baths, Córdoba contained sev-
enty libraries, countless bookstores, and twenty-seven
free schools.
The caliph founded the University of Córdoba in the
Great Mosque and established chairs and scholarships
there; it was an institution that attracted teachers and stu-
dents from the whole Mediterranean world and western
Asia. During the reign of his son, the royal library
founded by 4Abd al-Rawm3n reached 400,000 volumes, a
number of which serve today as the basis of the Arabic
collection in the Library of the Escorial. In addition to the
university, a leading center for Jewish theological studies
flourished in Córdoba. Indeed, 4Abd al-Rawm3n’s physi-
cian, Hasdai ibn Shaprut (915-970), was Jewish, a mem-
ber of the Ibn Ezra family educated at the University of
Córdoba. A man of tact and goodwill, he became a diplo-
matic, financial, and commercial adviser for the caliph.
He patronized learning and gave scholarships and books
to deserving students. It is said that the stature of a leader
can, at least in part, be determined by the quality of those
who serve him; Hasdai, then, serves as a case in point.
Córdoba became one of the three great cultural cen-
ters of the medieval world, rivaling both Constantinople
and Baghdad. Its glory, however, was not only cultural.
The economic power of the caliphate centered in Cór-
doba as well. The city processed and marketed the prod-
ucts of the agricultural revolution of the tenth century.
Great brass, glass, pottery, paper, and leather works were
located there. The city housed at least thirteen thousand
silk, wool, and cotton weavers. Through Córdoba and
Seville (the premier port of the caliphate) flowed Spain’s
exports in marble, sugar, figs, cotton, olives, olive oil,
wine, and saffron. Revenues from import-export duties
alone financed the caliphate.
The awe and admiration inspired by this “jewel of
the world” that was Córdoba was only a reflection of
the stature of the caliph himself. Never again could Is-
lamic Spain claim such a one as 4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-
N3;ir.
— Shirley F. Fredricks
Further Reading
Chapman, Charles E. A History of Spain. 1918. Reprint.
New York: Free Press, 1965. A classic survey of
Spanish history, this work remains a standard refer-
ence because of its objectivity, detail, and organiza-
tion.
Christopher, John B. The Islamic Tradition. 1972. Re-
11
4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir
print. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America,
1987. This is one of the best short introductions to the
history, the basic religious tenets, and the great medi-
eval cultural synthesis of Islam, including that which
occurred in Spain. Indeed, it is out of this rich medi-
eval cultural heritage that Islam faces the modern
world.
Coppée, Henry. History of the Conquest of Spain by the
Arab-Moors: With a Sketch of the Civilization Which
They Achieved and Imparted to Europe. 2 vols. Piscat-
away, N.J.: Georgia Press, 2002. This work, originally
published in 1881, explores the conquest of Spain in
711 and the resulting Arab influences on European
civilization.
Durant, Will. The Age of Faith: A History of Medieval
Civilization—Christian, Islamic, and Judaic—From
Constantine to Dante, A.D. 325-1300. New York:
MJF Books, 1992. This is the fourth volume of the au-
thor’s Story of Civilization series, a massive synthesis.
Good bibliography, helpful explanatory notes, and
index.
Hayes, John R., and George N. Atiyeh, eds. The Genius
of Arab Civilization: Source of Renaissance. 3d ed.
New York: New York University Press, 1992. A lively
collection of essays, suitable for the general reader,
discussing Arab intellectual and cultural accomplish-
ments. Includes a bibliography and index.
Hillgarth, J. N. Spain and the Mediterranean in the Later
Middle Ages: Studies in Political and Intellectual His-
tory. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate Variorum, 2003. A sur-
vey of the political and intellectual history of Spain
from 711 through the sixteenth century. Includes bib-
liography and index.
Hitti, Philip K. Capital Cities of Arab Islam. Minneapo-
lis: University of Minnesota Press, 1973. Describes
12
The Middle Ages
the uniqueness of six great capitals of Islam, includ-
ing Córdoba.
_______. History of the Arabs: From the Earliest Times
to the Present. 10th ed. New York: Palgrave, Mac-
millan, 2002. A complete and useful study of the rise
of Islam in Spain and elsewhere.
Jackson, Gabriel. The Making of Medieval Spain. New
York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972. A most in-
sightful and evenhanded examination of medieval
Spain. It stresses the rich results of the long intermin-
gling of the Islamic, Christian, and Jewish cultures.
Packed with information, this short text is lucid and
extremely well written. Includes many excellent il-
lustrations and a short but enlightening bibliographic
essay.
Watt, W. Montgomery, and Pierre Cachia. A History of
Islamic Spain. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press, 1965. This well-informed study details the in-
fluence of Islam on the cultural development of
Spain—and through Spain, all Europe. Special atten-
tion is focused on the Umayyads, of whom 4Abd al-
Rawm3n was the greatest.
See also: Alfonso X; Averroës; Avicenna; Roger Ba-
con; al-Btrnnt; El Cid; Dante; Fakhr al-Dtn al-R3zt;
al-Ghazz3lt; Moses Maimonides; al-R3zt; Z3rik ibn-
Ziy3d; Thomas Aquinas.
Related articles in Great Events from History: The
Middle Ages, 477-1453: April or May, 711: Z3rik
Crosses into Spain; c. 950: Court of Córdoba Flour-
ishes in Spain; 1031: Caliphate of Córdoba Falls; No-
vember 1, 1092-June 15, 1094: El Cid Conquers Va-
lencia; c. 1150: Moors Transmit Classical Philosophy
and Medicine to Europe; 1230: Unification of Castile
and León.