AI HOC QUOC GIA THANH PHO HO CH MINH

TRNG AI HOC KHOA HOC XA HOI & NHAN VAN

To Minh Thanh

TAI LIEU ON THI

TUYEN SINH SAU AI HOC

CHUYEN NGANH

Giang day tieng Anh

(Tai ban lan th nhat, co chnh sa)

NHA XUAT BAN AI HOC QUOC GIA

TP HO CH MINH 2008

CONTENTS
Content ................................................................................................................................ i
Preface.............................................................................................................................. vii
Outline for revision............................................................................................................ ix
Table of notational symbols ........................................................................................... xii
Section one: WORD CLASSES

1 Parts of speech, word classes and grammatical categories ............................... 1

2 Classification of word classes ......................................................................... 2

2.1 Major classes vs. minor classes ................................................................... 2
2.2 English major classes ................................................................................... 3
2.2.1 English form classes ...................................................................... 4
2.2.2 English positional classes .............................................................. 6
2.3 English minor classes ................................................................................. 10
2.4 Word-class exercises ............................................................................... 10
2.4.1 Exercises for form classes........................................................... 10
2.4.2 Exercises for positional classes ................................................... 12
Section two: TYPES of PHRASES, CLAUSES and SENTENCES
3 Phrases vs. clauses ............................................................................................... 15

4 Adjective phrases vs. adverb phrases ............................................................... 15

5 Attributive vs. predicative adjectives/adjective phrases .................................. 17
6 Noun phrases vs. verb phrases ........................................................................... 18
7 The N-bar (N) as a level of NP-structure that is intermediate
between the phrasal (NP) level and the lexical (N) level ................................ 20
8 Types of pre-nominal modifiers........................................................................... 21

8.1 Determiners .............................................................................................. 21

8.2 Quanyifying adjectives ............................................................................. 23
8.3 Adjective phrases ..................................................................................... 26
8.4 Pre-modifying nouns .................................................................................. 27
8.5 Possessive common nouns ......................................................................... 28
i

8.6 Verb participles ........................................................................................ 29

8.7 Gerunds ..................................................................................................... 30
8.8 Restricters ................................................................................................ 31
9 Types of post-nominal modifiers ......................................................................... 32

9.1 Prepositional phrases ................................................................................. 32

9.2 Adjective phrases ...................................................................................... 33
9.3 Participial phrases ..................................................................................... 35
9.4 Infinitive phrases ...................................................................................... 35
9.5 Subordinate adjective clauses .................................................................. 36
10 Noun complements vs. optional post-nominal modifiers .................................. 36
11 Classification of English verbs/verb phrases ................................................... 38
11.1 Intensive verbs/verb phrases ................................................................. 39
11.2 Complex transitive verbs/verb phrases .................................................. 40
11.3 Ditransitive verbs/verb phrases ............................................................. 43
11.4 Monotransitive verbs/verb phrases ........................................................ 47
11.5 Prepositional verbs/verb phrases ........................................................... 51
11.5.1 Monotransitive Prepositional verbs/verb phrases ................... 51
11.5.2 Ditransitive Prepositional verbs/verb phrases ........................ 53
11.6 Intransitive verbs/verb phrases ............................................................. 55
11.7 Summary of the classification of English verbs/verb phrases ............. 57
11.8 Troublesome verbs ................................................................................... 59
12 Types of clause links .......................................................................................... 61
13 Types of clauses ................................................................................................. 62
13.1 Finite clauses vs. non-finite clauses ........................................................ 62
13.2 Independent clauses vs. dependent clauses ........................................... 63
13.3 Subordinate clauses vs. embedded clauses ............................................ 64
14 Covert subjects vs. overt subjects .................................................................. 66
15 Types of finite dependent clauses .................................................................... 67
15.1 Nonimal clauses ........................................................................................ 67
15.2 Relative clauses ........................................................................................ 67
ii

15.3 Adverbial clauses ..................................................................................... 68

15.4 Reporting clauses ..................................................................................... 68
15.5 Comment clauses ...................................................................................... 68
16 Types of non-finite clauses .............................................................................. 69
16.1 Infinitive non-finite clauses .................................................................... 69
16.2 Gerund non-finite clauses ........................................................................ 69
16.3 Participial non-finite clauses ................................................................... 70
16.4 Verbless clauses ....................................................................................... 71
17 Classification of sentences according to their structures ............................. 71
17.1 Simple sentences ...................................................................................... 71
17.2 Compound sentences ................................................................................ 72
17.3 Complex sentences ................................................................................... 72
17.3.1 Embedded nominal clauses .............................................................. 73
17.3.1.1 As the subject ...................................................................... 73
17.3.1.2 As the direct object/the predicator complement ............ 78
17.3.1.3 As the indirect object ........................................................ 89
17.3.1.4 As the subject(ive) complement .......................................... 90
17.3.1.5 As the object(ive) complement ........................................... 91
17.3.1.6 As the complement of a preposition .................................... 94
17.3.2 Subordinate/embedded adjectival clauses .................................... 95
17.3.3 Subordinate/embedded adverbial clauses ..................................... 96
17.4 Compound-Complex sentences ................................................................. 97
Section three: GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS

18 Structure .......................................................................................................... 99

19 Endocentric structures vs. exocentric structures ...................................... 99

20 Types of syntactic structures ........................................................................ 100
20.1 Structures of modification ................................................................... 100
20.2 Structures of complementation ............................................................ 101
20.3 Structures of coordination .................................................................... 101
20.4 Structures of predication ..................................................................... 103
iii

21 Constructions vs. constituents ........................................................................ 104

22 Immediate constituents vs. ultimate constituents ........................................ 104
23 Immediate constituents of a sentence ........................................................... 105
24 Intervening level of organization between word and sentence ..................... 106
25 Modifiers vs. complements ............................................................................... 106
26 Types of adjective complements ...................................................................... 108
27 Pre-adjectival modifiers vs. post-adjectival modifiers ................................. 108
28 Adjective complements vs. optional post-adjectival modifiers .................... 109
29 Classification of English adjectives according to their post-modifiers ............ 111
30 Types of adverbial adjuncts ............................................................................. 112
31 Noun phrase analyses ....................................................................................... 123
32 Mis-diagraming .................................................................................................. 125
33 Structural ambiguity in English noun phrases ................................................. 126
33.1 Define a structurally ambiguous noun phrase .......................................... 126
33.2 Explain structurally ambiguous noun phrases ........................................... 128
33.3 Disambiguate structurally ambiguous noun phrases................................. 134
33.4 Account for structurally non-ambiguous noun phrases ........................... 138
34 Verb phrase analyses .................................................................................. 140
34.1 Noun phrases as the sP/sC of an intensive verb or as the dO of
a monotransitive verb ............................................................................. 140
34.2 NP direct objects of a monotransitive verb or NP adverbial
adjuncts of an intransitive verb .............................................................. 141
34.3 Prepositional phrases as the sP/sC of an intensive verb or as
the optional adverbial adjunct of any verb ............................................ 142
34.4 IntransVAC vs. intransVAdv .............................................................. 143
34.5 MonotransVACNP vs. intransVPP .................................................... 144
34.6 MonotransVACNP vs. monotrans-prepVprepO ............................... 146
35 Sentence analyses ....................................................................................... 147
35.1 Identify the syntactic function of a PP ................................................... 147
35.2 Decide whether a PP is part of the complementation of a
ditransitive verb ..................................................................................... 148
iv

35.3 Explain the difference between two sentences ...................................... 151

35.4 Re-analyse sentence pairs, using tree-diagrams .................................. 154
36 Structural ambiguity in English verb phrases ................................................ 157
37 Phrase structure ............................................................................................... 162
37.1 Definition ................................................................................................. 162
37.2 How to determine phrase structure? ..................................................... 162
37.2.1 Substitution .............................................................................. 162
37.2.2 Conjoinability ............................................................................. 165
37.2.3 Movement .................................................................................. 166
37.2.4 Checking the antecedent for a pro-form ................................ 167
37.3 Phrase structure exercises .................................................................... 167
38 Phrase structure rules ..................................................................................... 170
39 Surface structures vs. deep structures ......................................................... 172
40 Signals of syntactic structures ....................................................................... 174
40.1 Word order .............................................................................................. 174
40.2 Function words ......................................................................................... 174
40.3 Inflection ................................................................................................. 175
40.4 Derivational contrast .............................................................................. 176
40.5 Prosody .................................................................................................... 176
41 What is syntax? ............................................................................................... 177
Section four: SAMPLE TESTS IN ENGLISH LINGUISTICS ................................ 178
Bibliography ................................................................................................... 197

LI NOI AU

Thc te la khong phai sach ngon ng cua tac gia ngi nc ngoai nao
cung ap ng ung va u noi dung on tap thi tuyen sinh sau ai hoc chuyen
nganh Giang day tieng Anh (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages)
theo quy nh cua Trng ai hoc Khoa hoc Xa hoi va Nhan van, thuoc ai
hoc Quoc gia Thanh pho Ho Ch Minh. Tai lieu nay ra i nham ap ng nhu
cau on tap thi tuyen sinh sau ai hoc cho mon Ng hoc trong chuyen nganh
neu tren.
e giup cac oi tng d thi lam quen va chuan b tot cho ky thi cua
mnh, tai lieu nay (1) bao gom nhng trong iem theo ung qui nh ve noi
dung on tap cua e cng on tap Cu phap cho ky thi tuyen sinh sau ai hoc
chuyen nganh Giang day tieng Anh va (2) c trnh bay thanh bon phan:
Phan 1: Cac t loai (Word Classes)
Phan 2: Cac loai ng, cu va cau (Types of phrases, clauses and
sentences)
Phan 3: Cac moi quan he ng phap (Grammatical relations)
Phan 4: Mot so e thi va ap an a thc te c dung trong cac ky thi gan
ay.
Tai lieu nay cung co the nam trong th muc sach tham khao giup sinh
vien he tai chc va he chnh quy bang 1 va bang 2 cua chuyen nganh Ng
van Anh hoc thanh cong mon Syntax trong chng trnh chnh khoa cua cac
he ao tao ai hoc nay. Ngoai ra, cac hoc vien cao hoc chuyen nganh Giang
day tieng Anh va cac thay co cua khoa Boi dng giao vien tai Trng ai
hoc Khoa hoc Xa hoi va Nhan van, thuoc ai hoc Quoc gia Thanh pho Ho Ch
Minh cung co the tham khao tai lieu nay khi theo hoc mon Linguistics PG
trong chng trnh chnh khoa cua ca hai he ao tao sau ai hoc nay.
Rat mong tai lieu nay se giup cac oi tng d thi t on luyen tot hn du
co ieu kien hay khong the trc tiep theo hoc cac lp luyen thi tai trng.
Thanh pho Ho Ch Minh, ngay 20 thang 1 nam 2005.

To Minh Thanh

vi

vii

ai Hoc Quoc Gia Tp. Ho Ch Minh

TRNG AI HOC KHOA HOC XA HOI & NHAN VAN

YUUUZ
E CNG ON TAP THI TUYEN SINH CAO HOC
Mon C s: LINGUISTICS
(cho chuyen nganh Giang day tieng Anh)
1. Linguistics
(a) Semantics
- The expression of meaning in English at the word and sentence level;
- The relations of different kinds of meaning;
- Meaning shifts or words;
- Use of language in social interaction.
(b) Syntax
- Word classes;
- Grammatical relations;
- Types of phrases, clauses & sentences.
2. Academic Writing
Write an essay of 250 - 300 words on an issue of second language
teaching and learning.
REFERENCES
Fromkin V. et al (1988) An Introduction to Language.
Sydney: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Hurdford, J. R. & Heasley, B. (1984) Semantics. A Course Book.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jordan, R.R. (1990) Academic Writing Course. Collins ELT. A Division of
Harper Collins Publishers.
Kaplan, J.P. (1989) English Grammar. Principles and Facts.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
viii

ix

SEMANTICS
GUIDELINES FOR REVIEW

I. Semantic Properties and Semantic Fields

II. Reference and Sense
III. Denotation and Connotation

IV. TaxonomyHypernyms and Hyponyms

V. Multiple Senses of Lexical Items
* Primary Sense
* Secondary Senses (polysemy)
* Figurative Senses (metaphors, similes, metonymy, synecdoche,
euphemism, hyperbole, litotes, alliteration, assonance, consonance)
VI. Synonymy vs. Antonymy
VII. Homonyms (homophones and homograph), acronyms, anomaly
VIII. Speech Acts
Propositions-Utterances-Sentences
Performative sentences
Presuppositions and Implicatures
Felicity conditions
Speech events
Deixis (time, place, person)
Pragmatic meaning
Maxims of conversation
Maxims of politeness

ENGLISH SYNTAX
Introduction

Syntax: the study of how words combine to

form sentences and the rules which govern the
information of sentences (Richards, Platt &
Weber)
Traditional grammar Structural grammar
Transformational grammar
Five signals of syntactic structures: Word order,
Prosody, Function words, Inflections, and
Derivational contrast (Francis, 1958: 234)
Word classes: open ad closed classes

Chapters 1 & 2 in Jackson

(1980)
Chapter 5 in Francis (1958)
The Grammar of English by
Heatherington, in Clar et al
(1981: 329-42)
What do native speakers know
about their language?
by Jacbs and Rosenbaum,
in Clark et al (1981: 343-49)

Open classes: Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives,

Adverbs (Jackson, 1980)
Closed classes: Pronouns, Numerals,
Determiners, Prepositions, Conjunctions
(Jackson, 1980)
ICs in Syntax
Four basic types of syntactic structures:

modification, predication, complementation,

and coordination (Francis, 1958)

Endocentric and exocentric constructions

(Bloomfield, 1933; Nida, 1966)
Noun phrases
Types of modifiers in noun phrases

Chapter 6 in Francis (1958)

Chapter 6 in Fromkin et al
(1990)
Chapter 1in Nida (1996)
John Lyons (translated
version) pp. 368-70
Chapter 3 in Jackson (1980)

Premodification: identifier, numeral/quantifier,

adjective, noun modifier
Postmodification: relative clauses, non-finite
clauses, prepositional phrases
Verb phrases: tense, aspect, mood, voice
Chapter 4 in Jackson (1980)
Adjective phrases, adverb phrases, and
Chapter 5 in Jackson (1980)
prepositional phrases
Clauses

Chapter 6 & 7 in Jackson (1980)

Phrase structure rules & Transformational rules

Chapter 5 in Fromkin et al (1990)

Structures and types

Dependent clauses

xi

NOTATIONAL SYMBOLS
Most of the symbols used in this text follow conventions, but since conventions
vary, the following list indicates the meanings assigned to them here.
iO = indirect object
A = adjective
M = modifier
Adv = (general) adverb
ModN = pre-modifying noun
ART = article
monotrans = monotransitive verb
AP = adjective phrase
monotrans-prep = monotransitive
AdvP = adverb phrase
prepositional verb
C = complement
monotransVAC = monotransitive verbComN = compound noun
adverbial composite
Comp = complementizer
complex = complex transitive verb
N = noun
Conj = conjunction
N = N-bar
Co-P = a coordination of Prepositions
nC = noun complement
Co-PP = a coordinate Prepositional
NP = noun phrase
phrase
NUM = numeral/number
Co-NP = a coordinate noun phrase
opA = optional adverbial adjunct
Co-AP = a coordinate adjective phrase
obA = obligatory adverbial adjunct
DEG = degree adverb
oC = object(ive) complement
DEM = demonstrative
oP = object-predicative
DET = determiner
POST-MOD = post-modifier
dO = direct object
POST-DET = post-determiner
ditrans = ditransitive verb
PRE-MOD = pre-modifier
ditrans-prep = ditransitive
PRE-DET = pre-determiner
prepositional verb
PRO = pronoun
EmACl = embedded adjective clause
PropN = proper noun
EmAdvCl = embedded adverbial clause
Poss = possessive
EXCLAMATORY DET = exclamatory
PossA = possessive adjective
determiner
PossPropN = possessive proper noun
[E] = empty/covert/zero/implicit subject PossCommN = possessive common noun
PossMarker = possessive marker
H = the head
PossNP = possessive noun phrase
headN = the head noun
predC = predicator complement
headPRO = the head pronoun
P = preposition
headPropN = the head proper noun
prep = prepositional verb
headA = the head adjective
prepO = prepositional object
headGer = the head gerund
prepC = complement of a preposition
IC = immediate constituent
PP = prepositional phrase
InfP = infinitive phrase
PartP = participial phrase
intens = intensive verb
Q = quantifier
intrans = intransitive verb
QA = quantifying adjective
intransVAC = intransitive verbRESTRIC = restricter
adverbial composite
S = sentence

xii

S= S-bar
sC = subject(ive) complement
sP = subject-predicative
SubACl = subordinate adjective clause
SubAdvCl = subordinate adverbial clause
VP = verb phrase
Vgrp = verb group
V-Part = verb participle
V-Ger = gerund

Prt = adverbial particle

VAC = verb-adverbial composite
* = unaccepted form
? = doubtfully acceptable form
[ ] = embedded unit
/ = or

= unfilled
= one-way dependence
= two-way dependence

xiii

SECTION 1: WORD CLASSES

1 Parts of speech, word classes and grammatical categories1

The traditional term parts of speech is puzzling; its not clear why
kinds of words really, classes of words would be parts of speech
any more than, say, phonemes, allophones, morphemes, allomorphs, or
even phrases or sentences. In fact, instead of parts of speech, linguists
usually employ the terms word class or grammatical category. The
term grammatical category is a useful one, since it captures an important
aspect of a part of speech, namely, that all tokens of a particular part of
speech share important grammatical characteristics that other parts of speech
lack. The term word class, however, is valuable in its simplicity and is
certainly an improvement over part of speech. [Kaplan, 1989: 105]

The syntactic categories of words and groups of words are revealed by

the way they pattern in sentences. If you didnt have knowledge of these
syntactic categories, you would be unable to form grammatical sentences or
distinguish between grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. [Fromkin
et al, 1988: 214] For example, the child belong to a family that includes the
police officer, your neighbour, this yellow cat, he, and countless others.
Each member of this family can be substituted for the child without
affecting the grammaticality of the sentence, although the meanings of
course would change.
A family of expressions that can substitute for one another
without loss of grammaticality is called a syntactic category. [Fromkin
and Rodman, 1993: 79]
1

2 Classification of word classes

2.1 Major classes vs. minor classes: Kaplan, [1989: 106] divides word
classes into two main groupsmajor and minor.
major classes

minor classes

1. The major classes nouns,

verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
have a great many members, e.g. a
hundred thousand nouns.

1. The minor classes pronouns,

2. Major class words tend to have

referential meanings,
since they
involve, or allow, reference to actual
things, actions, events, or properties,
e.g. Horse means that kind of
animals. uttered while pointing to a
horse.

3. Major classes are receptive to new

members. As a result, major classes
are also called open classes [Jackson,
1980: 7]. Originating in slang or
casual contexts are the following new
nouns, verbs, and adjectives (new
adverbs are harder to come up with):
teflon, yuppie, nerd (nouns); scam,
boot up, book (verbs); rad, gnardly,
killer, tubular, (adjectives).
2

numerals, determiners, prepositions,

conjunctions, and so on have few

members. Its easy to list all the

articles of English: a, an, and the.

There are maybe 70 prepositions and
approximately a dozen subordinate
conjunctions: when, since, because,
after, before, while, although, as, etc.
2. Minor class words tend not to have
referential meanings. That is their
meanings are not easily specified by
means of a neat definition, e.g. how
would you define the or of? In other
words, the open classes bear the
greatest load in terms of meaning, in
the sense of refrence to things in the
world while the function of closed
classes is oriented more towards
internal linguistic relationships.
[Jackson, 1980: 7]
3. Minor classes are not receptive to
new members; they are closed. Its
unlikely you can think of any last new
slangy article, conjunction, pronoun,
or preposition youve learned.

2.2 English major classes: In defining major/open classes, Stageberg

[1965: 191-219] presents a double-track classification, one by form and the
other by position2.
2

1. House and Harman [1965] also classifies major/open classes according to their

meaning.

