Lecture 13

Einsteins field equations

Objectives:
The GR field equations
Reading: Schutz, 6; Hobson 7; Rindler 10.

13.1

Symmetries of the curvature tensor

With 4 indices, the curvature tensor has a forbidding 256 components. Luckily several symmetries reduce these substantially. These are best seen in fully
covariant form:
R = g R ,
for which symmetries such as
R = R ,
and
R = R .
can be proved. These relations reduce the number of independent compoHandout 6
nents to 20.
These symmetries also mean that there is only one independent contraction
R = R ,
because others are either zero, e.g.
R = g R = 0,
or the same to a factor of 1. R is called the Ricci tensor, while its
contraction
R = g R ,
is called the Ricci scalar.
52

NB Signs vary
between books. I
follow Hobson et
al and Rindler.

LECTURE 13. EINSTEINS FIELD EQUATIONS

13.2

53

The field equations

We seek a relativistic version of the Newtonian equation

2 = 4G.
The relativistic analogue of the density is the stressenergy tensor T .
is closely related to the metric, and 2 suggests that we look for some
tensor
the second derivatives of the metric, g, , which should be
involving
!
2
a
tensor like T .
0
The contravariant form of the Ricci tensor satisfies these conditions, suggesting the following:
R = kT ,
where k is some constant. (NB both R and T are symmetric.)
However, in SR T satisfies the conservation equations T , = 0 which in
GR become
T ; = 0,
whereas it turns out that
1
R ; = R, g 6= 0,
2
where R is the Ricci scalar. Therefore R = kT cannot be right.
Fix by defining a new tensor, the Einstein tensor
1
G = R Rg ,
2
because then
G

1
Rg
2

1
1
= R ; R; g Rg ; = 0,
2
2

since g = 0 and R; = R, . Therefore we modify the equations to

1
R Rg = kT .
2
These are Einsteins field equations.

13.3

The Newtonian limit

The equations must reduce to 2 = 4G in the case of slow motion in weak

fields. To show this, it is easier to work with an alternate form: contracting

Handout 6

LECTURE 13. EINSTEINS FIELD EQUATIONS

54

the field equations with g then

1
g R Rg g = kg T ,
2
and remembering the definition of R and defining T = g T ,
1
R R = R = kT,
2
since = 4. Therefore
R

=k T

1
.
Tg
2

Easier still is the covariant form:

R

1
= k T T g .
2

The stressenergy tensor is

p
T = + 2 U U pg .
c

In the Newtonian case, p/c2 , and so

T U U .
Therefore
T = g T = g U U = c2 .
Weak fields imply g , so g00 1. For slow motion, U i U 0 c,
and so U0 = g0 U g00 U 0 c too. Thus
T00 c2 ,
is the only significant component.
The 00 cpt of R is:
R00 = 0,0 00, + 0 0 00 .
All are small, so the last two terms are negligible. Then assuming timeindependence,
R00 i 00,i .
But, from the lecture on geodesics (chapter 11),
i 00 =

,i
.
c2

LECTURE 13. EINSTEINS FIELD EQUATIONS

55

Thus

1 2
1
1
R00 2 ,ii = 2 i i = 2 2 .
c
c x x
c
Finally, substituting in the field equations

1 2
1 2
2
2 = k c c ,
c
2
or

kc4
.
2
Therefore if k = 8G/c4 , we get the Newtonian equation as required, and
the field equations become
2 =

1
8G
R Rg = 4 T .
2
c
Key points:
The field equations are second order, non-linear differential equations
for the metric
10 independent equations replace 2 = 4G
By design they satisfy the energy-momentum conservation relations
T ; = 0
The constant 8G/c4 gives the correct Newtonian limit
Although derived from strong theoretical arguments, like any physical
theory, they can only be tested by experiment.

No longer
balancing
up/down indices
since we are
referring to
spatial
components only
in nearly-flat
space-time.