According to the meaning they represent, nouns may be divided into several
classes: common or proper, concrete or abstract, collective, individual, mass,
material, etc. [House and Harman, 1965: 22]
When classified as to meaning, adjectives are descriptive or definitive,
some of each class having definite and some indefinite application. [House and
Harman, 1965: 73]
2. Fromkin et al [1988, 214-215] present three types of criteria to define
major/open classes:
- Form: The class of a word may be apparent from its form. Certain
inflectional and derivational morphemes are associated with certain word classes.
- Function: The class of words may be indicated by the way it functions in a
phrase or sentence. For example, in the sentence
He will not score any more runs unless he runs faster.
The first runs is recognized as a noun and the second as a verb because of
their function.
- Meaning: Some words are commonly classified according to their semantic
type, such as abstract nouns (truth, kindness, beauty) and stative verbs (be,
appear, resemble).
Unfortunately meaning is not a reliable guide because there are many words
which belong to more than one word class (kick, love, drink), but those whose
meaning remains essentially the same. Meaning is therefore best regarded as a
secondary criterion, to be used to check the purely grammatical criteria of form
and function.
3. Kaplan [1989:108] points out that one problem with the traditional definition
of noun and verb since it is meaning-based (a noun is a word that names a person,
place, or thing; a verb is a word that names an action or state), it ought to be
universal valid in all languages, that is. But concepts that are encoded
linguistically as nouns in one language may be encoded as verbs or adjectives in
others. In English, for example, we normally say Im hungry, using an adjective to
describe how we feel; but in Spanish one says tengo hambre literally, I have
hunger, using a noun, hambre, to describe the same feeling.
3

Stagebergs four form classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and

adverbs. Each form-class has its correlative position class, which will be
later labelled as nominals, verbals, adjectivals, or adverbials.
2.2.1 English form classes
2.2.1.1 Nouns
Noun are identified as nouns by two aspects of form, their
inflectional morphemes, and their derivational morphemes.
2.2.1.1.1 The two noun inflectional suffixes in English are:
c The noun plural morpheme {S1}: books, apples, boxes, etc.
d The noun possessive morpheme {S2}: mans, girls, students,
Alices, etc.
2.2.1.1.2 Nouns are identified not only by inflectional
morphemes but also by noun-forming derivational suffixes added to
verbs, adjectives, nouns, and bound forms: accept acceptance, big
bigness, book booklet, dent- dentist, etc.
2.2.1.2 Verbs
Verbs are identified as verbs by two aspects of form, their
inflectional morphemes, and their derivational morphemes.
2.2.1.2.1 The four verb inflectional suffixes in English are:
c The verb third person singular present tense morpheme {S3}:
walks, finds, mixes, etc.
d The verb present participle morpheme {ing1}:
playing, typ(e)ing, dig(g)ing, etc.
e The verb past simple morpheme {D1}:
flowed, worked, creat(e)ed, drank, broke, thought, showed, etc.
f The verb past participle morpheme {D2}:
flowed, worked, creat(e)ed, drunk, broken, thought, shown, etc.
2.2.1.2.2 Verbs are identified not only by inflectional
morphemes but also by verb-forming derivational affixes added to
nouns or adjectives: knowledge acknowledge, bath bathe, ripe ripen,
large enlarge, etc.
4

2.2.1.3 Adjectives
Adjectives are identified as adjectives by two aspects of form, their
inflectional morphemes, and their derivational morphemes.
2.2.1.3.1 The two adjective inflectional suffixes in English are:
c The adjective comparative morpheme {er1}:
smaller, saf(e)er, thinner, etc.
d The adjective superlative morpheme {est1}:
smallest, saf(e)est, thinnest, etc.
2.2.1.3.2 Adjectives are identified not only by inflectional
morphemes but also by adjective-forming derivational suffixes3 added
to nouns or verbs: athlete athletic, child childish, collect collective,
read readable, etc.
In short, a word which is inflected with er and est and which is
capable of forming adverbs with ly and/or nouns with ness is called an
adjective. [Stageberg, 1965: 202]
Or, an adjective will be any word which has one or more of the
following positive attributes:
i. it can occur between Article and Noun.
ii. it can occur in the slot (Art) N is _____.
iii. it can occur before (or contains) er and est, or after more and most.
and in addition has all of the following negative attributes.
i. it cannot occur with a plural.
ii. it cannot occur with a possessive.
iii. it cannot occur in the slot (Art) N _____Verb. [Kaplan, 1989: 116]
3

There is a group of about seventy-five, mostly of two syllables, which begin with
the prefix a-: afoot, aground, awake, agape, aloud, afresh, alert, adroit, etc.
These are uninflected words (UWs) because they take no inflectional endings.
Although they do have the prefix a- in common, it seems unwise to label them
formally as either adjectives or adverbs since positionally they appear in both
adjectival and adverbial slots. [Stageberg, 1965: 206]
5

2.2.1.3.4 Adverbs
2.2.1.3.4.1 The two adverb inflectional suffixes in English are:
c The adverb comparative morpheme {er1}: faster, harder, etc.
d The adverb superlative morpheme {est 1}: fastest, hardest, etc.
2.2.1.3.4.2 Adverbs are identified not only by inflectional
morphemes but also by the adverb-forming derivational suffix {ly1}4
added to adjectives: just justly, beautiful beautifully, etc.
2.2.2 English positional classes
According to Stageberg [1965: 196-219], the four positional classes
in English are the nominal, the verbal, the adjectival and the adverbial.
2.2.2.1 Any word, whatever its form-class (noun, verb,
comparable, pronoun, uninflected word) will be tabbed a nominal if it
occupies one of the seven noun positions [Stageberg,1965:196] listed below:
1. The position of the subject:
- Upstairs IS the safest hiding place.
4

In the word-stock of English there are many uninflected words often employed
in the adverbial positions:
1. Uninflected words used both as adverbials and prepositions: above, about,
after, around, before, behind, below, down, in, inside, on, out, outside, since, to,
under, up.
2. -ward series, with optional s: afterward, backward, downward, forward,
homeward, inward, northward, outward, upward, windward.
3. Here series: here, herein, hereby, heretofore, hereafter.
4. There series: there, therein, thereby, theretofore, thereafter.
5. -where series: anywhere, everywhere, somewhere, nowhere.
6. -ways series: crossways, sideways; also, anyway.
7. -time series: meantime, sometime, anytime, sometimes.
8. Miscellaneous: today, tonight, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, seldom, still,
yet, already, meanwhile, also, too, never, not, forth, thus, sidelong, headlong, maybe,
perhaps, instead, indeed, henceforth, piecemeal, nevertheless, downstairs, indoors,
outdoors, offhand, overseas, unawares, besides, furthermore, always. [Stageberg,
1965:215]
6

- For Glenda to steal the diamond WOULD BE a shame.

2. The position of the direct object:
I HATE telling lies.
I WANT to think critically.
3. The position of the indirect object:
She GAVE whomever she met different offers.
She GAVE nobody a hand shake.
4. The position of the retained object:
We WERE GIVEN the thinnest.
5. The position of the subject(ive) complement:
This book IS hers.
My favorite pastime IS swimming.
6. The position of the object(ive) complement:
YouVE MADE me what I am.
They NAMED the little dog Neky.
7. The position of the complement of a preposition:
He IS interested in nothing.
The elevator has been used for many years without being repaired.
2.2.2.2 Verbals are those forms that occupy the verb
positions They come after the opening noun or noun phrase There are
four verbals in
She must have been loafing last week
and two in
I should leave the house in ten minutes.
Also, any verb form taking a subject or a complement (OV, SC,
or Adj) or modified by an adverbial is a verbal, regardless of its position.
1. Becoming angry, she broke the dish.
2. Being a minister, Prentice spoke softly.
3. After having eaten the turnips, Prentice tried to look satisfied.
4. The light having gone out, we lighted candles.
7

5. Giving to the poor is a Christian virtue. [Stageberg, 1965: 201]

2.2.2.3 Adjectivals, like nominals,
occupy certain
characteristic sentence positions. [Stageberg, 1965: 206]
1. The position between the determiner and the noun:
That joyful/college/laughing/recommended freshman is bright.
2. The position right after the noun:
The fellow waving drives a convertible.
3. The position right after an intensive verb: He always remains quiet.
4. The position right after the direct object of a complex transitive
verb: The management considered him competent.
In other positions let us say that any adjective or adjective
substitute is an adjectival, unless it is in a nominal or adverbial slot.
[Stageberg, 1965: 210]
Angry and upset, the applicant slammed the door.
2.2.2.4 Adverbials are the word groups as well as the single
words that occupy the adverb positions and perform the adverb
functions. Common adverbial positions are:
2.2.2.4.1 Initial position: The adverbial is in the first position in
the clause with or without juncture, occurring before the subject or other
obligatory elements of the clause:
(1)a. Really, you SHOULD KNOW better.
b. Now it IS time to go.
c. With a sharp ax you CAN DO wonder.
d. By using a little red here, you CAN BALANCE your colors.
e. Unless you FOLLOW the printed directions,
the set WILL NOT FIT properly together.
2.2.2.4.2 Medial position: This includes all positions between
obligatory initial and final clausal elements. Several more specific
positions can be distinguished:
c Between the subject and the beginning of the verb phrase:
8

(2)a. She actually EXPECTS to marry him.

b. Mary in her own way WAS a darling.
c. The environment secretary yesterday MOVED
to mitigate the effects of the inland revenue revaluation.
d After THE MODAL/FIRST AUXILIARY VERB and before THE LEXICAL VERB:
(2)d. He WOULD seldom MAKE effort.
e. You MAY in this way BE of great assistance.
f. Carrie HAD often DREAMED about coming back.
g. The utilization of computers IS not of course LIMITED to business.
e After THE LEXICAL VERB but preceding other obligatory elements of
the clause.
(2)h. It IS still three weeks away.
i. It IS no longer a casino.
j. He IS always/at any event happy.
k. He IS certainly/without doubt an expert.
l. She IS cleverly with her clients.
2.2.2.4.3 Final position: Sentence-finally, the adverbial can be

placed:
c After THE LEXICAL VERB, especially after AN INTRANSITIVE ONE.
(2)m. He LIVES independently/in the fast lane.
n. He DIED last night.
o. He DROVE recklessly/with abandon.

d After all obligatory elements, i.e. the indirect object, the direct object,
the subjective complement, or the objective complement, of THE LEXICAL
VERB (though it may not be the last element if there are other final
adverbials in the same clause):
(3)a. Tom WAS a doctor for many years.
b. Tom WILL PLAY football tomorrow.
c. Tom SENT a telegraph to his wife yesterday morning.
d. Tom PUT his watch where he can find it in the dark.
e. Tom BELIEVED the man crazy after questioning him.
9

2.3 English minor classes:

Jacksons [1980: 9-11] minor/closed classes consist of pronouns that
have to main function of substituting for nouns, once a noun has been
mentioned in a particular text; numerals that are of two kinds: ordinal and
cardinal; determiners that are used with nouns and have the function of
defining the reference of the noun in some way; prepositions the chief
function of which is relating a noun phrase to another unit; and
conjunctions that are of two kinds: co-ordinating conjunctions, such as
and, or, but, which join two items on an equal footing; and subordinating
conjunctions, such as when, if, why, whether, because, since, which
subordinate one item to another in some way.
Fromkin et al [1980: 9-11] add to minor/closed classes the form class

called auxiliaries, which includes English helping verbs (be, have, do)
and the modals (can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must).
However, these authors only identify one subtype of Jacksons
determinrers namely articles as a minor/closed class, completely
ignoring the other subtypes such as possessives, demonstratives, and
quantifiers.
And Stageberg [1965] says nothing concerning minor/closed classes.
2.4 Word-class exercises:
2.4.1 Exercises for form classes
EXERCISE 1: Review the derivational adverb-forming suffix {-ly1} and
the derivational adjective-forming suffix {-ly2}. Then place
a check after each word that qualifies as an adverb.
1. swiftly
2. homely
3. softly
4. costly
5. deftly

10

{-ly2}

6. richly
7. neatly
8. yearly
9. beastly
10. sourly

{-ly1}

EXERCISE 2: Identify the italicized -ly as either

the derivational adverbforming suffix {-ly1} or the derivational adverb-forming

suffix {-ly2}. Complete the table.

1. The witness testified falsely.

2. Gilbert has a deadly wit.
3. Prudence always behaves with a maidenly demeanor.
4. He tiptoed softly into the room.
5. Jimmy received a weekly allowance.
6. The dear old lady has a heavenly disposition.
7. He spoke quietly to her grandson.
8. What a timely suggestion!
9. What an unmannerly helot!
10. It was a cowardly act.

{-ly1}
{-ly2}

the italicized inflectional

verb present participle morpheme {-ing1} and an A to
identify the
italicized derivational class-changing
adjective-forming morpheme {-ing3}5. Complete the table.

EXERCISE 3: In the blank place a V to identify

1. It was a charming spot.

2. It was located by a sweetly babbling brook.
3. It was exciting to watch the fight.
4. From the bridge we can watch the running water.
5. That barking dog keeps everyone awake.
6. He told a convincing tale.
7. The shining sun gilded the forest floor.
8. A refreshing shower poured down.
9. The attorney made a moving appeal.
10. What an obliging fellow he is !

{-ing3}
{-ing1}

Notice the derivational class-changing noun-forming morpheme {-ing2} in

teaching, a meeting, droppings, etc.

11

the italicized inflectional

verb past participle morpheme {-D2} and an A to identify the
italicized derivational class-changing adjective-forming
morpheme {-D3}6. Complete the table.
{-D2}
1. You should read the printed statement.
{-D3}
2. Mary became a devoted mother.
3. This is a complicated question.
4. His chosen bride had lived in India.
5. He bought a stolen picture.
6. The invited guests all came.
7. He had a reserved seat.
8. The skipper was a reserved (= quiet) man.
9. A celebrated painter visited the campus.
10. A worried look crossed his face.
EXERCISE 4: In the blank place a V to identify

2.4.2 Exercises for positional classes

EXERCISE 5: The nominal word groups are italicized. In the blank, give their
syntactic function in the sentence. Complete the table.
1. They heard what we said.
direct object
2. What you do is your own business.
subject
3. That was what I thought too.
4. You must do the best with what you have.
5. Jack made whoever came there the same offer.
6. We will name the baby whatever his grandmother wishes.
7. We thought of paying cash.
8. Ill take whichever is the most durable.
9. Betty forgot to bring the coffee.
10. George postponed mailing the letter.
11. I enjoyed the company of my favourite aunt from Leeds.
12. Where we are going has not been decided.
13. We found what we wanted.
14. That she is beautiful is evident to all.
6

Notice that {-D1} is the inflectional verb past tense morpheme.

12

EXERCISE 6: The adverbial word groups are italicized. In the blank, give their

syntactic function in the sentence. Complete the table.

1. Ill dress while you shave.
adjunct of time
2. Our guide split the log with care.
3. He might under the circumstances agree the job.
4. When the coffee is ready, blow the whistle.
5. Chewing his tobacco meditatively, Ed studied
the blackening sky.
6. A hungry trout rose to the surface.
7. By that time the fish were no longer biting.
adjunct of purpose
8. To find the camp, just follow the creek downstream.
9. From the hilltop you can see the sawmill.
10. Jake hunts to make a living.
11. You must hold the knife this way.
EXERCISE 7: The adjectivals, either individual words or word groups, are

italicized. Underline the words they modify.

1. One person alone heard the message.
2. Those coeds cheering are only sophomores.
3. The surface, shining and smooth, reflected the sunshine.
4. We started our trip homeward.
5. Her demeanor, excessively prim, annoyed the guests.
6. The two swans floating were black.
7. The conversation afterward was light.
8. This will be a day to remember.
9. The chap sitting in the cubicle is Marys friend.
10. This is not the size I ordered.
11. The drugstore on the corner sells Times.
12. Our guests came on the week when I was housecleaning.
13. A girl spoiled by her mother is not a good roommate.
14. Just choose a time convenient to yourself.
15. She was a sight to behold.
16. Have you finished the book I lent you?
17. Who is the head of the club?
13

EXERCISE 8: In the blank identify the italicized word(s) by nominal, verbal,

adjectival or adverbial. Complete the table.

1. Last Monday was a holiday.

nominal

2. The Monday washing is on the line.

adjectival

3. Mrs. Reed always washes Mondays.

adverbial

4. Wont you come in?

5. The outs were angry with the ins.
6. They stomped upstairs.
7. They slept in the upstairs room.
8. One can see the airport from upstairs.
9. Jack was wrestling with his math.
10. The wrestling roommates were exhausted.
11. Jennifer found wrestling exciting.
12. They came in wrestling.
13. The student movie is presented weekly.
14. The student movie is a weekly occurrence
15. His way is the best.
16. He had it his way.
17. The mechanic ran the engine full speed.
18. By this means he burned down the carbon.
19. He raised the hood because the engine was hot.
20. They found the cabin just what they wanted.

14

SECTION 2: TYPES of PHRASES, CLAUSES and SENTENCES

3 Phrases vs. clauses

3.1 Sequences of words that can function as constituents in the
structure of sentences are called PHRASES. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 14]
For example, the woman in that 1978 Lincoln Continental is a phrase
because it can be the subject in (1) and the direct object in (2):
(1) The woman in that 1978 Lincoln Continental
IS possibly WANTED by the police.
(2) DO you SEE the woman in that 1978 Lincoln Continental?
Phrases form not only SYNTACTIC UNITS (constituents in the
structural form of sentences) but also SEMANTIC UNITS. By this I mean that
they form identifiable parts of the MEANING of sentences; they form
coherent units of sense. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 18]
3.2

are constructions with one phrase constituent, typically a

noun phrase that bears the subject relation, and another constituent,
the verb phrase, bearing the predicate relation [Jacobs, 1995: 49].
For example, the woman in that 1978 Lincoln Continental cannot be a
clause because it lacks a verb phrase while You must follow the woman in
that 1978 Lincoln Continental is.
Note also that the phrasal constituent bearing the subject
relation is not always obligatory, e.g. in the case of imperative sentences,
and that the phrasal constituent bearing the predicate relation may be
finite or non-finite.
CLAUSES

_________________

4 Adjective phrases vs. adverb phrases

4.1 As far as its internal structure is concerned, a typical ADJECTIVE
PHRASE (AP, for short) has as its head an adjective. The HEAD ADJECTIVE
(headA, for short) may optionally be pre-modified: rather dubious,
somewhat noisy, quite acceptable, too modest, very colorful, really
demanding, extremely subtle, terribly sorry, awfully slow, fairly good,
highly recommended, moderately easy, amazingly warm, beautifully cool,
annoyingly simple, disgustingly rich, incredibly polite, extraordinarily
15

rude, theoretically untenable, oddly inconclusive, diabolically tinted,

immediately recognizable, horribly burnt, etc.

An ADJECTIVE (A, for short) is the minimal form of an AP; indeed

many adjective phrases occur in the minimal form:
very enthusiastic enthusiastic.
The head adjective may be pre-modified by:
c degree adverbs, which are also called intensifying adverbs,
(DEG, for short; ly or without ly adverbs which specify the degree of the
attribute expressed by the adjective): very, highly, extremely, terribly,
awfully, completely, much, quite, so, too, rather, somewhat, hardly,
fairly, moderately, partially, slightly, increasingly, incredibly, etc.
d general adverbs, which are also called non-intensifying adverbs,
(Adv, for short; ly adverbs which typically have other adverbial functions
as well): frankly, potentially, enthusiastically, immediately, annoyingly,
oddly, disgustingly, amazingly, suspiciously, awkwardly, beautifully, etc.
AP

DEG

very

AP
headA

enthusiastic

Adv

beautifully

headA

cool

4.2 As far as its internal structure is concerned, a typical ADVERB PHRASE

(AdvP, for short) has as its head an adverb. An ADVERB (Adv, for short) is the
minimal form of an AdvP; indeed many adverb phrases occur in the minimal
form: very enthusiastically enthusiastically.
An adverb may, however, be pre-modified; though post-modification is
not found in all adverb phrases. The only kind of pre-modifier occurring
in adverb phrases is another adverb, usually of the same restricted set of
adverbs of degree, which are also called intensifying adverbs, as found
in the pre-modification of adjective phrases, e.g. very quickly, quite
wonderfully, somewhat fleetingly, and extremely faithfully.
However, as with adjectives, other adverbs may function as premodifiers in adverb phrases, e.g. amazingly well, understandably badly,
horribly fast, incredibly gracefully. This kind of modifying adverbs
16

appears to be either directly (amazingly) or indirectly (horribly) an

expression of personal evaluation.
AdvP
DEG

very

AdvP
headAdv

Adv

headAdv

enthusiastically understandably

badly

_________________

5 Attributive vs. predicative adjectives/adjective phrases

5.1 Adjectives or adjective phrases have two uses or functions: the
attributive function and the predicative function.
The attributive function is when adjectives or adjective phrases are
found in the pre-modification of a noun phrase, as for example in an

interesting story, a somewhat anxious mother

The predicative function of an adjective phrase is its occurrence after a
copula such as be, seem, sound, feel; for example, Naomi IS anxious
about

Jims health, Jim SEEMS concerned that Naomi

WILL WORRY

too

much. [Jackson, 1980: 24-25]

5.2 When an adjective or adjective phrase is functioning attributively, it
may not, in any case, be followed by a post-modifier. That is to say,
adjective phrases containing post-modifiers may function only
predicatively:
(1)a. *She IS a somewhat anxious about his sons health mother.
b. She IS somewhat anxious about his sons health.
5.3 There is a small set of adjectives restricted to predicative position and
called predicative adjectives and likewise a small set restricted to
attributive position and called attributive adjectives.
ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES

PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES

(2)a. The main reason IS his laziness. (3)a. *The reason IS main.
b. HeS a mere youth.
b. *This youth IS mere.
c. *He IS a faint patient.
c. He FEELS faint.
d. *This IS an asleep boy.
d. The boy IS asleep.
17

But the vast majority of adjectives may function either attributively or

predicatively:
PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES

ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES

(4)a. The charming girl ATTRACTS his attention. (4)b. The girl IS charming.
(5)a. SheS a lonely wife.
(5)b. I sometimes FEEL lonely.
_________________

6 Noun phrases vs. verb phrases

6.1 A NOUN PHRASE (NP, for short) in English consists of a nominal head
(normally a noun or a pronoun) with or without the modifiers that accompany
it, before or after.
NP1
AP

NP2
N1

DET

N2

AP1
ART

Relative Clause

AP2

N3

ModN

headN

(1) the blue cotton

shirt that I BORROWED from my brother

In the noun phrase marked (1), shirt constitutes the head; the, blue
and cotton belong to the pre-modification; and that I borrowed from my
brother is the post-modification.
The word blue is called a modifier because it describes the shirt: it
limits by excluding other colours and it adds to the plain meaning of shirt.
A modifier may sometimes be separated from the head by intervening
words, like the relative clause in the following NP:
(2) a butterfly in the garden which WAS FLUTTERING among the flowers.
When there is nothing else in the noun phrase, nouns or pronouns are
also complete noun phrases, like cabbages and Aiken in the two following
sentences which are marked (3)a-b:
(3)a. The truck WAS LOADED with cabbages.
b. They FLEW down to Aiken, South Carolina.
18

6.2 The one constituent that a VERB PHRASE (VP, for short) must contain is
the VERB GROUP (Vgrp, for short) [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 78]. The Vgrp, in
its turn, contains one lexical verb and may have up to four auxiliary
verbs, besides the negative word not:
may not have been being interrogated. [Jackson, 1980: 18]
The verb phrase in English consists of a Vgrp and all the words and
word groups which belong with the Vgrp and cluster around it. The Vgrp
itself is called the head, and the other words and word groups are the
modifiers and/or the complements of the head.

The modifier is the generic term for all the adverbial adjuncts that

optionally provide circumstantial information about the action, the process,

the event, etc. talked about in the clause in which they occur. Soundly
optionally describes the manner in which the baby sleeps and beside a
stream optionally describes the place at which Phil had lost his leather
wallet; the two adverbial adjuncts can be omitted without disturbing the
proposition of the two following sentences, which are marked (4)a-b:
(4)a. The baby WAS SLEEPING (soundly).
b. Phil HAD LOST his leather wallet (beside a stream).
The relation between the Vgrp (was sleeping or had lost his
leather wallet) and the adverbial adjunct (soundly or beside a stream)
is one of modification: there is a one-way dependency between the Vgrp
(as head) and the adverbial adjunct (as modifier). Thus, the use of the
Vgrp without any adverbial adjunct is grammatically acceptable.

The complement is the generic term for all the completers of the
verb [Stageberg, 1965: 165], which are usually known as the direct
object, the indirect object, the subjective complement, the objective
complement, and also the predicator complement [Downing and Locke,

1992: 55-56].

There exist functional relations between the Vgrp and other

constituents that appear in the basic VP. In Phil had lost his leather wallet,
19

had lost is the Vgrp. The relation between the Vgrp (had lost) and the NP
(his leather wallet) is one of complementation: there is a two-way
dependency between the Vgrp (as head) and the NP (as complement).
The use of had lost without a following NP is ungrammatical, and so is the
use of the NP without had lost.
Some verbs require an adverbial without which the proposition is in
complete. [Biber et al, 1999: 143] The adverbial adjunct of place in (5)a
is not optional but obligatory. In other words, the relation between the Vgrp
(was lying) and the adverbial adjunct (on his back) is one of
complementation: there is a two-way dependency between the Vgrp (as
head) and the adverbial adjunct (as complement). The use of was lying
without any adverbial adjunct of place is ungrammatical.
(5)a. The baby WAS LYING on his back.
b. *The baby WAS LYING.
In the VP had lost his leather wallet beside a stream, had lost
is the Vgrp, his leather wallet is the complement and beside a stream
is the modifier of the Vgrp.
S

NP

VP1

Vgrp
[transitive]

(6) Phil

adverb phrase
[optional Adjunct of Location]

VP2

PropN

HAD LOST

NP
[direct object]

PP

his leather wallet beside a stream.

_________________

7 The N-bar (N) as level of NP-structure that is intermediate between the

phrasal (NP) level and the lexical (N) level
Since the one may substitute for the lonely man, we have shown that
lonely man is indeed a constituent, one that is a sister of the determiner on
the tree-diagram. Clearly, lonely man is not a full noun phrase, since it needs
a determiner; but neither is it a single noun an intermediate category
20

is needed, one higher than noun and lower than noun phrase. We will
show it here as N, and call it the N-bar.
NP
N

DET
AP

the

lonely

man

_________________

8 Types of pre-nominal modifiers

The noun head in a noun phrase can be pre-modified by:
8.1 DETERMINERS (DET, for short):
Articles, demonstratives and possessives are mutually exclusive
in English: only one of them can occur in any noun phrase.
8.1.1 Below are the determiners that may be preceded by one of the
pre-determiners (PRE-DET, for short), which are all, both and half
[Stageberg, 1965: 235]:
c articles: the and a/an;
d possessives: her, his, its, their, your, Johns, the books, etc.;
e demonstratives: this, that, these, and those.
NP1
PRE-DET

NP1
PRE-DET

NP2

DET

DET

ART

headN

PossA

all the
(1)a.

men

NP1
NP2

PRE-DET
N1

NP2
N1

DET

AP

N2

headN

PossPropN

AP

N2

headN

both my studious roommates half Harrys new books

(1)b.
(1)c.

8.1.2 There are determiners that are not preceded by predeterminers [Stageberg, 1965: 239]. Some of these determiners are
21

called QUANTIFIERS (Q, for short): some, any, no, each, enough, either,
neither and another, the others are often known as interrogative or
exclamatory determiners: what (a/an)1, which2 and whose3.
NP

NP

DET

headN

DET

NP

INTERROG. DET headN

(2)a. some mistakes (2)b. which

DET

EXCLAM. DET

headN

platform (2)c. what a

view

8.1.3 A POSSESSIVE (Poss, for short) can consist of either a possessive

adjective (my, your, his, her, etc.), or a possessive proper noun
(Johns, Alices, Doriss, etc.), or a full NP + s, which is called THE
POSSESSIVE MARKER (PossMarker, for short).
1

what /w4t/ (det.) = the thing(s) which, the person or people who:
What money I have will be yours when I die.
I spent what little time with my family.
What family and friends I still have live a broad.
what /w4t/ (exclamatory det., used in making exclamations):
What awful weather were having!
What beautiful flowers! What a (lovely) view!
what /w4t/ (interrogative det., used to ask sb to specify one or more things, places, people,
etc. from an indefinite number):
Guess what famous writer said this.
I asked her what experience she has had.
What books have you got to read on the subjects?
What woman are you thinking of?
2

which /w1t/ (interrogative determiner, used to ask sb to specify one or more things,
places, people, etc. from a limited number):
Which way is quicker by bus or by train?
Ask him which platform the London train leaves from.
which /w1t/ (interrogative pronoun) = which person or thing:
Which is your favourite subject?
Here are the recently published books. Tell me which are worth reading.
The twins are so much alike that I cant tell which is which.

whose /hu:z/ (interrogative determiner/interrogative pronoun) = of whom:

Whose (house) is that? I wonder whose (book) this is.

22

NP1
NP
N

DET
PossA/PossPropN

N1

DET
PossNP

headN

(3)a. his/Johns cover

NP2
DET
ART

headN1
PossMarker

N2
headN2

(3)b. the
book
s
cover
8.1.4 The determiner position may be UNFILLED (, for short). Although
the noun phrases marked (4)a-b contain just one word, they should still be
analyzed as having a DET + N structure:
NP
DET

NP
N

DET

HeadN

(4)a.

essays
(a plural countable noun)

N
headN

(4)b.

smoke
(an uncountable noun)

The two reasons for this unfilled determiner analysis are:

c These NPs could take a determiner: the smoke, my essays.
d The unfilled determiner in these NPs has an effect on their
interpretation. An unfilled determiner gives these NPs an indefinite and more
general interpretation. The NP marked (4)b is indefinite and more general
than the definite NP the smoke. It is also more general than the indefinite
NP some smoke.
8.2 QUANTIFYING ADJECTIVES (QA, for short) are expressions of
indefinite quantity. Burton-Roberts [1997: 161] includes among the premodifiers in the N-bar the quantifying adjectives much, many, few and
little.
8.2.1 Quantifying adjectives share some important features with
adjectives:

23

c Like adjectives, they co-occur with and follow determiners: those

many books, the little butter that I have, some few successes, etc.,
including an unfilled determiner: many books, much garlic, etc.
d Like adjectives, they are gradable: VERY many books, TOO much
garlic, SO few ideas, VERY little tact, where they are modified by A DEGREE
ADVERB.
NP
N1

DET
Q/DEM/ART

NP
N1

DET

AP

N2

QA

headN

N2

AP
DEG

(5)a. some few

successes
a. those many books
a. the
little butter
a.
much garlic

(5)b.
b.
b.
b.

SO
TOO
VERY
VERY

QA

headN

few
ideas
much garlic
many books
little tact

8.2.2 A WORD-GROUP QUANTIFYING ADJECTIVE like plenty of, a lot

of, lots of, a great/good deal of, a (small, large, great, considerable,
etc.) amount of, considerable numbers of, etc., which may include
FRACTIONAL NUMERALS: one-third of, two-thirds of, three-fifths of,
etc., may be the only pre-modifier in an NP:
NP
N1

DET
AP
QA

(6)a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

a small amount of
considerable numbers of
a great/good deal of
one-third of
three-fifths of

N2
headN

people
war victims
money/trouble
time
students

8.3 NUMBERS or NUMERALS (NUM, for short) are expressions of

definite quantity. They are of two kinds:
24

c CARDINAL NUMERALS: one, two, three, ... , and ninety-nine.

d ORDINAL NUMERALS: first, second, third, fourth, ..., and last.
8.3.1 Numerals should be treated as quantifying adjectives
within the N-bar, since they follow DET, including unfilled DET [BurtonRoberts, 1997: 161].
NP

NP
N1

DET

N2

AP
DEG

(7)a.

VERY

QA

N1

DET

headN

many mistakes

ART

AP

N2

NUM

headN

(7)b. the one

mistake

8.3.2 More than one expressions of quantity may occur in a noun

phrase, though there are a restricted number of possible combinations.
Favorite sequences are ordinal number (especially first and last) +
indefinite quantifier, e.g. the first few hours; ordinal + cardinal, e.g.
the second five days; indefinite quantifier + cardinal number
(especially round number), e.g. several thousand people, many score4 of
ants. [Jackson, 1980: 13]
8.3.3 Stageberg [1965: 240-241] includes numerals to his list of
POST-DETs: This is an untidy class. Not all post-determiners follow all
determiners, but each one follows at least one determiner. And within the
group, there are complicated orders of precedence. For example, ordinals
usually precede cardinals, as in the first three students, this order
may be reversed, as in the two first prizes The whole jungle of
determiners and post-determiners is a terra incognita that has not been
mapped out with complete success. For our purpose it will suffice to
recognize the class as a whole without exploring its internal complications.

score [C., pl. unchanged] set or group of twenty: a score of people, three score and ten

25

NP

NP
N1

DET
ART

N2

AP1
NUM1
[ordinal]

ART

first three

AP2

N3

NUM2
[ordinal]

headN

NUM1
[cardinal]

headN

students

N2

AP1

N3

AP2

NUM2
[cardinal]

(8)a. the

N1

DET

(8)b. the

two

first

prizes

8.3.4 Adjective phrases with numerals as heads always precede

other Adjective phrases in the N-bar:
NP
N1

DET
ART

NP

N2

AP1

NUM1
[ordinal]

DEM
N3

AP2
NUM2
[cardinal]

N1

DET

AP3
headN1
ModComN
A

headN2

AP1

NUM
AP2
[cardinal]
A

N2
N3
headComN

(9)b. these two aimless playfellows

(9)a. the last three red cabbage pickles

8.4 ADJECTIVE PHRASES (AP, for short):
A typical attributive adjective phrase has as its head an adjective.
The HEAD ADJECTIVE (headA, for short) may optionally be pre-modified
either by a degree adverb (DEG, for short), which are also called
intensifying adverbs [Jackson, 1980: 25], as in (10)c, or by a general
adverb (Adv, for short), which are also called a non-intensifying adverb,
as in (10)d. One adjective phrase as in (10)b and two or more adjective
phrases as in (10)a in the minimal form may all function attributively.

26

NP

NP
N1

DET
Q

N2

AP1
A1

DEM

NUM
N4

AP3
V-part

N4
headN

those two very charming atomic scientists

(10)c.
NP1
PRE-DET

N1

DET
EXCLAMATORY DET

(10)b.

AP3
A

NP2

WHAT A

headA

headN

NP1

N3

AP2
DEG

Some large greasy uneaten fritters

(10)a.

PRE-DET

N2

AP1

N3

AP2
A2

N1

DET

N1

DET

AP

N2

headN

lovely

NP2

view

N2

AP
Adv

(10)d.

headA

headN

beautifully cool weather

8.5 PRE-MODIFYING NOUNS (ModN, for short):

8.5.1 Nouns themselves may act as pre-modifiers of head nouns. The
relationship between a head noun and a pre-modifying noun is much closer than
that between a head and any other pre-modifier. The combination of modifier
noun and head noun is referred to as A COMPOUND NOUN (ComN, for short) and
is not treated as a phrasal constituent at all, but as a compound word. Notice, for
example, that in a sequence of modifiers that includes a noun modifier, it is the
noun modifier that must appear last it cannot be separated from the head
noun. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 163]

27

NP

NP
N1

DET
Q

N1

DET

AP

N2

ComN
ModN

PossPropN

AP

N2

NUM

ComN

headN

ModN

headN

(11)a. some expensive roof maintenance (11)b. Georges two wool neckties
8.5.2 It is not unusual for more than one modifying noun to occur in a
noun phrase. A complication arises from the fact that noun modifiers can
themselves be modified. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 163]
NP

NP

DET

ART

headComN1

N1

DET
ART

N2

AP
ModNP

ModN1

headComN2

N3

DET

headComN2

headComN1
ModN2

headN

ModN1

headN1

ModN2

headN2

(12)a. the child safety harness (12)b. the child poverty action group

8.5.3 The modifying noun does not accept post-modification [BurtonRoberts, 1997: 164]. Thus the NP marked (13) is grammatically incorrect:
(13) *some [Japanese print after Kunisada] collectors

8.6 POSSESSIVE COMMON NOUNS (PossCommN, for short):

According to Stageberg [1965: 238], the possessive of common
nouns can occur anywhere between the determiner and the head noun.
Thus (14)a-b and (15)a-b are all accepted:
28

NP
N1

DET
ART

NP

N2

AP1

N3

AP2

N3

PossCommN

headN

headN

(14)a. the summers red

N2

ART AP1

AP

PossCommN

N1

DET

roses (14)b. the red summers

roses

Note that (14)a-b both mean the roses which are red and which bloom
in summer. Similarly, (15)a means the garden roses which bloom in summer
while (15)b means the garden roses which are red and which bloom in
summer.
NP
N1

DET
ART

NP
N1

DET
N2

AP

ART

N2

AP1

N3

AP2
PossCommN

headComN
ModN

PossCommN

headN

headComN
ModN

headN

(15)a. the summers garden roses (15)b. the summers red garden roses
8.7 VERB PARTICIPLES (V-Part, for short): The active present participle
and the passive past participle may appear as pre-modifiers within the
N-bar.
NP

N1

DET
DEM

NP

AP

V-Part

N1

DET
N2

headN

(16)a. those departed guests

ART

N2

AP

DEG

headA

headN

(16)b. a quite unexpected ending

29

ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES

PASSIVE PAST PARTICIPLES

the preceding statement

melting snow
falling leaves
those leaping/dropping clicks

a broken heart
sliced cake
photocopied materials
these departed guests

8.8 GERUNDS (V-Ger, for short) may also appear as pre-modifiers within
the N bar, but they should be carefully distinguished from active present
participles:
ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES

living organisms
the sleeping guard
a drinking horse

GERUNDS

living rooms
the sleeping car
drinking water

The combination of gerund and head noun is also referred to as A

COMPOUND NOUN. The compound noun sleeping car should be dominated in
ComN as in (17)b:
NP
N1

DET
ART

NP

AP
V-Part

(17)a. the
5

sleeping

DET
N2

ART

headN

guard (17)b. the

ComN
V-Ger

sleeping

headN

car

Note that:
c Certain true adjectives look very much like verb participles: tiring, tired,
(un)interesting, (un)interested, bored, boring, devoted, relieved, unexpected,
surprising, charming, demanding, pleasing, etc. However, since they are gradable (i.e.
they can be modified by degree adverbs) they are easily distinguished from verb
participles: rather pleasing, very interesting, quite unexpected, extremely devoted, etc.
d Since the present and past participles are verbal rather than adjectival,
they are not gradable: *the very leering manager, *a slightly forgotten valley,
*rather sliced cake, etc. They may, however, be modified by general adverbs: in
the rapidly congealing gravy, rapidly modifies congealing resulting in rapidly
congealing, which is an AP.
30

8.9 RESTRICTERS (RESTRIC, for short): are really a small number of

adverbs with or without ly like just, only, even, quite, especially,
merely, and particularly [Stageberg, 1956: 242] which can:
c modify the head noun alone just girls, even water, especially
candy, etc.;
d precede the pre-determiner and/or the determiner, modifying
the whole noun phrase and simultaneously restricting its meaning to some
extentonly ten short minutes, just college girls, just romantic
college girls, just another romantic college girl, especially all our
guests, even the empty box, just some white athletic socks,
particularly her spotted kitten, quite a few6 people, quite a lot of
wine, quite some7 car, quite a party, etc.
NP1
RESTRIC

NP1
RESTRIC

NP2

DET

NP2

DET

headN

NP1
RESTRIC

NP2
N

DET

headN

headN

(18)a. just girls (18)b. even water (18)c. especially

NP1
RESTRIC

candy

NP1
RESTRIC

NP2
PRE-DET
DET

NP2
N1

DET

NP3
N

PossA headN

PossA

AP
V-Part

N2
headN

(19)a. especially all our guests (19)b. particularly her spotted kitten
_________________

6
7

Quite a few or quite a lot (of) both means a considerable number or amount (of).
Quite some or quite a is used to indicate that a person or thing is unusual.
31

9 Types of post-nominal modifiers

POST-MODIFIERS (POST-MOD, for short) in an NP are the categories
that follow the head noun and modify it in some way.
9.1 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES (PP, for short) are common post-nominal
modifiers:
(1)a. an expedition to the pub (1)b. the man in the iron mask

9.1.1 Using tree-diagrams to re-draw the two above-mentioned

upsidedown-T diagrams, we have (1)a-b:
NP1

NP1
NP2
AP

NP2
DET1

N1

DET1

PP

N1

AP
PP

ART1 headN1 P
ART1

headN1

NP3

NP3
DET2

N2

ART2 headN2

(1)a. an expedition to the pub

DET2

N2

ART2

ComN

ModN headN2

(1)b. the man in the iron mask

Accepting this way of analysis, I strongly believe that the PP postmodifier in the two NPs marked (1)a-b can easily be omitted without
interfering with the rest of the NPs, which is in fact a well-formed NP by
itself: an expedition or the man.
9.1.2 When a given NP includes both a pre-modifying AP and a postmodifying PP, the pre-modifying AP belongs to the N-bar of the given NP
but the post-modifying PP does not:

32

NP1

NP1
AP1

NP2
N1

DET

PP
N2

ART AP2
A

N1

DET

NP3

the nuclear scientist from Germany

(2)

PP
N2

PossPropN AP2

PropN

headN

AP1

NP2

NP3

headN

Larrys neat summary of the argument

(3)

9.1.3 As a post-modifier, a PP may sometimes be reduced to an

adverb:
NP1

NP1

AP

NP2
DET

N1

ART

headN

PP
P

AP

NP2

NP3

DET

N1

ART

headN

Adv

(4)a. the time

before this one (4)a. the
time
before
b. the morning after the wedding
b. the morning after
c. the bus
behind
our car
c. the bus
behind
d. the room
above
us
d. the room above
9.2 ADJECTIVE PHRASES
9.2.1 A few adjectives (including present, absent, responsible and
visible) may pre-modify or post-modify the head noun... To a greater or
lesser extent, a difference in meaning is associated with the
difference of position. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 171] Post-modifying APs
does not belong to the N-bar though pre-modifying APs does.

33

NP

NP1
N1

DET
ART

NP2

AP

AP

N2

DET

headN

ART

headN

(5)a. the present members

b. the responsible men
c. the visible
stars

(5)a. the
b. the
c. the

members present
men
responsible
stars
visible

9.2.2 There is a circumstance when the post-modifying AP itself

contains material following the headA, as in (6)a-b:
NP1

NP1
AP

NP2
DET

headA

ART

headN

AP

NP2

AdvP

DET

ART

headN

headA

AdvP

(6)a. the chef responsible for the sauces (6)b. a tree safe to climb up
9.2.3 There is another circumstance when the post-modifying AP itself
contains material preceding the headA, as in (7)a-b:
NP1
AP

NP2
DET

N1

ART

headN

Adv

headA

(7)a. the mailman, exuberantly happy, [whistled merrily]

NP1
AP

NP2
DET

ART

headN

(7)b. [he had never seen] a

34

DEG

woman more

headA

lovely

9.2.4 There is still another circumstance when the post-modifying AP

itself contains two or more adjective heads linked by a coordinate
conjunction, as in (8)a-b:
NP1
AP

NP2

ART

headA1 Conj headA2

DET

headN

(8)a. the mailman, tired and wet, [trudged along in the rain]
b. a woman,
old and gaunt, [stood at the door]
9.3 PARTICIPIAL PHRASES (PartP, for short):
Participial phrases can be subdivided into two sub-categories:
participial phrases with ing as in (9)a-b and participial phrases with
ed as in (9)c-d:
NP1
AP

NP2
DET

ART headN

NP1

PartP
V-part

AdvP

AP

NP2
DET

ART headN

PartP
V-part

AdvP

PP

InfP

the car coming down the road the man expected to arrive at any moment
(9)a.
(9)b.
9.4 INFINITIVE PHRASES (InfP, for short):
An Infinitive phrase can play the role of an adjective, post-modifying
an NP.
NP1
NP2
DET

ART headN

NP1
AP
InfP

AP

NP2
DET

InfP

ART headN

(10)a. the man to answer this question (10)b. a scheme to win Kathys heart
35

9.5 SUBORDINATE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (SubACl, for short)

The adjective phrases in (6)a-b, (7)a-b and (8)a-b, the participial
phrases in (9)a-b, and the infinitive phrases in (10)a-b are often regarded
as the reductions of the following subordinate adjective clauses,
either restrictive or non-restrictive:
NP1
NP2
DET
ART

(6)a. the
(6)b. a
(7)a. the

SubACl [POST-M]
N

headN

chef
tree
mailman,

that is responsible for the sauces

which is safe to climb up
who was exuberantly happy,

(8)a. the mailman,

who was tired and wet,

(9)a. the

car

that is coming down the road

(9)b. the

man

who is expected to arrive at any moment

(10)a. the

man

whom you should ask about this question

(10)a. the man

who should answer this question

One striking fact about these different kinds of phrasal/clausal postmodification emerging from our discussions is the degree of explicitness
associated with each of them. As one passes from relative clauses to
prepositional phrases, so one finds a gradation from most to least explicit;
cf the cow which is standing in the meadow, the cow standing in the
meadow, the cow in the meadow. [Jackson, 1980: 16]
_________________

10 Noun complements vs. optional post-nominal modifiers

10.1 A noun-complement (nC, for short) is A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
(PP, for short), as in (1)a-c, or AN EMBEDDED ADJECTIVE CLAUSE (EmACl, for
short), as in (2)a-c, that follows a noun phrase the head of which is an
abstract noun such as fact, belief, rumour, story, news, etc: A nouncomplement is also known as a contentive, so called because the complement
36

clause (or phrase) normally specifies the content of its head noun. [Jacobs,
1995: 100]
NP1
AP [nC]

NP2
N

DET
ART

PP

headN

(1)a. her
b. the
c. the

belief
rumour
news

in God
of an impending merger
of where she is staying
NP1

EmACl [nC]

NP2
DET

ART

headN

(2)a. this

belief that the company WAS NOT making a profit

b. the

rumour that Eds wife FALLS in love with his brother

c. the

news

that the enemy WERE near

10.2 Compare (3)a with (3)b:

(3)a. the story that Eleanor HAD MET with the senator
b. the story that Eleanor had given to the senator
As a noun complement, that Eleanor had met with the senator in
(3)a completes the meaning of the story: it tells us what the story is
about. That Eleanor had given to the senator in (3)b does not supply the
content of the story. Instead, it functions as a modifier identifying the story.
The same phenomenon can be found in (4)a-b and (5)a-b:
(4)a. the fact that rain MAY FALL in deserts [IS NOT unknown]
b. [I DISAGREE with] the fact on which your argument IS BASED.
(5)a. the news of her marriage [HAS just BEEN ANNOUNCED]
b. the news on the notice-board [IS completely IGNORED]
37

Note that SUBORDINATE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (SubACl, for short),

either restrictive or non-restrictive, are not noun complements; they are
optional post-nominal modifiers (POST-M, for short) in the noun phrases
marked (6)a-h:
NP1
NP2

SubACl [POST-M]

DET

ART

headN

(6)a. the
chef
b. a
tree
c. the mailman,
d. the mailman,
e. the
car
f. the
man
g. the
man
h. the
man

that is responsible for the sauces

which is safe to climbed up
who was exuberantly happy,
who was tired and wet,
that is coming down the road
who is expected to arrive at any moment
whom you should ask about this question
who should answer this question

Note also that there is a two-way dependency of complement and head

noun (3-5)a and a one-way dependency of modifier and head noun in (3-5)b
and in (6)a-h. Thus, it is crucial to distinguish post-nominal modifiers from
complements:
When a head DEMANDS a further expression, that other
(OBLIGATORY) expression is said to COMPLEMENT the head Complements
typically follow their heads in English. Modifiers, by contrast, can precede
or follow their head [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 43]
_________________

11 Classification of English verbs/verb phrases

Verbs are sub-categorised according to what other elements
must appear with them in the VP. In other words, they are sub-categorised
in terms of their COMPLEMENTATION types (in terms of what complement
they must take. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 80]

38

There are six main categories of English verbs: monotransitive,

intransitive, ditransitive, intensive, complex transitive, and
prepositional. The six categories of English verbs result in six types
of English verb phrases.
11.1 INTENSIVE (intens, for short) verbs/verb phrases
11.1.1 Intensive verbs require a single complement, which can take the
form of an Adjective Phrase, or a Noun Phrase, or a Prepositional Phrase As
the most central example of the intensive sub-category of verb, be is called
the copula. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 85] Other intensive verbs are: become,
seem, appear, prove, turn, get, remain, look, taste, feel, smell, sound,
etc. In these following diagrams,c THE VERB GROUP (Vgrp, for short) IS
CAPITALISED for better identification and d a triangle notation shall be used to
represent the structure of the Vgrp since it is not analyzed here.
S

NP
PropN

(1)a. Ed
b. Tom
c. Oscar

VP
Vgrp
[intens]

IS
WAS
SHOULD BE

AP/NP/PP [sP/sC]

rather extravagant. (AP)

an auctioneer. (NP)
in the engine room. (PP)

11.1.2 The complement of an intensive verb group functions (more

specifically) as a SUBJECT-PREDICATIVE (sP, for short), which is also called a
SUBJECT(IVE) COMPLEMENT (sC, for short). When a verb is complemented
just by an AP (Vgrp+AP), it is certain that this is the case of an
intensive verb + an sP, because [intensive] is the only sub-category of verb
that can take just an AP complement. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 85]
11.1.3 Realisations of the subject(ive) complement:
Downing and Locke [1992: 51-52] subcategorize the subject(ive)
complements according to ctheir syntactic realizations and dthe semantic
meanings they provide to complement the subject.
39

(i) Attributive Subject(ive) Complements

AP

Mountaineering CAN PROVE very dangerous indeed.

She IS twenty-two years old.

NP

John IS a very lucky man.

Two brothers ARE pilots.
(ii) Identifying Subject(ive) Complements

NP

The Robinsons ARE our next-door neighbors.

Finite clause

Kens belief IS that things CANT GET any worse.

He HAS BECOME what he always WANTED to be.

Non-finite clause

The only thing I did WAS [E] TELL him to go away.

My advice IS [E] TO WITHDRAW.
The best plan IS for you TO GO by train.
What I dont enjoy IS [E] STANDING in queues.
What most people prefer IS others DOING the work.

(iii) Circumstantial Subject(ive) Complements

NP
AdvP
PP
Finite clause

The exam IS next Tuesday.

The amusement park IS over there.
The manager IS in a good mood.
This IS how you SHOULD DO it.

11.1.4 No passive counterpart of (1)a-c has ever been found in English.

11.2 COMPLEX TRANSITIVE (complex, for short) verbs/verb phrases
The complex transitive verb take two elements: a direct object
(NP) and an object-predicative. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 88]
11.2.1 Obviously, the predicative in a complex transitive VP
characterises (attributives a property to) the direct object, not the subject,
hence the name object-predicative. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 89] The
object predicative (oP, for short), which is also called the object(ive)
40

complement (oC, for short) are in italic while the dOs are underlined in the
following examples:

S
NP

VP
Vgrp
[complex]

(2) a. The teacher

b. Beth

NP[dO]

AP/NP/PP/non-finite Cl [oP/oC]

the lesson extremely interesting. (AP)

IS MAKING Stella
her spokesperson. (NP)
MADE

c. Party members REGARDED him as the only possible candidate. (PP)

d. The policeman GOT
the traffic
[E] moving. (non-finite Cl)
e. An official HAS DECLAIRED the place [E] to be free from infection.

(non-finite cl)

11.2.2 Realisations of the object(ive) complement:

Downing and Locke [1992: 54-55] subcategorise the object(ive)
complement according to ctheir syntactic realisations and dthe semantic
meanings they provide to complement the object.

AP

(i) Attributive Object(tive) Complements

She DYED her hair blond.
The governments imports policy HAS MADE the farmers furious.
I IMAGINED him a bit older/much taller than that.

Indefinite NP
PP

DOES he CONSIDER himself a genius?

Fellow sportsmen REGARD him a world class player.
They DONT ACCEPT him as honest.
They previously CONSIDERED this painting as worthless.

Non-finite clause We BELIEVED him [E] to be honest.

We CONSIDER this [E] to be very important.

Finite clause DYE your hair whatever color you LIKE.

41

(ii) Identifying Object(tive) Complements

Definite NP
CAN you IMAGINE yourself the owner of a luxury yacht?
They ELECTED her Miss Universe.

Finite clause Our supporters enthusiasm

HAS MADE the club

what it

IS

today.

Note that some verbs require their adjectival and nominal

object(ive) complements to be introduced by as; the complements are then
analysed as Prepositional Object(tive) Complements. With other verbs, this
is optional:
as + AP
The police DIDNT ACCEPT the story as genuine.
I REGARD your suggestion as worthy of consideration.

as + NP

Doctors RECOGNISE Johnson as a leading authority.

I CONSIDER you as my best friend.

PP

(iii) Circumstantial Object(tive) Complements

The burglar LEFT the house in a mess.
We FOUND the Dean in a good mood.
CONSIDER yourself under arrest.

Non-finite clause
ing
He KEPT us [E] waiting.
as + ing I REGARD that as [E] asking for the impossible.
ed
She LEFT me [E] stunned.

The authorities ORDERED hundreds of demonstrators

[E] placed under house arrest.

11.2.3 Relationship between the direct object and its object(ive)

complement:
There is a special semantic relationship between the two NPs following
the verb. The second noun phrase after the verb is semantically a
predicate that is about the noun phrase before it. This semantic relationship is
often close to, but not identical with, that between the subject of a clause with
be, the copular verb, and the predicate noun phrase following the
42

copular verb. [Jacobs, 1995: 59] That is the reason why the second NP in
(3)a-b is called an Object-Predicative or an Object(ive) Complement:
(3)a. We DECLARE Frank Wilson the winner.
(cf. Frank Wilson IS the winner.)
b. The club ELECTED Mr. Jones membership secretary.
(cf. Mr. Jones WAS the membership secretary of the club.)
This explains why it is often possible to insert to be or as in front of the NP
or AP constituent being the attributive or identifying object(tive) complement:
(4)a. The court CONSIDERED Smith to be a trustworthy witness.
b. The club WONT APPOINT a teenager as the committee treasurer.
c. The extra money HELPED John to be independent.
d. We REGARD your action as criminal.
11.2.4 Many complex transitive verbs can be made passive. The direct
object of an active verb became the subject of the same verb in the passive:
S
NP

VP1
VP2
Vgrp
[complex]

[oP/oC]

PP
[opA of Agent]

(2)a. The lesson WAS MADE extremely interesting (by the teacher).
IS BEING MADE Beths spokesperson.
b. Stella
c. He WAS REGARDED as the only possible candidate (by party members).
d. The traffic WAS GOT
moving
(by the policeman).
e. The place HAS BEEN DECLARED to be free from infection
(by an official).

11.3 DITRANSITIVE (ditrans, for short) verbs/verb phrases

11.3.1 A ditransitive verb is one which requires two NPs as its
complementation [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 83]. A few examples of
ditransitive verbs are give, send, and buy.
43

11.3.2 In (5)a-c, the first complement NP, which is in italic,

functions as the INDIRCT OBJECT (iO, for short) of the ditransitive verb. The
second complement NP, which is underlined, functions as the DIRECT OBJECT
(dO, for short) of the ditransitive verb. The indirect object NP in (5)a-c
corresponds to a PP in a position following the direct object in (5)a-c. The
PPs that correspond in this way with indirect objects are always introduced
by to or for:
S

NP
Pro

VP
Vgrp NP[iO]
[ditrans]

NP
NP [dO]

Pro

VP
Vgrp
[ditrans]

NP[dO]

PP[iO]

(5)a.They GAVE Steven a prize. (5)a.They GAVE a prize to Steven.

b. I LL BUY you some toys. b. I LL BUY some toys for you.
c. Ed HAS SAVED me a place.
c. Ed HAS SAVED a place for me.
Note that with ditransitives, a PP follows the direct object NP as in
(5)a-c is part of the complementation of the verb. With monotransitives,
however, when a PP follows the direct object NP as in (8)a, it is only an
optional modifier.
11.3.3 The Prepositional Object (prepO, for short) contains to
when the participant is Recipient and for when it is Beneficiary and this
difference is determined by the verb.
Verbs which take Recipient Indirect Objects and alternative to
prepOs are typically verbs of transferring goods, services or information
from one person to another. They include:
give
grant hand leave offer owe
pass
promise read send show teach throw write
We are offering our clients a unique opportunity. ( to our clients)
He owes several people money. (to several people)
I handed Jennifer the pile of letters. (to Jennifer)
He teaches medical students English. (to medical students)
Do you send your neighbours Christmas cards? (to your neighbours)
44

Verbs which take Beneficiary Indirect Objects, with alternative

for constructions, are verbs which carry out an action on someones behalf.
They include:
book bring build buy cash
get keep leave make pour

cut
fetch find
reserve save spare

write

Book me a seat on the night train. ( for me)

Would you cash me these traveler checks? (for me)
She cut the boy some slices of ham. (for the boy)
Ive kept you a place in the front row. (for you)
He got us a very good discount. (for us)
She made all the family a good paella. (for all the family)
Certain verbs such as bring, read and write admit either to or for as
alternatives, depending on the interpretation. With to as in bring it to me, read
it to me, write it to me, I receive the thing, either physically or mentally. With
for as in bring it for me, read it for me, write it for me, the thing is brought,
read or written on my behalf. [Downing and Locke, 1992: 87]
11.3.4 Structures with a ditransitive verb + its iO Recipient + its dO like
(5)a admit two passives while those with a ditransitive verb + its iO
Beneficiary + its dO like (5)b admit only one passive because Beneficiary
Objects do not easily become Subject in a passive clause, although this
restrictive is not absolute [Downing and Locke, 1992: 47]:
(5)a. A prize WAS GIVEN to Steven.
b. Some toys WILL BE BOUGHT for you.
c. A place HAS BEEN SAVED for me.
(5)a. Steven WAS GIVEN a prize.
b. *You WILL BE BOUGHT some toys.
c. ?I HAVE BEEN SAVED a place.
11.3.5 A number of ditransitive verbs take a Direct Object + a
Predicator Complement. Usually only the Object constituent can
become Subject in a passive clause Both Direct and Indirect Objects share
this potential. [Downing and Locke, 1992: 88] The following underlined
items in (6)a-b meet this requirement to be called an Object; however, they
45

do not fulfil the second criterion for Indirect Objects, that of substitution
by a phrase with to or for as in (6)a-b. We will therefore call them Direct
Objects:
(6)a. WeLL ALLOW everybody a ten minute break.
b. The shop assistant CHARGED me too much for the toothpaste.
(6)c. Everybody WILL BE ALLOWED a ten minute break.
d. I WAS CHARGED too much for the toothpaste.
(6)e.*We WILL ALLOW a ten minute break to everybody.
f.*The shop assistant CHARGED too much to me for the toothpaste.
Neither the word group in bold in (6)a-b are Indirect Objects
because they cannot become Subject in a passive clause and there is no
prepositional alternative to the Object. [Downing and Lock, 1992: 89]
(6)g. *A ten minute break WILL BE ALLOWED to everybody.
h. *Too much WAS CHARGED to me for the toothpaste.
(6)i. *We WILL ALLOW everybody to a ten minute break.
j. *The shop assistant CHARGED me to too much for the toothpaste.
Downing and Locke [1992: 55-56, 88-92] call these obligatory
constituents that are not classed as Objects Predicator Complements
(predC, for short). Below are the verbs which take a Direct Object followed
by a Predicator Complement: allow, ask, bet, charge, cost, deny,
forgive, grudge, wish, refuse and empty uses of give. It is clear that
these verbs are not passivised. A few more examples are given below for
further consolidation:
S
NP

VP
Vgrp
[ditrans]

(7)a. He
b. He
46

WISHED
GAVE

NP[dO]

NP[predC]

me
the door

a happy day.
a push.

c. [Let]s
ASK
someone the way.
d. The bank
HAS REFUSED
me
a loan.
e. They
GRUDGED
him
his pocket money.
(7)a. *He WISHED a happy day to me.
b. *He GAVE a push to the door.
c. *Lets ASK the way to someone.
d. *The bank HAS REFUSED a loan to me.
e. *They GRUDGED his pocket money to him.
(7)a. *A happy day WAS WISHED to me.
b. *A push WAS GIVEN to the door.
c. * The way IS ASKED to someone.
d. *A loan HAS BEEN REFUSED to me.
e. *His pocket money WAS GRUDGED to him.
11.4 MONOTRANSITIVE (monotrans, for short) verbs/verb phrases
11.4.1 A monotransitive verb requires a single Noun Phrase to
complement it The NP that complements a transitive verb is said to
function as its DIRECT OBJECT (dO, for short) Since the Vgrp and the NP are
in functional relationship, the NP needs to be represented as a sister of the
Vgrp (and therefore as a daughter of the VP). [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 82]
S
NP

VP
Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP[dO]

(8)a. The police HAVE IDENTIFIED the victim.

b. I
USED TO SPEND
all my money.
c. The frost
HAS KILLED off
the bud.
11.4.2 The semantic role realised by the Direct Object can be realised
by the Subject in a passive clause After passivisation, the meaning remains
unchanged. [Downing and Locke, 1992: 41-42] A noun phrase is a typical
realization of the subject of a passive monotransitive verb which may be postmodified by AN OPTIONAL ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT (opA, for short) of Agent:
47

S
NP

VP
VP
Vgrp
[monotrans]

(8)a. The victim

HAS BEEN IDENTIFIED
b. All my money USED TO BE SPENT
c. The bud
HAS BEEN KILLED off

AdvP
[opA of Agent]
PP

by the police.
(by me).
(by the frost).

11.4.3 In some cases, a monotransitive verb must be complemented by

an obligatory adjunct (obA, for short). In (9)a-h, for example, the NP subject
refers to a doer of something must be [+animate] and [+human] and the
action done with intention must be expressed by a monotransitive verb which
is [+dynamic], [+active] and [+affecting]:
(9)a. He JUMPED the horse over the fence (obA of Path).
b. The sergeant MARCHED the soldiers along the road (obA of Path).
c. ILL WALK you home (obA of Terminus).
d. You COULD BRING it to the kitchen (obA of Terminus).
e. I always GET off /LEAVE the bus at 42nd street (obA of Location).
f. Liza HAS BEEN PUTTING the liquor under the bed (obA of Location).
g. She PLACED the baby on the blanket (obA of Location).
h. He PUT his arms around me (obA of Location)

and WALKED me away (obA of Direction).

Note that in his argument, which is an optional adverbial adjunct
of Location, can be easily removed from (10):
(10) He HAS JUMPED several steps (in his argument).

However, the removal of over the fence and along the road from
(9)a-b is impossible because these PPs are two obligatory adverbial
adjuncts of Path:
(9)a. *He JUMPED the horse.
b. *The sergeant MARCHED the soldiers.
48

The same result will be found out with (9)c-d, (9)e-g and (9)h when
they respectively lose their obligatory adverbial adjunct of Terminus,
Location or Direction:
(9)c. *ILL WALK you.
d. *You COULD BRING it.
e. *I always GET off /LEAVE the bus.
f. *Liza HAS BEEN PUTTING the liquor.
g. *She PLACED the baby.
h. *He [PUT his arms around me and] WALKED me.
As an obligatory adverbial adjunct of Terminus in (11)a, home
can neither be moved out of its fixed position at the end of this English
sentence, i.e. after the direct object you of the monotransitive verb
WALK. Thats why (11)b-c are not grammatically correct:
(11)a. ILL WALK you home.
b. *I home WILL WALK you.
c. *ILL home WALK you.
As an optional adverbial adjunct of Time in (12)a-c, soon is free to
move to other typically adverbial positions within a sentence:
c at the end of the sentence, i.e. after the complement (the direct
object, the indirect object, the subjective complement, or the objective
complement) of the lexical verb;
d after the NP subject; and
e after the auxiliary verb or the first auxiliary verb:
(12)a. ILL SEE you soon.
b. I soon WILL SEE you.
c. ILL soon SEE you.
The above illustrations prove that although it is not always easy to
distinguish obligatory adverbial adjuncts from optional adverbial adjuncts,
this can successfully be done with some care.
11.4.4 Certain verbs take an obligatory complement but do not
passivise or, if they do, the same relationship is not maintained. [Downing
and Locke, 1992: 55-56] This obligatory complement is called PREDICATOR
COMPLEMENT (predC, for short), which does not fulfill the criteria used to
define the two types of objects (i.e. the direct object and the
49

indirect object) and the two types of complements (i.e. the

subject(ive) complement and the object(ive) complement. The predC
follows one of the following subcategories of monotransitive verb:
(i) RELATIONAL VERBS: have, possess, lack, suit, contain and fit
(13)a. We HAVE plenty of time.
b. I DONT POSSESS any valuables.
c. His argument LACKS force.
d. WILL 5 oclock SUIT you?
e. This jar CONTAINS nails.
f. These gloves DONT FIT me.
(13)a.*Plenty of time IS HAD.
b. *No valuables ARE POSSESSED.
c. *Force IS LACKED by his argument.
d. *WILL you BE SUITED by 5 oclock?
e. *Nails ARE CONTAINED in this jar.
f. *I AM NOT FITTED by these gloves.
(ii) VERBS OF MEASUREMENT: measure, cost, take and weigh
(13)g. The window MEASURED 1m by 2m.
h. Each ticket COSTS two dollars.
i. This suitcase WEIGHS 20 kilos.
j. The flight to Tokyo TOOK 21 hours.
(13)g. *1m by 2m WAS MEASURED by the window.
h. *Two dollars ARE COST by each ticket.
i. *20 kilos ARE WEIGHED by this suitcase.
j. *21 hours WERE TAKEN by the flight to Tokyo.
(iii) VERBS OF EQUAL RECIPROCITY: marry and resemble
(13)k. Sam MARRIED Susan last May.
l. Joe RESEMBLES his father.
(13)k.*Susan WAS MARRIED by Sam last May.
l.*His father IS RESEMBLED by Joe.

50

(iv) VERBS completed by means of a finite or non-finite clause

which cannot be replaced by a noun phrase or by the pronoun it: complain,
wonder, fancy, bother, wish, etc.
(13)m. He COMPLAINS that he is never consulted about anything.
n. I WONDER if you would like to join us for tea.
o. Dont BOTHER [E] to clear away the dishes.
p. FANCY [E] getting into a panic over a silly thing like that.
(13)m. *That he is never consulted about anything IS COMPLAINED.
n. *If you would like to join us for tea IS WONDERED.
o. *[E] to clear away the dishes IS NOT BOTHERED.
p. *[E] Getting into a panic over a silly thing like that

IS FANCIED.

Note that:
c The sentences beginning with a star (*) are all grammatically incorrect.
d The reason for non-passivisation in examples such as these is that the
relationships expressed by these verbs are by nature not extensive. Verbs of
possession and non-possession (lack), of suitability, resemblance and
measure are essentially processes of being. And the semantic structure
shows that the nominals which follow them cannot be considered as
Direct Objects. [Downing and Locke, 1992: 56]
11.5 PREPOSITIONAL (prep, for short) verbs/verb phrases
Glance, reply, refer, and look are examples of PREPOSITIONAL
VERBSthey must be complemented by a Prepositional Phrase [BurtonRoberts, 1997: 90]. The PP that complements a prepositional Vgrp is called
A PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT (prepO, for short). Take glance, for example:
(14)a. *Max GLANCED.
b. *Max GLANCED the falling acrobat.
11.5.1 MONOTRANSITIVE PREPOSITIONAL (monotrans-prep, for
short) verbs/verb phrases
11.5.1.1 Prepositional verbs are counted as monotransitive (i.e.
what follows the verb is a Prepositional Object) if (a) their cohesion is such
that without the preposition the verb is either meaningless (e.g. account
51

for) or has a different meaning (e.g. allow, allow for); and (b) if the verb
can passivise with the completive of the preposition at Subject (The
loss cant be accounted for). In addition, such verbs can typically answer a
question beginning with what or wh(om) (What/Who must I see to?). A

short list of some common verbs of this kind is given below. Many verbs,
such as think or hear, admit more than one preposition with a slight
difference of meaning:
account
bank
admit
talk
aim
call
consent
about
allow
for
on
to
think
hope
count
keep
long
rely
resort
think
hear
dispose

believe
of

get
in

break

deal
at
reckon
with
hint
reason
[Downing and Locke, 1992: 75-76]

S
NP

VP
Vgrp
[monotrans-prep]

PP[prepO]

at the falling acrobat.

to cheating.
at me?
in him.
of/about changing her job.
of her art treasures.
on Kevin.
to the importance of exports.
with a strike.
with a critical client.
k. The Prime Minister CANT ACCOUNT for the loss of votes.

(15)a. Max
GLANCED
b. He
WOULD never RESORT
c. You
ARE HINTING
d. I
DONT BELIEVE
e. Linda
IS THINKING
f. She
HAS DISPOSED
g. You
CANT RELY
h. The minister REFERED
i. The organizers HADNT RECKONED
j. The manager IS DEALING

52

11.5.1.2 Some of the verbs in this case can be made passive. The
noun or noun phrase following the preposition in the active pattern becomes
the subject of the passive one:
S
NP

VP
Vgrp
[monotrans-prep]

(15)f. Her art treasures

HAVE BEEN DISPOSED of.
g. Kevin
CANT BE RELIED
on.
h. The importance of exports WAS REFERED to
i. A strike
HADNT BEEN RECKONED with
j. A critical client
IS BEING DEALT
with
k. The loss of votes
CANT BE ACCOUNTED for
11.5.2 DITRANSITIVE PREPOSITIONAL (ditrans-prep, for short)

verbs/verb phrases

11.5.2.1 Some prepositional verbs are ditransitive, i.e. what follow

the verb are a dO noun phrase and a prepO prepositional phrase. The
direct object is affected in some way by the action and the prepositional
object may be an entity, an abstraction or a situation [Downing and
Locke, 1992: 89].
S
NP

VP
Vgrp
[ditrans-prep]

NP[dO]

PP [prepO]

(16)a. They
BLAMED
the fire
on the gardener.
b. They
BLAMED
the gardener for fire.
c. That firm
SUPPLIES
the university with paper.
d. He
CONVINCED
the jury
of his innocence.
e. The government SHOULD INFORM the public of the consequences.
f. I
WILL INTRODUCE you
to my friends.
g. I
CONGRATULATED Janet
on her success.
53

h. It
REMINDS
me
of Italy.
i. They
ROBBED
her
of her watch and jewels.
11.5.2.2 The subject and the direct object of the verb may refer to
the same person, in which case a reflexive pronoun is used.
(16)k. Why DONT you HELP yourself to wine?
l. He CONVINCED himself of the rightness of his actions.
11.5.2.3 Note that c both the NP direct object and the PP
prepositional object are obligatory in this case and that d the ditransitive
prepositional verb is frequently used in the passive, with the dO constituent
becoming the subject in the passive clause:
S
NP

VP

PP [prepO]

Vgrp
[ditrans-prep]

(16)a. The fire

WAS BLAMED
on the gardener.
b. The gardener WAS BLAMED
for fire.
c. The university IS SUPPLIED
with paper.
d. The jury
WAS CONVINCED of his innocence.
e. She
WAS ROBBED
of her watch and jewels.
f. The public SHOULD BE INFORMED of the consequences.
g. You
WILL BE INTRODUCED to my friends.
h. Janet
WAS CONGRATULATED on her success.
i. I
AM REMINDED
of Italy.
11.5.2.4 Some of the verbs taking this construction are listed here
according to preposition [Downing and Locke, 1992: 89]:

for

from

of

blame pervert accuse

thank protect convict
convince
deprive
remind
rob
54

to

with

on

in

confine
charge blame
interest
help
compare compliment
introduce supply
congratulate
refer
sentence
treat

11.6 INTRANSITIVE (intrans, for short) verbs/verb phrases

11.6.1 An intransitive verb does not require any further constituent as
sister in the VP [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 83]. In other words, verbs used
intransitively dont take objects. [Jacobs, 1995: 247]
S

NP

VP

NP

VP

Vgrp
[intrans]

Vgrp
[intrans]

(17)a. Phil
SUNBATHED. (17)i. We
RE GOING TO EAT out.
b. The ball
ROLLED.
j. Phil
HAS SHOWN off.
c. The door
WONT OPEN.
k. My children HAVE GROWN up.
d. Lightning
FLASHED.
l. That old man DOES CARRY on.
e. The Bengal tiger DIED.
m. Her father PASSED away.
f. Nobody
APPEARED.
n. Nobody
TURNED up.
g. A tourist
COLLAPSED.
o. A tourist
FELL down.
h. One of the tires EXPLODED.
p. One of the tires BLEW out.
11.6.2 An intransitive verb is frequently modified by one or more
optional adverbial adjuncts (opA, for short). Adjuncts provide circumstantial
information about the action, process or event talked about in the clause in
which they occur. Circumstantial information includes information about the
place, time, manner, etc. of the action, process or event. [Jackson, 1980: 25]
They commonly are in form of adverbs or adverb phrases, prepositional
phrases, infinitive phrases, participial phrases and subordinate
clauses.
S

NP
PropN

NP

VP1
VP2
Vgrp
[intrans]

AdvP
[opA of Location]
PP

VP1
AdvP
VP2
[opA of Manner]
Vgrp
Adv
[intrans]

(18)a. Phil SUNBATHED beside a stream. (18)b. A tourist suddenly COLLAPSED.

55

11.6.3 Adverbial adjuncts are usually CIRCUMSTANTS or NONINHERENT ROLES [Halliday, 1970: 150], i.e. they optionally occur in a large
number of VPs; they can be omitted without disturbing the grammaticality of
the whole VPs that include them. However, they are ACTANTS or INHERENT
ROLES, i.e. their occurrence is obligatory in other VPs, when they accompany
a number of verbs:
(i) INTRANSITIVE VERBS of movement , in many cases together the
manner of moving, such as race, creep, slip, slide, flow, steal, walk,
stroll, trudge, run, plunge, swim, fly, sail, ride, etc. typically require an
obligatory adverbial adjunct of Location, Source, Direction, Terminus
or Path [Biber et al, 1999: 143]; [Downing and Locke, 1992: 56]:
(19)a. A veiled moon RODE in the high heavens (Location).
b. A large policeman WAS WALKING round the corner (Path).
c. An old man STROLLED towards the bar (Direction).
d. We STOLE out of the lecture-room (Source).
e. The students RACED across the campus (Path).
f. The boys TRUDGED up the steep path (Direction).
g. The ship SAILED out of the harbor (Source).
h. ILL SLIP into something more comfortable (Terminus).
of position or existence such as stand,
live, hang, stretch, etc. typically require an adverbial adjunct of
Location [Downing and Locke, 1992: 74].
(20)a. The National Theater STANDS near the river (Location).
b. Your rain coat IS HANGING in the hall (Location).
c. Her paintings HANG in the National Gallery (Location).
d. A vast plain STRETCHES below the castle (Location).
e. The book IS still SITTING on my shelf (Location).
f. There EXISTS a king in Sweden (Location).
g. One of the biggest men Id ever seen WAS LYING
on the beach (Location).
h. The baby WAS LYING on his front (Location Manner).
(ii)

56

INTRANSITIVE VERBS

of occurrence such as break out, pick

up, take place, emerge, arise, ascend, follow, etc. typically require an
adverbial adjunct of Location, Source, Extent in Time, Point of Time,
Manner or Role:
(21)a. The market PICKS up in the spring (Point of Time).
b. A desperate hope AROSE somewhere deep inside her (Location).
c. No new evidence EMERGED during the enquiry (Extent in Time).
d. The funeral TOOK PLACE on 24 April at 3pm (Point of Time).
e. The mist ASCENDED from the valley below (Source).
f. Rioting BROKE up between rival groups of fans (Location).
g. He EMERGED as leader at the age of thirty (Manner or Desguise).
h. [I dont see] how that FOLLOWS (Manner).
(iii)

INTRANSITIVE VERBS

11.6.4 Two obligatory adverbial adjuncts may co-occur in a VP of this

type, usually an obligatory adjunct of Terminus following one of
Direction:
(22)a. The diver PLUNGED down (Direction)
to the bottom of the sea (Terminus).
b. The frightened villagers RAN out (Direction) into the field (Terminus).
c. The fully recovered whale SWAM out (Direction)
to the open sea (Terminus).

An obligatory adjunct of Path sometimes precedes one of Terminus:

(22)d. The Thames FLOWS through London (Path)
to the North Sea (Terminus).
11.7 Summary of the classification of English verbs/verb phrases:
c INTENSIVE [intens]:
SVsP/sC:
The reason
WAS
simple. (attributive)
Mary
IS
the most beautiful girl. (identifying)
The truck drivers ARE
on strike. (circumstantial)
subject Vgrp subject predicative/subject(ive) complement
S
[intens]
sP/sC
57

d COMPLEX TRANSITIVE [complex]:

SVdOoP/oC:
HOLD your hand tight.
He CALLED her
an angel.
I
PREFER it
with water.
the team what it is today.
He MADE
subjectVgrpdirect objectobject predicative/object(ive) complement
S
[complex]
dO
oP/oC
e DITRANSITIVE [ditrans]:
ea. SVdOiO: I LL ORDER
a taxi
for you.
subject Vgrp direct object to/for indirect object
[ditrans]
dO
iO
S
eb. SViOdO: I
GAVE
Esther
a present.
subject Vgrp indirect object direct object
[ditrans]
iO
dO
S
ec. SVdOpredC: It
COST
John an effort.
subject Vgrp direct object predicator complement
S [ditrans]
dO
predC
f MONOTRANSITIVE [monotrans]:
fa. SVdO: I VE SEEN
that film.
I RAN across a former school friend.
subject Vgrp direct object
[trans]
dO
S
fb. SVdOobA: You COULD BRING it
to the kitchen.
subjectVgrpdirect objectobligatory adjunct
S [monotrans]
dO
obA of Terminus
fc. SVpredC: The window MEASURED 1m by 2m.
Sam MARRIED
Susan
(last May).
subjectVgrppredicator complement(opA of Time)
S
[trans]
predC

58

g PREPOSITIONAL [prep]:
ga. MONOTRANSITIVE PREPOSITIONAL [monotrans-prep]:
SVprepO: Max GLANCED at the falling acrobat.
subject Vgrp prepositional object
S [montrans-prep]
prepO
gb. DITRANSITIVE PREPOSITIONAL [ditrans-prep]:
SVdOprepO:They BLAMED
the fire on the gardener.
of the time.
He REMINDED her
subjectVgrpdirect objectprepositional object
S [ditrans-prep] dO
prepO
h INTRANSITIVE [intrans]:
ha. SV: He TURNED UP (= appeared).
He IS LYING (= is telling lies).
subjectVgrp
[intrans]
S
hb. SVobA: He IS LYING in a hammock.
subject Vgrp obligatory adjunct
S
[intrans] obA of Location
11.8 Troublesome verbs
A verb can belong to various sub-categories, making it rather difficult
to identify its major functions in English sentences. Feel, stretch, erupt, stay,
sound, appear and make are among these troublesome verbs:
(23)a. The trumpet SOUNDED. (sounded = gave out a sound or sounds)
S
Vgrp
[intrans]

b. The doctor SOUNDED the patients chest. (sounded sth = tested sth)
S
Vgrp
dO
[monotrans]

c. She SOUNDED just the person we need for the job.

opA of Degree of Certainty
S Vgrp
sP/sC
[intens]

(sounded = gave a specific impression when heard that she is just )

59

(24)a. The water FEELS warm.

Vgrp sP/sC
S
[intens]

(feels warm = is warm, is in a specified physical state referred to as warm)

b. I COULD FEEL the tension in the room.
S Vgrp
dO
[monotrans]
(feel sth = be aware of sth, experience sth)
(25)a. The long summer holiday STRETCHED ahead of them.
S
Vgrp
obA of Location
[intrans]

(stretched = spread out over an area or a period of time)

b. The pullover STRETCHED after I had worn it a few times.
S
Vgrp
opt Adjunct of Time
[intrans]

(stretched = was elastic, became longer, wider, etc. without breaking)

(26)a. Violence HAS ERUPTED on the street.
S
Vgrp
obA of Location
[intrans]
(has erupted = has broken out suddenly and violently)
b. The demonstration ERUPTED into violence.
S
Vgrp
prepO
[monotrans-prep]
(erupted = suddenly changed)
(27)a. I HAVE TO APPEAR
in court
on a charge of drunken driving.
S
Vgrp
obA of Location
opA of Reason
[intrans]

(appear = arrive/ present myself publicly and formally at the court)

b. The street APPEARED deserted.
S
Vgrp
sP/sC
[intens]

(appeared deserted = seemed (to be) or gave the impression of being deserted)

60

(28)a. The doctor CAN only STAY the progress of this disease.
opA of Manner
S
Vgrp
dO
[monotrans]
(stay = delay, make (sth) slower)
b. They STAYED friends for years. (stayed = remained)
Vgrp sP/sC opA of Extent in Time
S
[intens]

(29)a. I LL MAKE some tea.

S
Vgrp
dO

b. I LL MAKE
S Vgrp

[monotrans]

a pizza for you.

dO
iO

[ditrans]

(make sth [for sb] = prepare sth [for sb])

c. I LL MAKE the question easy.
dO
oP/oC
S Vgrp
[complex]

(make the question easy = cause the question to become easy)

d. They MAKE a good couple.
S Vgrp
sP/sC
[intens]

(make = are or become)

_________________

12 Types of clause links

Clauses can be linked to each other in a variety of ways. Among the
principal types of structural links are

coordinators as in (1)a-b,

subordinators as in (2)a-b, wh- words as in (3)a-b, and complementizers

as in (4)a-c. There may be no clause link at all as in (5):
(1)a. The doctor WAS tired, and he just SAID nothing.
b. I LIKE you very much, but I DONT LOVE you.
(2)a. He WAS SCREAMING because he HAD TO GO home.
b. Since nobody WAS there, I LEFT for home too.
61

(3)a. They HAD no idea what it WAS.

b. The two people who FOUND it
ARE EXPECTED to receive the value of the brooch.

(4)a. For Sharons car TO BREAK down WOULD BE unfortunate.

b. The police REPORTED that Sharons car HAD BROKEN down.
c. That the problem IS immense IS obvious.
(5) I KNOW. I SAW it this morning. ItS really smart, ISnt it?
_________________

13 Types of clauses
13.1 Finite clauses vs. non-finite clauses
The distinction between finite and non-finite clauses depends on
the form of the verb chosen: If the speaker wishes to express tense,
person or number, a finite form of the verb is chosen, such as eats, locked,
went and the clause is then called a finite clause. [Downing and Locke,
1992: 11]
All of THE FOLLOWING VERB FORMS, which are capitalized, and
therefore the following clauses, are finite:
(1) She BROKE the dish.
(2) He HAS GONE.
(3) It IS unnecessary.
Accordingly, if the verb form does not express this type of information
about the verbal process, the verbs and the clauses are classed as nonfinite. In the following non-finite clauses, THE NON-FINITE VERB FORMS
are capitalized and italicized:
(4)a. For Sandra TO DELAY her graduation IS unnecessary. (to-infinitive)
b. I LET him DO it by himself. (bare infinitive)
c. Mary DOESNT TOLERATE

Anna CHATTING with the construction workers.(active present participle)

d. He LEFT me STUNNED. (passive past participle)
e. The light HAVING GONE out, we LIGHTED candles.
(active perfect participle)

62

Briefly, a non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite

(tenseless) Verb group. MAIN clauses are always finite. So non-finite
clauses can only be SUBORDINATE. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 250]
13.2 Independent clauses vs. dependent clauses
A necessary distinction is that between INDEPENDENT CLAUSES, which
are also called MAIN CLAUSES, and DEPENDENT CLAUSES (which can be
subdivided into EMBEDDED CLAUSES and SUBORDINATE CLAUSES).
13.2.1 INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
A clause that can stand alone as a sentence is called a main clause or
sometimes an independent clause. The latter designation is often used
when the clause is the only one in its sentence. [Jacobs, 1995: 65]
An independent clause does not depend on another clause, although
it may be linked to another independent clause, or to a dependent clause
[Richards, Platt and Weber, 1987: 77]:
(1) Sharons car HAD BROKEN down, and this ASTONISHED the mechanic.
(2) Sharons car HAD BROKEN down before she ARRIVED at the airport.
An independent clause can be used on its own:
(3) Sharons car HAD BROKEN down.
(4) This ASTONISHED the mechanic.
(5) Sharon ARRIVED at the airport.
13.2.2 DEPENDENT CLAUSES
Dependent clauses, on the other hand, do not stand on their own as
sentences. [Jacobs, 1995: 65]
A dependent clause is a clause which must be used with
another clause to form a complete grammatical construction. It
depends on the other clause and is subordinate to it [Richards, Platt
and Weber, 1987: 77]:
(6) For Sharons car TO BREAK down WOULD BE unfortunate.
(7) The police REPORTED that Sharons car HAD BROKEN down.
(8) They MISSED the flight because Sharons car HAD BROKEN down.
Note that for and that in (6-7) have little or no special meaning of
their own, and they are referred to as complementizers while because in
63

(8) has a specific meaning, one something like the reasons is. Introducers
such as because, although, and since, all of which have quite specific
meanings, are subordinators.

Complementizers and subordinators are associated with two distinct

kinds of dependent clauses: EMBEDDED CLAUSES and SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.
Both kinds of clauses have a special slot before the subject, one in which the

complementizers and subordinators occur. This slot, known as the COMP slot
(after complementizer), turns out to be a very important one. [Jacobs,
1995: 65-66]
Note also that dependent clauses can be either finite as in (7-8) or
non-finite as in (6). Independent clauses can only be finite like (3-5).
13.3 Subordinate clauses vs. embedded clauses
According to Jacobs [1995: 66-69], the following difference between
embedded and subordinate clauses is an important one.
13.3.1 If embedded clauses are omitted from a sentence containing
them, the sentence is usually ungrammatical. This is because embedded
clauses are arguments of a higher predicate, very often the subjects or
objects of their container clauses. Any finite sentence that loses its subject
or object argument becomes ungrammatical. So the embedded clauses
are indispensable for grammaticality. [Jacobs, 1995: 68]
S
NP

VP

S[embedded finite clause]

COMP

Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP [dO]
DET
ART

N
headN

(1) That Sharons car HAD BROKEN down ASTONISHED the mechanic.

64

S
NP
DET
ART

VP
Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP [dO]
S[embedded finite clause]

headN
COMP

(2) The police REPORTED that Sharons car HAD BROKEN down.
13.3.2 Subordinate clauses, clauses with subordinators in the
COMP slot, differ from embedded clauses in that they are not required
arguments of a predicate. They are thus not used as subjects or objects
[Jacobs, 1995: 65]. Subordinate clauses are adjuncts which can be omitted
without making their sentence ungrammatical. Just as adverbs and prepositional
phrases can be omitted, so can subordinate clauses. [Jacobs, 1995: 68]
(3)a. The family returned to the villa after Sharons car HAD BROKEN down.
(4)a. Pavlova found the children where Sharons car HAD BROKEN down.
(5)a. Lord Aston only used his Rolls Royce if Sharon car BROKE down.
Note that non-finite subordinate clauses often lack an overt
subordinator [Jacobs, 1995: 67].
S

NP
PropN

VP1
AdvP
[optional Adjunct of Purpose]

VP2

S
Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP[dO]

[non-finite subordinate clause]

S

Comp
NP

VP

(6) She LOCKED the door so as [E] TO PREVENT any more intrusions.
(7) She LOCKED the door

[E] TO PREVENT any more intrusions.

65

Also note that the sentences marked (3-5)a are well-formed even without
their subordinate clauses, resulting in (3-5)b:
(3)b. The family RETURNED to the villa.
(4)b. Pavlova FOUND the children.
(5)b. Lord Aston only USED his Rolls Royce.
_________________

14 Covert subjects vs. overt subjects

14.1 All of the non-finite clauses in (1)a-e have an overt subject.
(1)a. For Sandra TO DELAY her graduation IS unnecessary. (to-infinitive)
b. I LET him DO it by himself. (bare infinitive)
c. Mary DOESNT TOLERATE
Anna CHATTING with the construction workers.
(active present participle)
d. He LEFT me STUNNED. (passive past participle)
e. The light HAVING GONE out, we LIGHTED candles.
(active perfect participle)
14.2 However, non-finite clauses frequently lack an overt subject
[Burton-Roberts, 1997: 250]. Consider the italicized non-finite clauses in
(2)a-d. They lack an overt subject and their non-finite verbs (to avoid,
chatting, pushing, and battered) are tenseless:
(2)a. Beth LEFT early so as [E] TO AVOID the police.
b. Anna ENJOYS [E] CHATTING with the construction workers.
c. [E] PUSHING him aside, Carol JUMPED onto the platform.
d. [E] BATTERED by the heavy storm,
the ship LIMPED into Southampton harbour.
A subject is always understood in the non-finite clauses. The
symbol [E] (for empty, covert, zero, or implicit) is used to mark where a
subject might occur if the grammar allows it. In (2)a-d, English
speakers understand Beth, Anna, Carol and the ship respectively to be the
subject of the four non-finite clauses [E]TO AVOID the police, [E]
CHATTING with the construction workers, [E] PUSHING him aside and
[E] BATTERED by the heavy storm. Such understood though not
physically present subjects are referred to as covert subjects.
66

Covert subjects are cognitively real, that is, real in the English
speakers consciousness, despite the lack of words standing for them.
[Jacobs, 1995: 72]
Although the non-finite clauses in (2)c-d seem like modifiers of the
noun phrase following them, both their position and their function show that
they are not. They are non-finite subordinate clauses marking a perspective.
Sometimes, a more explicit marking of perspective appears:
After [E] BEING BATTERED by the heavy storm,
the ship LIMPED into Southampton harbour. [Jacobs, 1995: 72]
_________________

15 Types of finite dependent clauses

A finite dependent clause contains a verb phrase which is marked

for tense or modality. There is regularly a subject except under conditions of
ellipsis. Finite dependent clauses are regularly marked by a clause link
[Biber et al, 1999: 193]
Finite dependent clauses may be either subordinate or
embedded. Below are some common finite dependent clauses.
15.1 Nominal clauses
A nominal clause can be the subject, the direct object, the indirect
object, the retained object, the subjective complement, the objective
complement or the complement of a preposition in an English sentence:
(1)a. That rain MAY FALL in deserts IS true.
b. They BELIEVE that the minimum wage COULD THREATEN their jobs.
c. She GIVES whomever she MEETS a warm greeting.
d. I AM always GIVEN whatever IS the cheapest.
e. My question IS whether (or not) you WILL PAY for such a loss.
f. We HAVE MADE them what they ARE.
g. WeD LIKE to work with whom we CONSIDER the best.
15.2 Relative clauses

relative

clause,

also called an adjectival clause, is

characteristically a post-modifier in a noun phrase. It is introduced by a
67

wh-word, which has a grammatical role in the relative clause in addition to

its linking function [Biber et al, 1999: 195]. Relative clauses may be either
restrictive as in (2)a or non-restrictive as in (2)b.
(2)a. We HAVE 30 men who ARE WORKING from 6am to 11pm.
b. He WANTED the public not to approach the men,

who ARE armed and dangerous.

15.3 Adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses are used as adverbials in the main clause,
generally as circumstance adverbials they are optional and have some
freedom of positioning; both initial and final placement are common.
Adverbial clauses are regularly marked by a subordinator indicating the
relationship to the main clause. [Biber et al, 1999: 194]
(3)a. Most ions ARE colorless, although some HAVE distinct colors.
b. If you ARE in a hurry, you CAN LEAVE.
15.4 Reporting clauses
A reporting clause, which accompanies direct reports of somebodys
speech or thought, may be placed in initial, medial, or final position
[Biber et al, 1999: 196]:
(4)a. They SAID, Yes, sir, and saluted.
b. Please come too, she BEGGED.
c. Everything, he SAID, is snafu.
15.5 Comment clauses
Comment clauses are similar in structure to reporting clauses: they
are loosely connected to the main clause, they normally lack explicit link, and
they are usually short and can appear in a variety of position They are
usually in the present rather than the past tense, first or second rather than
third person, and comment on a thought rather than the delivery of a
wording [Biber et al, 1999: 197]:
(5)a. MIND you, he was probably still as sound as a bell.
b. The conclusion, it SEEMS, is intolerable.
c. Its a nice approach, I THINK.
_________________

68

16 Types of non-finite clauses

Non-finite clauses are regularly dependent. They are more
compact and less explicit than finite clauses; they are not marked for tense
and modality, and they frequently lack an explicit subject and
subordinator. [Biber et al, 1999: 198]
Below are some main types of non-finite clauses, each containing a
different type of verb phrase:
16.1 Infinitive non-finite clauses
16.1.1 An infinitive non-finite clause can play the role of a nominal
to be:
the subject: [E]TO DENY that gift IS to deny Gods will.
the extra-posed subject: It IS NOT easy [E]TO MAINTAIN a friendship.
the direct object: I HATE [E]TO SEE that.
the subjective complement: My goal now IS [E]TO LOOK to the future.
16.1.2 An infinitive non-finite clause can play the role of an
adverbial to be:
the adjunct of purpose:
[E]TO SUCCEED again they WILL HAVE to improve their fitness.
the adjective complement:
That old man IS a bit afraid [E]TO GO into hospital.
16.1.3 An infinitive non-finite clause can play the role of an
adjectival to be:
the post-nominal modifier:
He IS the third man [E]TO BE MURDERED right on this corner.
the objective complement:
Some of these issues dropped out of Marxs later works because
he CONSIDERED them [E]TO HAVE BEEN satisfactorily dealt with.
16.2 Gerund non-finite clauses can only play the role of a nominal to be:
the subject: [E] HAVING a fever IS unpleasant.
69

 The extra-posed subject:

There are only around five tons of newsprints left and
itS very difficult [E] GETTING supplies into Sarajevo.
the direct object: I STARTED [E]THINKING about Christmas.
the subjective complement: The real problem IS
[E] GETTING something done about the cheap imports.
the complement of a preposition: I EARN my living by [E]TEACHING.
16.3 Participial non-finite clauses
16.3.1 A Participial non-finite clause, which is an ING clause, can
play the role of an adjectival to be the post-nominal modifier:
There WERE two cars [E] COMING down the road.
16.3.2 A Participial non-finite clause, which is an ING clause, can
play the role of an adverbial to be:
the circumstance adjunct: He STOOD on the veranda,
[E] LISTENING to the wind.
the adjective complement: It MIGHT BE worth
[E] GIVING him a bell to let him know whats happening.
16.3.3 A participial non-finite clause, which is an ED clause, can
play the role of a nominal to be the direct object: God, youve gone mad
with the sugar in yours. DO you WANT itTOPPED up?
16.3.4 A participial non-finite clause, which is an ED clause, can
play the role of an adverbial to be:
the circumstantial adjunct:
When [E]TOLD by the police how badly injured his victims were
he SAID: Good, I hope they die.
the adjective complement: That old man IS a bit afraid
[E]TO GO into hospital.
16.3.5 A participial non-finite clause, which is an ED clause, can
play the role of an adjectival to be the post-nominal modifier:
There WASNT a scrap of evidence
to link him with the body [E] FOUND on the Thames at low tide.
70

16.4 Verbless clauses

Among non-finite clauses may also be verbless clauses such as:
- She HAD also BEEN TAUGHT, when in difficulty, to think of a good
life to imitate.
- Although not a classic, this 90-minute video IS worth watching.
_________________

17 Classification of sentences according to their structure

In many traditional grammars three major sentence types are
distinguished. A simple sentence consists of a single clause that stands alone
as it own sentence. In a coordinate sentence (called compound in
traditional grammars), two or more clauses are joined by a conjunction in a
coordinate relationship. A complex sentence combines two (or more) clauses
in such a way that one clause functions as a grammatical part of the other
one. [Finegan, 1994: 122]
17.1 The following are a number of typical examples of simple sentences.
S

NP

VP

(1)a. Tom
DISAPPEARED.
CREPT into a cave.
b. He
IS GOING TO BUY a car.
c. My father
d. The flight to Tokyo TOOK 21 hours.
CAN RELY on Gina.
e. You
HAD GIVEN her a ring.
f. Ed
WILL ALLOW everyone a ten-minute break.
g. We
HAS MADE Susan angry.
h. Albert
IS unhappy.
i. Susan
Each of the above sentences contains a VP. The VP contains a Vgrp.
The Vgrp can consist of a single word (as in disappear, crept, took, and is)
or of more than one word (as in is going to buy, can rely, had given, will
allow, and has made). In English and in many other languages, the central
element in a clause is the verb; each clause and therefore each simple
sentence contains just one verb. [Finegan, 1994: 119]
71

17.2 The following are a number of typical examples of compound sentences.

S3

Conj

S1
NP1

VP1

S2
NP2

VP2

(2)a. Karen ASSEMBLED the new grill and Joe COOKED the hot dogs.
b. She
IS rich and famous
but I
DONT FIND her talented.
c. You SHOULD TRY to work hard or you LL GET fired.
d. Roses
ARE red
but violets ARE blue.
Each of the above sentences consists of two clauses joined by a word
such as and, but, or or, which are called coordinating conjunctions, or
simply conjunctions The clauses in a coordinate sentence hold equal status.
Neither clause is part of the other clause, and each could stand by itself as an
independent sentence. [Finegan, 1994: 119]
It is necessary to confirm that in the above examples and, but, or or
does not form a constituent with either of the clauses it conjoins.
Last but not least, co-ordinate constructions are not limited to two items
of equal value:
S5
S1

Conj

S2

Conj

S3

Conj

S4

(2)e. Roses ARE red but violets ARE blue and sugar IS sweet and so ARE you.
17.3. The following are a number of typical examples of complex sentences.
(3)a. If you WASH the sweater, it WILL STRETCH.
b. An aquarium IS a place in which fish IS KEPT.
c. While he WAS SITTING in his chair, he HEARD a noise

which SEEMED TO COME from a distance.

72

d. Although I DID NOT WANT to leave my bed, the wind BLEW so strong

that I WAS at last COMPELLED to get up to shut the window.

Unlike coordinate sentences, which contain clauses of equal status,
complex sentences contain clauses of unequal status. In the complex
sentence we have been examining, one clause is subordinate to another
clause and function as a grammatical part of that clause. We call the
subordinate clause an embedded clause and the clause into which it is
embedded a matrix clause. Every subordinate clause is by definition
embedded in a matrix clause, in which it serves in a grammatical function
such as subject, direct object, or adverbial. [Finegan, 1994: 122]
Complex sentences contain sentences inside them Embedded
clauses typically function as subjects and direct objects and as sentenceadverbial phrases. [Kaplan, 1989: 267]
17.3.1 EMBEDDED NOMINAL CLAUSES (EmNCl, for short):
17.3.1.1 The subject can be realised by either a finite clause or a
non-finite clause. Constituents functioning as subjects are always analysed
as NPs [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 197], so we shall analyse any clausal subject
as dominated by NP.
17.3.1.1.1 Subject finite clauses can be that-clauses or Wh-

clauses, i.e. finite clauses preceded by either the introductory word that or
the subordinate conjunction what, where, when, why, who, how, etc. This
construction is generally used in formal written English [Stanley, 1989: 2]:
S1
NP1

Comp

VP1

S[finite clause]
S2
NP2

VP2

(4)a. That the problems ARE immense

b. That rain

MAY FALL

c. That Einstein

IS

d. That he

FAILED to

in deserts

a great scientist
turn up

IS obvious.
IS true.
IS understandable.
SURPRISED nobody.
73

e. That Columbus WAS an Italian

IS sometimes DISPUTED.

f. That the computer revolution IS in its infancy frequently ESCAPES comment.

(5)a. Whether it IS CAUSED by rain or wind
b. How they MANAGED to survive

IS unknown.
IS a mystery.

c. When it WAS DONE

SEEMS quite obvious to me.

d. Where he GOES

IS no business of yours.

e. Why the library WAS CLOSED for months WAS NOT EXPLAINED.
f. What he SAID

SHOCKED me.

g. When I GO

DEPENDS on when the train leaves.

17.3.1.1.2 When the introductory expression the fact that

replaces the introductory word that as in (4)a-f, the EmNCl is syntactically
changed to a finite adjectival that-clause being the obligatory complement
of the NP the fact:
S1

NP1
S[finite that-clause]

NP
DET

VP1

N Comp

ART headN

(4)a. The fact

b. The fact
c. The fact
d. The fact
e. The fact
f. The fact

S2
NP2

VP2

that the problems ARE immense

IS obvious.
that rain
MAY FALL in deserts
IS true.
that Einstein IS a great scientist IS understandable.
that he
FAILED to turn up SURPRISED nobody.
that Columbus WAS an Italian IS sometimes DISPUTED.
that the computer revolution IS in its infancy
frequently ESCAPES comment.

17.3.1.1.3 Subject non-finite clauses are of two types,

depending on the VG (verbal group) they contain: to-infinitive, which can
be introduced by a Wh-word, and ing clauses. Bare infinitive clauses
(without to) occur as Subject only in equative (Wh-cleft) sentences:
74

[E]8TO TAKE such a risk WAS rather foolish. (to-inf. clause)

Where [E] TO LEAVE the dog IS the problem. (Wh + to-inf. clause)
[E] RUN for President

IS what he may do. (bare inf. clause)

[E] HAVING TO GO back for the tickets WAS a nuisance.

(ing clause)

To-infinitive and ing clauses at Subject can have their own

Subject; bare infinitive clauses cannot. A to-infinitive clause with its
own Subject must be introduced by for:
S1
NP1

VP1

S [non-finite clause]

[intens]

S2

Comp
NP2

Vgrp

AP/NP[sP/sC]

VP2

For everyone TO ESCAPE

WAS practically impossible.
Sam HAVING TO GO back for the tickets WAS a nuisance.
The Pronominal Subject of an ing clause can be in the
possessive or the objective case. The objective form is the less formal:
Him/His HAVING TO GO back for the tickets WAS a nuisance.
Of all embedded clauses, only that-clauses introduced by the fact, finite
nominal relative clauses and non-finite ing clauses are sufficiently
nominal to be able to invert with the operator in interrogative clauses:
DID what he SAID SHOCK you?
WAS Sam HAVING TO GO back for the tickets a nuisance?
8

Note that [E] is the symbol to stand for the empty/covert/zero/implicit subject in
non-finites clauses.
75

*WAS TO TAKE such a risk rather foolish?

*DID that he FAILED to turn up SURPRISE everybody?
DID the fact that he FAILED to turn up SURPRISE everybody?
[Downing and Locke, 1992: 34-35]
17.3.1.1.4 Examples such as that he failed to turn up
surprised nobody and for everyone to escape was practically
impossible have as an alternative structure the following:
It surprised nobody that he failed to turn up.
It was practically impossible for everyone to escape.
in which the finite or non-finite clause realizing the Subject is said to
be extraposed, that is, placed after the Complement or Object. The initial
Subject position is filled, obligatorily, by the pronoun it (usually called
anticipatory it), acting as a kind of a substitute for the postponed Subject.
It is commonly used in both speech and writing, especially when the Subject
is longer than the Complement and is better placed at the end of the sentence,
in accordance with the information and stylistic principle of end-weight9.
[Downing and Locke, 1992: 35]
In other words, the extraposed subject has a clausal subject
displaced to the end of the sentence and explicit it in the normal subject
position, dominated directly by NP. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 198]

In any clause, elements are frequently of different size and complexity, or weight
There is a preferred distribution of elements in the clause in accordance with the weight
called the principle of end-weight: the tendency for long and complex elements to be
placed towards the end of a clause [Biber et al, 1999: 898]. Compare:
(1) I FOUND the man guilty.
(2) I FOUND guilty the man who has scars on his cheeks.

76

S1

PRO

NP1bis [real subject]

VP1

NP1
[anticipatory
subject]
Vgrp
[intens]

S[finite clause]
S2

AP/NP[sP/sC] Comp

VP2

NP2

(4)a. It

IS

b. It IS

obvious
true

(5)a. It

IS

unknown

b. It

IS

a mystery

that the problems

that rain
whether it

IS CAUSED

how they

MANAGED

IS a pity

(that) you

b. It

IS a bore

when people

IS no concern of mine when

IS time

immense.

MAY FALL

(6)a. It
c. It
d. It

ARE

in deserts.
by rain or wind.
to survive.

ARE LEAVING the

CANT MAKE UP

company.

their minds.

she DOES outside working hours.

he
STOPPED fooling around.

Note that the subjective complement of the copular verb be is, quite
often, realised by an NP, as in (6)a-d. Also note that embedded clausal
subjects can be extraposed from various sentence structures, with (S + be +
sP/sC) the most common:
(7)a. [E] TO SEE such poverty MAKES one sad.
a. It MAKES one sad [E] TO SEE such poverty.
(S + complex transV + dO + oP/oC)
b. Where you SIT DOESNT MATTER.
b. It DOESNT MATTER where you SIT . (S+ intranV)
c. (The fact) that the number-plate HAD BEEN CHANGED STRUCK me.
c. It STRUCK me that the number-plate HAD BEEN CHANGED.
(S + monotransV + dO)
d. (The fact) that you ARE LEAVING the company SHOULDNT COME as a surprise.
d. It SHOULDNT COME as a surprise (that) you ARE LEAVING the company.
(S + intensV + sP/sC)
77

17.3.1.2 The direct object (dO, for short) or the predicator

complement (predC, for short)10 can also be realised by either a finite
clause or a non-finite clause:
17.3.1.2.1 The dO/predC finite clause of a monotransitive
verb can be a that-clause or a Wh-clause. Since clausal functioning
objects in active sentences can become subject NPs in the passive, I shall
analyse them as being dominated by a NP node, just like the clausal
subjects. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 200]
S

Comp

S1
NP1

VP1
Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP[dO/predC]

Comp

S[finite clause]
S2
NP2

VP2

I
DO that?
b. HAVE you DONE
what
I
HAVE TOLD you?
c.
He DID NOT SEE where
I
HAD GONE.
d. They DID NOT REALISE how
we
DO it.
e.
I
DONT KNOW if/whether he
HAS DONE it yet.
f. The class DOESNT KNOW what time it
HAS TO BE in school.
g. Bill DISCOVERD
who
he HAD TO GIVE the money to.
h. The students HAVENT LEARNT which tutor they CAN RELY on.
i. The authorities CLAIM that everything possible HAS BEEN DONE.
j. They
FEAR
that there MAY BE no survivor.
k. Peter
DENIED
that he
HAD LEFT the light on all night.
l. We
REALISED that he
WAS just under great strain.
m. Officials ARGUE
that their public image
IS unfair.

(8)a. DO you UNDERSTAND why

10

78

Also see 6.2, 11.3.5, 11.4 and Downing and Locke [1992: 55-56] for further consideration.

Again, passivisation can be used to test whether or not an embedded

finite clause is a dO:
(9)a. Most people RECOGNISE that some form of taxation IS necessary.
b. That some form of taxation IS necessary IS RECOGNISED
by most people.
c. It IS RECOGNISED by most people that some form of taxation IS necessary.
(10)a. Nobody KNOWS whether it IS CAUSED by rain or wind.
b. Whether it IS CAUSED by rain or wind IS NOT KNOWN/IS unknown.
c. It IS NOT KNOWN/IS unknown whether it IS CAUSED by rain or wind.
For the passive construction with that-clauses, the semantically empty
pronoun it may be required with a verb of low communicative dynamism
like say [Downing and Locke, 1992: 43]:
(11)a. They SAY that he IS MOVING to New York.
b. It IS SAID that he IS MOVING to New York.
17.3.1.2.2 The dO/predC non-finite clause of a monotransitive
verb can be a Wh-clause:
NP1

S1

VP1

Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP[dO/predC]
S[non-finite clause]
S2

Comp
NP2

(8)k. The class

DOESNT KNOW

g. Bill DISCOVERD

VP2

what time [E]TO BE in school.

who

[E]TO GIVE the money to.

h. The students HAVENT LEARNT which tutor [E]TO RELY on.

The passive construction with the semantically empty pronoun it is also
preferred with that-clauses, either finite or non-finite:
79

(12)a. We HADNT DECIDED

b. It HADNT BEEN DECIDED

what we

OUGHT TO DO

what [E]

TO DO

what we

OUGHT TO DO

what [E]

TO DO

next.

next.
next.

next.

17.3.1.2.3 The dO/predC non-finite clause of a monotransitive

verb in this case is a to-infinitive or an ing form with a covert subject
which is the same as the subject of the main clause:
S1

NP1

VP1
Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP[dO/predC]
S[non-finite clause]
S2

Comp
NP2

VP2

(13)a. Bill
LIKES
[E] TO ARRIVE early for meetings.
b. The laboratories FAILED [E] TO PRODUCE useful results.
c. Jane
WANTS
[E] TO FINISH the job by tomorrow.
d. Peter
EXPECTS
[E] TO BE PROMOTED soon.
e. The janitor REFUSED
[E] TO LOCK the door.
(14)a. Peter
ENJOYS
[E] PLAYING football.
b. Fred
STARTED
[E] ARGUING.
c. This airline WILL FINISH
[E] OPERATING next year.
d. I
CANT HELP
[E] THINKING he must be crazy.
e. The laboratories CEASED
[E] PRODUCING useful results.
Note that:
c Many dO/predC embedded clauses occur with either the toinfinitive or the ing form without changing their lexical meaning:
(15)a. Many Londoners PREFER [E] TO TRAVEL/TRAVELLING by train.
b. Mary
HATES
[E] TO DRIVE/DRIVING in the rush hour
c. Tom
LOVES
[E] TO DO/DOING the housework.
d. He DOESNT BOTHER
[E] TO CHANGE/CHANGING the sheets.
80

d After remember and forget, the contrast between the to-infinitive

or the ing form corresponds to a difference of meaning:
(13)f. I REMEMBERED [E] TO POST your letters.
(= I didnt forget to post them.)
(14)f. I REMEMBERED [E] POSTING your letters.
(= I recalled having posted them.)
e After need, require and want; the ing form of the verb can be
replaced by the passive to-infinitive:
(13)g. The children still NEED [E] TO BE LOOKED after.
(14)g. The children still NEED [E] LOOKING after.
f The verbs in this case cannot be made passive:
(13)f. *[E]TO POST your letters WAS REMEMBERED (by me).
(14)f. *[E] POSTING your letters WAS REMEMBERED (by me).
(13)g. *[E]TO BE LOOKED after IS still NEEDED (by the children).
(14)g. *[E] LOOKING after IS still NEEDED (by the children).
17.3.1.2.4 The dO/predC non-finite clause of a monotransitive
verb in this case is a to-infinitive or an ing clause with an overt/explicit
subject of its own:
S1

NP1

VP1
Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP[dO/predC]

Comp

S[non-finite clause]
S2
NP2

VP2

(16)a. Tony PREFERS

his wife/her
TO DO the house work.
b. The boss LIKED
the staff/them TO ARRIVE early for work.
c. Julia HATES
her husband/him TO LOSE his temper.
d.The teacher WANTS her class/them TO FINISH the job by Friday.

81

(17)a. I
DONT LIKE him/John
INTERUPTING all the time.
him/her
COMING home late.
b. Jill HATES
c. We ANTICIPATED her/Mary(s) TAKING over the business.
d. The employers RESENTED the staff(s)/their BEING CONSULTED.
Note that c the overt subject of the non-finite clause must be an object
personal pronoun (e.g. him, her, and them), a noun phrase (e.g. the staff) or a
possessive (e.g. Marys, their, and her) and that d the verbs in (17)e cannot
normally be made passive while some of the verbs in (16)e can:
(16)e. I EXPECT the parcel TO ARRIVE tomorrow.
e. The parcel IS EXPECTED TO ARRIVE tomorrow.
(17)e. I DISLIKE us/our WORKING late at night.
e. *Our WORKING late at night IS DISLIKED (by us).
Also note that e many dO/predC embedded clauses occur with an
overt subject of their own; otherwise their cover subject is the same as
that of the main clause:
(18) a. The villagers
WANT
a. The villagers
WANT
DONT MIND
b. I
DONT MIND
b. I
c. He
HATES
HATES
c. He

the soldiers TO LEAVE immediately.

[E] TO LEAVE immediately.
[E] WAITING a few minutes.
me WAITING a few minutes.
[E] TO TELL/TELLING lies.
people TO TELL/TELLING lies.

17.3.1.2.5 The dO/predC non-finite clause of a monotransitive

verb in this case is an ing clause with an overt subject of its own. Most of
the verbs in this case are verbs of perception. Of these, see, hear, feel,
watch, notice, overhear and observe also allow their dO/predC nonfinite clause to take a bare infinitive after its overt subject:

82

S1
NP1

VP1
Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP[dO/predC]
S [non-finite clause]
S2

Comp
NP2

(19)a. We
WATCHED
b. The porter HEARD
c. The children SAW
NOTICED
d. He
e. The rescuersFELT

the men
someone
the cat
a child
John

VP2

DESTROY(ING) the

furniture.
SLAM(MING) the door.
STEAL(ING) the meat.
ENTER(ING) the court.
LOS(ING) his grip of the rope.

Note that:
c The verbs in (19)a-e can be made passive:
(19)b. Someone WAS HEARD SLAMMING/TO SLAM the door (by the porter).
c. The cat WAS SEEN STEALING/TO STEAL the meat (by the children).
d The overt subject of the non-finite clause must be a noun
(e.g. John), a noun phrase (e.g. the cat) or an indefinite pronoun
(e.g. someone).
e The bare infinitive in the rescuers felt John lose his grip of rope
implies that John fully lost his hold of the rope while the rescuers were in
contact with him. The ing form in the rescuers felt John losing his grip of
rope does not imply that.
f Unfortunately, not all the dO finite or non-finite clause of the
active monotransitive verbs in the cases that have been presented so far can
become passive. With many verbs which do not passivise, the predication is
completed by means of a finite or non-finite clause. When this cannot be
replaced by a Nominal Group or by it, we classify it as Predicator
Complement [Downing and Locke [1992: 56], abbreviated as predC.

83

17.3.1.2.6 Many ditransitive verbs of communicating (assure,

inform, tell, notify, etc.) and of causing someone to think or believe or know
something (convince, persuade, remind, teach, etc.), and the performative
verbs such as bet, promise, and warn can take a dO finite that-clause
after an iO pronoun or noun phrase.
S1
NP1

VP1
Vgrp
[ditrans]

NP[iO]

NP[dO]
S[finite that-clause]

Comp

(20)a. The teacher ASSURED

b. I

BET

S2
VP2

NP2

us

that she

you

that no one WILL ACCEPT the offer.

c. He finally CONVINCED the jury that he

IS

WAS TELLING

d. The police NOTIFIED my friend that his car

e. They

PERSUADED

f. [E ]

REMIND

me

WAS

HAVE

HAS ever TOLD me

that I

feasible.

visitors tonight.

g. Experience HAS TAUGHT them that a back-up copy

h. No one

the truth.

HAD BEEN FOUND.

that the plan

your father that we

in no danger.

AM

IS essential.

beautiful.

17.3.1.2.7 Advise, ask, remind, show, teach, and tell are some
common ditransitive verbs which introduce indirect interrogatives. Most of
these can take a dO Wh-finite or non-finite clause after an iO pronoun or
noun phrase. Remind is commonly used with a non-finite.

84

S1
NP1

VP1
Vgrp
[ditrans]

NP[iO]

NP[dO]
S[(non-)finite clause]
S2

Comp
NP2

(21)a. I
b.

LL ASK
TELL

someone
me

c. No one CAN ADVISE you

d.

REMIND

me

e. Tom WILL SHOW you

VP2

who(m)

we

who(m)

[E]

TO GIVE

how

CAN SWITCH

how

[E]

what

you

what

[E]

TO DO.

when

[E]

TO SWITCH

where

you

CAN SEND

CAN GIVE

it to.

it to.
it on.

it on.

TO SWITCH

SHOULD DO.

it off.

it.

51.3.1.2.8 Indirect commands, requests and other directives are

introduced by the following ditransitive verbs: advise, allow, ask, beg,

challenge, enable, encourage, forbid, force, get, help, lead, order,

persuade, tell, trust, and urge. The direct object of a ditransitive verb
in this case is a to-infinitive non-finite clause with a covert subject
which has the same reference with the indirect object:

85

S1
NP1

VP1
Vgrp
[ditrans]

NP[iO]

NP[dO]
S[non-finite clause]
S2

Comp

VP2

NP2

(22)a.
TELL
the children [E] TO KEEP quiet!
URGED
his friend [E] TO GIVE UP drug.
b. He
c. An unexpected clue LED the police [E] TO SUSPECT a kidnap.
d. He
TOLD
us
[E] TO STAY.
e. She LL probably ASK you
[E] TO LEND her some money.
f. I CHALLENGE
you
[E] TO DISPROVE my argument.
g. This law WILL ENABLE elderly people [E] TO CLAIM higher position.
Note that c the indirect object refers to the person or people
addressed by the subject [Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 1992:
xxviii] and that d some ditransitive verbs in three following cases can be
made passive, with the indirect object of an active verb becoming the subject
of the passive one. Again, the dO (non-)finite clause can never become
the subject of the passive clause:
(20)i. Colleagues TOLD Paul that the job WOULDNT BE easy.
i. Paul WAS TOLD (by colleagues) that the job WOULDNT BE easy.
i. *That the job WOULDNT BE easy WAS TOLD (Paul by colleagues).
(21)f. The instructor TAUGHT the dancers how they SHOULD BREATHE.

how [E]

TO BREATHE.

f. The dancers WERE TAUGHT how they SHOULD BREATHE.

how [E]

TO BREATHE.

f. * How they SHOULD BREATHE WAS TAUGHT to the dancers.

*How [E] TO BREATHE
86

(22)h. He ADVISED her [E] TO SEE a doctor.

h. She WAS ADVISED to see a doctor (by him).
h. *[E] TO SEE a doctor WAS ADVISED (by him).
17.3.1.2.9 Below are a number of ditransitive verbs that take
an iO to-prepositional phrase first and later a dO which is a that-clause, a

finite or non-finite Wh-clause, or a non-finite clause containing or

consisting of a to-infinitive: confess, explain, point out, prove, indicate,
signal, acknowledge, admit, announce, declare, mention, propose,
recommend, remark, report, state, and suggest.
NP1

S1

Vgrp
[ditrans]

VP1
PP[iO]

NP[dO]
S[finite that-clause]
S2

Comp

VP2

NP2

(23)a. He

CONFESSED

to me

b. I

POINTED out to John

c. He

SIGNALED

to us

that he WAS extremely alarmed.

that few people WOULD AGREE.
that he

WOULD KEEP

quiet.

d. The employers ANNOUNCED to journalists

that the dispute HAD BEEN SETTLED.

e. The consultant RECOMMENDED to the employers

that new salary scales SHOULD BE INTRODUCED.

f. We CANT PROVE to the commission

that the effects ARE NOT harmful.

g. The garage EXPLAINED to customers

that the spare parts HAD NOT BEEN DELIVERD.

(24)a. He EXPLAINED to the staff how they SHOULD HANDLE complaints.

how [E]

TO HANDLE complaints.

b. You SHOULD INDICATE to the staff where they ARE TO ASSEMBLE.

where [E]

TO ASSEMBLE.

87

(25)a. He GESTURED to the students [E] TO STAND UP.

b. Fred SIGNALLED to the waiter [E] TO BRING another chair.
c. Stephen SHOUTED to the chairman [E] TO LET someone else speak.
d. A policeman MOTIONED to us [E] TO MOVE to the side of the road.
Note that:
c The iO prepositional phrases in (23)a-f and (24)a-b refer to the
person or people addressed by the subject while the iO prepositional
phrases in (25)a-d refer to the person or people to whom the subject is
calling or signalling.
d The Recipient indirect objects of these verbs can never become the
subject in a corresponding passive clause. Neither can their that-clause

direct objects:
(23)h. Sir Humphrey EXPLAINED to the Minister that delays MIGHT BE fatal.
h. *The Minister WAS EXPLAINED that delays MIGHT BE fatal.
h. *That delays MIGHT BE fatal WAS EXPLAINED to the Minister.
If a passive is required, some verbs allow an alternative structure with
the semantically empty pronoun it and an extraposed that-clause subject:
(23)h. It WAS EXPLAINED to the Minister that delays MIGHT BE fatal.
Below are two more examples to re-support the passive construction
with it.
(23)g. It WAS EXPLAINED to customers (by the garage)
that the spare parts HAD NOT BEEN DELIVERD.
(23)a. It WAS EXPLAINED to the staff how they SHOULD HANDLE complaints.

how [E]

TO HANDLE complaints.

e The sentences marked (25)a-d have no passive counterparts at all.

17.3.1.2.10 When the direct object of a complex transitive
verb is realised by a finite or non-finite clause, the semantically empty
pronoun it is also necessary as an anticipatory Direct Object before the
oP/oC adjective (phrase) in the Vgrp.
88

S1
NP1

PRO

VP1
Vgrp
PRO
AP[oP/oC]
[complex]
[anticipatory dO]
A

NP[dO]
S[(non-)finite clause]
S2

Comp

VP2

NP2

(26)a. I
b. I

FIND
CONSIDERS

it strange that he

REFUSES

to come.

it unlikely that the money WILL BE REFUNDED.

c. She MIGHT REGARD it insulting for you

d. You MUST FIND it flattering

[E]

TO LEAVE

now.

HAVING so

many fans.

17.3.1.3 The indirect object can also be realised by either a finite

clause or non-finite clause:
17.3.1.3.1 Both Recipient and Beneficiary indirect objects
can be realised by finite Wh-clauses:
(27)a. LEND whoever CALLS the bicycle pump in the shed.
b. SAVE whoever COMES the trouble of ringing.
c. GIVE whatever you THINK best priority.
d. She GAVE whomever she MET a warm greeting.
e. Jack MADE whoever CAME there the same offer.
17.3.1.3.2 Recipient indirect objects can also be realised by

non-finite ing clauses:

89

S1
NP1
PRO

VP1
Vgrp
[ditrans]

NP[iO]

NP[dO]

S[non-finite ing clause]

S2

Comp

VP2

NP2

(28)a. I M GIVING

b. He DID NOT GIVE

[E]
[E]

magazines much less time.

FINDING the cat
a second thought.
READING

17.3.1.4 The subject(ive) complement can also be realised by a

finite clause, as in (29)a-e, or a non-finite clause, as in (30)a-e.
Stageberg [1965: 198] believes that word groups as well as individual
words can be nominals, and they occupy the usual noun positions. The sP/sC
(non)finite clauses in italic and bold in the sentences marked (29)a-e are
nominals as far as Stagebergs belief is concerned, and thats why it is
possible to analyse them as being dominated by a NP node, just like the
clausal subjects and direct objects considered earlier.
However, Burton-Roberts [1997: 202] argues that with clausal
subject-predicatives, there is no motivation for having the clausal dominated
by NP. We have already allowed that a range of categories can function as
subject-predicatives (NP, AP, and PP), so there is no reason not to allow that
S can as well. Burton-Roberts argument is accepted to make the following
tree-diagrams a bit simpler:

90

S1
NP1

VP1
S[(non-)finite clause]

Vgrp
[intens]

Comp

[sP/sC]

S2
VP2

NP2

That

WAS

what I

THOUGHT

b.

She

BECAME

what she

HAD HOPED.

c.

She

HAS BECOME

d.

This

IS

how

you

e. Kens belief

IS

that

things CANT GET any worse.

(30) a. The best plan

IS

for

you TO GO by train.
others DOING the work.
[E] TELL him to go away.

(29)a.

b. What most people prefer IS

c. The only thing I did WAS
d. My advice
IS
e. What I dont enjoy IS

too.

what she always WANTED TO BE.

[E]
[E]

SHOULD DO

WITHDRAW.

it.

STANDING in

queues.

17.3.1.5. The object(ive) complement can also be realised by a

finite Wh-clause, a non-finite bare or to-infinitive clause, or a nonfinite ing or ed clause:

17.3.1.5.1 The object(ive) complement in (31)a-e is a finite

Wh-clause which describes a feature or quality of the direct object

[Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 1992: xxv].

91

S1
NP1

VP1
Vgrp

S[finite WH-clause]

NP[dO]

[complex]

Comp

[oP/oC]

S2
VP2

NP2

(31)a. You MADE

b. They MADE
DYE

AM.

what he HAD always WANTED [E] to be.

him

c. We WILL NAME the baby

d.

what I

me

whatever his grandfather

your hair whatever colour you

WISHES.

LIKE!

e. Our enthusiasm HAS MADE the club what it

IS

today.

17.3.1.5.2 The objective complement in (32)a-g is the ing

form of the verb, either alone (e.g. thinking) or as part of a larger clause
(e.g. playing in the garden). It tells us what the object is made to do or is
kept doing [Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 1992: xxvi].
S1
NP1

VP1
Vgrp

S[non-finite ing or ed clause]

NP[dO]

[complex]

Comp

[oP/oC]

NP2

S2
VP2

(32)a. The driver KEPT

the engine [E] RUNNING.
b. This remark SET
everyone [E] THINKING.
[E] TREMBLING with fear.
c. The look on Bills face HAD me
d. The policeman GOT the traffic [E ] MOVING.
[E ] COUGHING.
e. The smoke STARTED her
f. The authorities ORDERED
hundreds of demonstrators [E] PLACED under the house arrest.
LEFT the children [E] WATCHING TV in the living room.
g. We
92

17.3.1.5.3 The objective complement in (33)a-g is the bare

infinitive, either alone (e.g. work) or as part of a larger clause (e.g. play in
the road). It tells us what the direct object is made or allowed to do [Oxford
Advanced Learners Dictionary, 1992: xxvi]. The causative verbs have, let
and make take a bare infinitive. With help either a to-infinitive or a bare
infinitive is possible:
S1

NP1

VP1
Vgrp

S[non-finite bare infinitive clause]

NP[dO]

[oP/oC]

[complex]

S2

Comp

VP2

NP2

(33)a. His tutor MADE

him
b. They
MADE the prisoners
c. Stephen
HELPED
us
d. Mother
WONT LET children
WONT LET you
e. They
f. We
HAD
Jane [E]
g. I
LL HAVE my secretary

[E]
[E]
[E]
[E]
[E]

WORK.

against the wall.

(TO) ORGANISE the party.
PLAY in the road.
VISIT the patient yet.
RUN through the procedure again.
[E] MAKE you a reservation.
STAND

17.3.1.5.4 The objective complement in (42)a-d is a to-infinitive,

either alone (e.g. to give up) or as part of a larger clause (e.g. to answer his
questions). It tells us what the direct object is made or helped to do or be.
[Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 1992: xxvi]

93

S1
NP1

VP1
Vgrp

S[non-finite to-infinitive clause]

NP[dO]

[oP/oC]

[complex]

S2

Comp

VP2

NP2

me

[E]

TO GIVE UP.

b. The reporter PRESSED her

[E]

TO ANSWER

(34)a. The situation FORCED

his questions.

independent.

c. The extra money HELPED John

[E]

d. An official DECLARED the place

[E] TO BE free from infection.

TO BE

Note that:
c Only a small number of complex transitive verbs; usually those
mentioned in (31)a-e, (32)a-h, (33)a-g and (34)a-d; are used in this case.
d Only a few verbs in this case can be made passive. The direct object of
an active verb becomes the subject of the same verb in the passive:
(31)c. The baby WILL BE NAMED whatever his grandfather WISHES.
(32)d. The traffic WAS GOT MOVING (by the policeman).
(33)a. He WAS MADE TO WORK (by his tutor).
(34)d. The place WAS DECLARED TO BE free from infection (by an
official).
17.3.1.6 The complement of a preposition (cPrep, for short) can
also be realised by a finite Wh-clause, a non-finite to-infinitive clause
or an ing clause:

94

PP
S[(non-)finite clause]
[cPrep]

Comp

(35)a. CAN you SEE

from

where

b. You MUST DO the best with what

NP

you

SIT?

you

HAVE.

VP

d. I strongly OBJECT

to

what

you VE just SAID.

e. It all DEPENDS

on

where

you

g. He HAS no idea

of

how

GO.

it

SHOULD BE DONE.

f. We HAVE RECEIVED no news as yet of when the boat LEAVES.

c. The party WILL HAVE TO DRAW from whatever sources it CAN.
h. They ARE all ARGUING about how much [E] TO CHARGE admittance.
(36)a. I THOUGHT
of [E] PAYING cash.
b. You CAN COUNT on Jane TO HELP make the sandwiches.
c. I BELIEVE in [E] GETTING things done as quickly as possible.
17.3.2 SUBORDINATE/EMBEDDED ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES
(SubACl/ EmACl, for short):
An adjective clause which appear inside an NP can be either optional,
and thus subordinate, as in (37)b-c and (38)d-e, or obligatory, and thus
embedded, as in (37)a and (38)a-c:
S1

NP1
S[finite clause]

NP2
DET

VP1

N Comp

ART headN

S2
NP2

VP2

(37)a. The news that the enemy

WERE near
ALARMED everybody.
b. The boy
who
WAS SLEEPING WAS DREAMING.
c. The place where I first MET my husband IS NOT far from here.
95

NP1
S[finite clause]

NP2
DET

NP

ART headN

(38)a. No one CAN DENY the fact

b. He CAME to me in the belief
a

c. I HEARD

VP

that fire

BURNS.

that I

COULD HELP him.

rumour that he

d. ILL never FORGET the day

IS LEAVING.

when I first ENTERED the university.

the reason why she HAS REFISED his invitation.

e. Thats
17.3.3

Comp

SUBORDINATE/EMBEDDED ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

(SubAdvCl/EmAdvCl, for short):

17.3.3.1 In the form of a finite Wh-clause, a non-finite to-

infinitive clause, or an adverbial clause can be used to complement or

modify a head adjective, i.e. to be an adjective complement/post-modifier:
NP1

S1

VP1

Vgrp
[intens]

AP[sP/sC]
headA

S[(non-)finite clause]
S2

Comp

VP2

NP2

(39)a. They WERE hopeful (that the weather WOULD CHANGE).

b. Andrew SEEMED angry (that the dog
doubtful (if

c. John

IS

d. She

IS

e. Leon

WAS

happy

f. Leon

WAS

aware

CAN PASS

indifferent (whether you

FEEL
(40)a.
b. Jack APPEARED
96

he

(that

HAD NOT BEEN FED).

Sara

that
Sara
free (
[E]
eager (
[E]

COME

or not).

WON the
WON

the test).
race).

the race.

TO ASK QUESTIONS)!
TO SEE

her).

c. The tree IS
safe (
d. Elephants ARE NOT easy

[E]
[E]

TO CLIMB

up).

TO LASSO.

17.3.3.2 Adverbial clauses can be used to complement or modify

A HEAD VERB:
S1

NP1

VP1

PRO

VP2

AdvP1
S[finite clause]

AdvP2

VP3

Adv Comp

Vgrp
[intrans]

S2
VP4

NP2

(41) I HAVE BEEN WORKING here since I GRADUATED from my university.

17.4 Compound-complex sentences contain two or more main clauses and
one or more subordinate clauses. [Warriner, Whitten and Griffith, 1958: 82]
(42)a. Sally SAID she SAW a ghost and Dan BELIEVED her.
b. I DID NOT WANT to leave my bed but the wind BLEW so strong

that I WAS at last COMPELLED to get up to shut the window.

c. Since I HAD SEEN him the day before, I KNEW that he WAS happy,
but I DID NOT GUESS that he WOULD GIVE up his plans.
S4
Conj

S3
NP3
PropN

VP3
Vgrp
[trans]

S2
NP2

NP[dO]

PropN
[trans]

VP2
Vgrp

S[finite clause]

PRO

S1

Comp

VP1

NP1

(42)a. Sally SAID

NP[dO]

she

SAW

a ghost and Dan

BELIEVED

her.
97

S4
Conj

S3
NP3

VP3

S2
NP2

VP2

I DID NOT WANT to leave my bed but the wind BLEW so strong
(42)b.

S
[finite that-clause]

Comp

S1

NP1

VP1

that I WAS at last COMPELLED to get up to shut the window.

In conclusion, in the complete IC analysis of a sentence we cut the
sentence into two parts or ICc, then cut each of these two again into two, and
so on until we have only individual words remaining as parts [Stageberg,
1965: 263].
_________________

98

SECTION 3: GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS

18 Structure
The concept of STRUCTURE is essential in distinguishing between the
strings of words that are well-formed expressions in the language
and those that are not. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 8] To show how things can
be analyzed into their constituent parts in this text, we use TREE-DIAGRAMS
the trees that are upside-down:
S
NP

VP

DET

DEM

headN

These

AP[sP/sC]

Vgrp
[intens]

concepts

are

basic.

This does not prevent us from having a quick look at some other
common types of diagrams:
c Fries diagrams (also called UPSIDEDOWN-T DIAGRAMS) in
Stageberg [1965] and Barsova et al [1969]:

These concepts are basic

d Candelabras diagrams in Barsova et al [1969]:

these concepts are basic

e Reed and Kelloggs diagrams in House and Harman [1965]:

concepts are

these

basic

_________________

19 Endocentric structures vs. exocentric structures

19.1 ENDOCENTRIC STRUCTURE
Phrases like the NOUN PHRASE (NP, for short) their rather dubious
jokes are said to be ENDOCENTRIC. An endocentric construction may be
99

substituted for as a whole by one of its constituent units; e.g. a noun may
stand for the whole noun phrase, c.f. big African lions roaming in the
jungle lions. [Jackson, 1980: 26]
19.2 EXOCENTRIC STRUCTURE
Phrases like the PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP, for short) beside a
stream are said to be EXOCENTRIC. There is a TWO-WAY DEPENDENCE (,
for short) between beside and a stream as a whole: both of the two
constituents must occur to form the PP beside a stream; one of them
cannot stand for the whole phrase [Jackson, 1980: 26].
However, the PP beside a stream can also be considered
ENDOCENTRIC: Although beside and a stream are both needed to express
the spatial orientation in this case, it is the word beside that is giving the
phrase as a whole its locational character. So beside is the head of the
phrase. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 43] If the PREPOSITION (P, for short)
beside is the HEAD (H, for short) of the prepositional phrase beside a
stream then a stream is functioning as COMPLEMENT (C, for short) to that
head: (H) beside a stream (C).
Each phrase must have a head. A noun phrase has a noun as head, a
verb phrase has a verb as head, a prepositional phrase a preposition as
head, and an adjective phrase an adjective as head. [Jacobs, 1995: 51]
Briefly, the STRUCTURES of MODIFICATION, COMPLEMENTATION, and
CO-ORDINATION are all endocentric whereas THE STRUCTURE OF
PREDICATION is exocentric. As to a prepositional phrase, it may be regarded
either as an exocentric structure or as an endocentric structure.
_________________

20 Types of syntactic structures

20.1 STRUCTURE OF MODIFICATION
There is a one-way dependence (, for short) in the STRUCTURE of
MODIFICATION. In the phrase their rather dubious jokes, rather is
dependent on dubious, in the sense that it is only present because dubious
is. If we are to omit dubious, rather will be left without a function, and the
100

omission would result in an ill-formed string (*their rather jokes). Notice,

however, that dubious is in no way dependent on rather. We can omit
rather and still be left with a perfectly good phrase (their dubious jokes).
And rather dubious as a whole is dependent on jokes but not viceversa. Rather dubious (the modifier of the phrase) could be omitted
(giving their jokes), but jokes (the head of the phrase) could not (*their
rather dubious).
(modifier) rather dubious (head)
(modifier) rather dubious jokes (head)
(modifier) their rather dubious jokes (head)
Thus, their rather dubious jokes is a typical example of the
STRUCTURE OF MODIFICATION.
20.2 STRUCTURE OF COMPLEMENTATION
There is a two-way dependence (, for short) in the STRUCTURE of
COMPLEMENTATION. Both the monotransitive verb saw and the noun phrase
many things must occur to form the verb phrase saw many things: saw is
its head and many things is the complement of that head:
(head) saw many things (complement)
Since one of the two constituents cannot stand for the whole verb
phrase as a unit, saw many things is a typical example of the STRUCTURE
of COMPLEMENTATION.
20.3 STRUCTURE OF COORDINATION
Max and Adrian is a COORDINATE NOUN PHRASE (Co-NP, for short),
with Max and Adrian coordinated by and. Co-ordinate NPs have as many
heads as there are nouns coordinated in them. Other COORDINATORS are
but and or. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 67]
In Stagebergs opinion [1965: 273], the coordinator is set off as a
separate element and does not belong to either IC:

101

Co-NP

Co-NP

Conj

NP1
N1

(1)a. Max

and

NP2

NP1

NP2

N2

N1

N2

Adrian

Conj

NP3
N3

(1)b. sandwiches, relish, and coffee

Stuffy and hot is a COORDINATE ADJECTIVE PHRASE (Co-AP, for

short), with stuffy and hot coordinated by and. This Co-AP can be premodified by too, which is a DEGREE ADVERB (DEG, for short) as in (2)a.
Stuffy and too hot is another Co-AP, with stuffy and too hot
coordinated by and. In this case, too only pre-modifies the ADJECTIVE (A,
for short) hot as in (2)c. Describe the internal structure of the phrase marked
(2)b. In what way(s) is it different from that of (2)a?
AP

Co-AP

DEG

Co-AP
Conj

A1

Conj AP2

AP1
A2

DEG

Co-AP

AP1

Conj

AP2
DEG

(2)a. too stuffy and hot (2)b.too stuffy and hot (2)c. stuffy and too hot
The prepositional phrase up and down the stairs contain a COORDINATION OF PREPOSITIONS (Co-P, for short), with up and down
coordinated by and as in (3)a. In the foundation and under the rafters
is a COORDINATE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (Co-PP, for short), with in the
foundation and under the rafters coordinated by and as in (3)b.
Co-PP

PP
Co-P
P1 Conj

NP
P2

the stairs

(3)a. up and down

Conj

PP1
P1

NP1

PP2
P2

NP2

(3)b. in the foundation and under the rafters

Two important points to notice about the co-ordinations marked (1)a-b,

(2)a-c and (3)a-b are c that the mother and the sisters of the
102

coordinator (and in this case) all have the same category label

[Burton-Roberts, 1997: 71] and d that the parts joined by Coordinate

Conjunctions ought usually to be of exactly equal value [Campbell,
1962: 5]. All these co-ordinations are typical examples of the STRUCTURE of
COORDINATION.
20.4 STRUCTURE OF PREDICATION
Wherever possible, a SENTENCE (S, for short) should be divided into
the fewest possible parts, i.e. into two: a NOUN PHRASE (NP, for short) and a
VERB PHRASE (VP, for short).
S
NP

(subject)

VP

(4)a. Ducks
b. The ducks
c. Those gigantic ducks
d. The mouth-watering duck on the table
e. The ones over there
f. Those on the left
g. Mine
h. These
i. They

(predicate)

paddled.
are paddling away.
were paddling away furiously.
wont be paddling away again.
must have paddled for a while.
have been paddling noisily.
kept on paddling quickly.
did paddle.
did.

The sentences (4)a-i have all been divided into two constituents; the
first is traditionally said to function as SUBJECT, and the second as PREDICATE.
One way of thinking of these functions is to think of the subject as being
used to mention something and the predicate as used to say something
true or false about the subject. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 31]
While the noun phrase and the verb phrase of the sentences
marked (4)a-i display the STRUCTURE of MODIFICATION, the very
sentences are typical examples of the STRUCTURE of PREDICATION.
_________________

103

21 Constructions vs. constituents

21.1 A construction is any significant group of words (or morphemes):
old man, lives there, the man who lives there, has gone, to his sons
house, has gone to his sons house, the old man who lives there has
gone to his sons house, etc.
But there has is not, since the two words have no direct connection.
Neither is man since this word contains only one word (and also one
morpheme). On a syntactic level lives is not a construction; but on a
morphological level it is a construction consisting of two morphemes, live
and s.
21.2 A constituent is any word or construction (or morpheme) which
enters into some larger construction. Thus, each of the words in the
sentence The old man who lives there has gone to his sons house. is
a constituent. So are the two constructions old man and the old man who
lives there.
However, there has or man who is not a constituent. Neither is the
sentence as a whole since there is no larger construction of which it is a
part.
Briefly, all but the smallest constituents are constructions and all
but the largest constructions are constituents. In syntax, the smallest
constituents are words, and the largest constructions are sentences.
_________________

22 Immediate constituents vs. ultimate constituents

(an IC, for short) is one of the two
constituents of which any given construction is directly formed. In
other words, each of the two parts into which any structure is
divided [Stageberg, 1965: 263] is called an IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT.
22.1 An

IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT

The ICs of a given construction are its constituents on the next

lower level:
104

the old man who lives there | has gone to his sons house
the old man | who lives there
who | lives there
the | old man
lives | there
old | man

has gone | to his sons house

has | gone to | his sons house
his sons | house
his son | s
his | son
are the smallest constituents of

22.2 ULTIMATE CONSTITUENTS

which a given construction is composed.
If the ultimate constituents of a word are the unit morphemes
of which it is composed [Stageberg, 1965: 98] then the ultimate
constituents of a sentence are the individual words (or the possessive
morpheme in some cases) of which it is composed.
There are thirteen ultimate constituents in the old man who lives
there has gone to his sons house: the, old, man, who, lives, there,
has, gone, to, his, son,s and house.
_________________

23 Immediate constituents of a sentence

Using the diagram marked (1) as an illustration, one may say yes to
the question Are words the immediate constituents of the sentence that
contains them?
S

(1) Old Sam sunbathed beside

stream.

Compare the diagram marked (1) with the diagrams marked (2) and (3):
S

*(2) Stream old Sam sunbathed beside a.

S

*(3) Sunbathed old beside stream a

Sam.

The diagram marked (1) fails to give any explanation of why the
words that occur in (1) form a well-formed English sentence, and why
those that occur in (2) and (3) do not.
105

The arrangement of words in a sentence is largely determined by the

fact that the words are not immediate constituents of the sentences, but
belong with other words to form groups which have their own specifiable
position in the structure of the sentence. In short, while sentences CONTAIN
words, they dont CONSIST (just of) words. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 11-12]
_________________

24 Intervening level of organization between word and sentence

The fact that words do not pattern directly into sentences
implies that there are some intervening levels of organization between
word and sentence. They are usually called phrase, and clause [Jackson,
1980: 4].
The sentence marked (1) consists of two phrases: a noun phrase as the
subject and a verb phrase as the predicate.
(1) My bother was an outstanding student.
The sentence marked (2) consists of two independent clauses that
are coordinately linked by the conjunction but:
(2) My bother was an outstanding student, but I was not.
_________________

25 Modifiers vs. complements

25.1A modifier is a subordinate element in an endocentric
structure. It is a word or a word group that affects the meaning of a
headword in that it describes, limits, intensifies and/or adds to the
meaning of the head. In the noun cluster the blue shirt, for example, the
word blue describes the shirt; it limits by excluding other colours; and it
adds to the plain meaning of shirt.
Modifiers may appear before or after the heads they modify, and
sometimes they are separated from the head by intervening words
[Stageberg, 1965: 230-231]:

a butterfly in the garden which was fluttering among the flowers

25.2 The term complement may be used to refer to various linguistic notions.
Richards, Platt and Weber [1985] and Jacobs [1995] share something in
common in reference to the term complement when the former [1985: 52]
106

states that a complement is that part of the sentence which follows the verb
and which thus completes the sentence and the latter [1995: 59] believes
that a complement is the phrase following the predicate and linked very
closely to it; it is the constituent that completes the predicate. However,
these authors differ in what they consider as complements.
The complements according to Richards, Platt and Weber [1985:52] are:
c subject complement: the complement linked to a subject by be or
an intensive verb: She IS a doctor.
d object complement, i.e. the complement linked to an object:
We MADE her the chairperson.
e adjective complement, i.e. the complement linked to an adjective:
IM glad that you can come.
f complement of a preposition, i.e. the complement linked to a preposition:
They ARGUED about what to do.
In addition to subject and object complements [1995: 58-60] and
adjective and prepositional complements [1995: 99], Jacobs also presents
noun complements [1995: 99-101]: Many nouns takes complement
clauses or complement prepositional phrases:

that Eleanor had met with the senator

the news of her marriage.
the story

Unlike Jacobs [1995] and Richards, Platt and Weber [1985],

Stagebergs [1965: 165] complements also cover direct and indirect
objects: The complements is the generic term for the completers of the
verb, which we shall later learn to know as direct object, indirect object,
object complement, and subject complement (with its subclasses of
predicative noun, predicative pronoun, and predicative adjective.
Later in his textbook, Stageberg [1965: 275] presents the
complement of the adjectival but says nothing concerning either noun
complements or complements of a preposition.
_________________

107

26 Types of adjective complements

An adjectival complement completes the meaning of the adjective
head in a predicative adjective phrase. There are various kinds of
complements in a predicative adjective phrase:
c A prepositional phrase: averse, free and tantamount must take as its
complement a prepositional phrase:
(1)a. IM NOT averse to a cup of tea.
b. ARE you free from all responsibilities?
c. Her remarks WERE tantamount to slander.
d A non-finite to-infinitive clause: Loath must take as its complement a
non-finite to-infinitive clause:
(2) They WERE loath [E]TO LEAVE this district.
e A finite dependent clause: Aware must take as its complement a finite
dependent clause1:
(3)a. He IS aware that very few jobs ARE available.
b. I dont think you RE aware how much this MEANS to me.
_________________

27 Pre-adjectival modifiers vs. post-adjectival modifiers

An attributive adjective can only take an optional pre-modifier
while a predicative adjective may optionally be pre-modified and
optionally or obligatorily post-modified.
27.1 The pre-modifier in an adjective phrase, either attributive or
predicative, may only be an adverb:
(1)a. It IS a very exciting film.
b. This film IS very exciting.
27.2 Predicative adjectives, not attributive adjectives, may take
post-modifiers:
(2)a. *She IS a somewhat anxious about his sons health mother.
b. She IS somewhat anxious about his sons health.
1

Aware can also take as its complement a prepositional phrase:

He WAS aware of a creaking noise.

108

27.3 There are various kinds of post-modifiers in a predicative

adjective phrase:
c A prepositional phrase:
(3)a. My roommate BECAME tired of studying.
b. The dean WAS NOT angry with me.
c. IM worried about your study.
d A non-finite to-infinitive clause:
(4)a. Jack APPEARED eager [E] TO SEE her.
b. We WERE reluctant [E] TO LEAVE.
c. Jane WAS delighted [E] TO RECEIVE the gift.
e A finite dependent clause:
(5)a. IM glad that it IS over.
b. She IS indifferent whether you COME or not.
_________________

28 Adjective complements vs. optional post-adjectival modifiers

28.1 For most predicative adjectives, post-modification is optional.
In other words, an adjective phrase functioning predicatively does not always
obligatorily contain a certain kind of post-modifier. Anxious and devoted,
for example, can occur with or without post-modification:
(1)a. Mrs Green IS devoted.
b. Mrs Green IS really devoted.
c. Mrs Green IS really devoted to her daughter.
(2)a. He IS anxious.
b. He IS (very) anxious.
c. He IS (very) anxious about his wifes health.
d. He IS (very) anxious [E] TO PLEASE everybody.
e. He IS (very) anxious that no one SHOULD ACCUSE him of laziness.
28.2 For other predicative adjectives, however, post-modification is
obligatory.
c Averse, free and tantamount are always followed by a prepositional
phrase:
109

(3)a. IM NOT averse to a cup of tea.

b. ARE you free from all responsibilities?
c. Her remarks WERE tantamount to slander.
d Loath is always followed by a non-finite to-infinitive clause:
(4) They WERE loath [E] TO LEAVE this district.
e Aware must take as its complement either a prepositional phrase or
a finite dependent clause:
(5)a. He WAS aware of a creaking noise.
b. He IS aware that very few jobs ARE available.
c. I dont think youRE aware how much this MEANS to me.
f Afraid must take as its complement either a prepositional phrase or a

finite dependent clause beginning with the subordinator that:

(6)a. She WAS afraid of what MIGHT HAPPEN
if Edward turned round and saw her.
b. She WAS afraid of losing customers.
c. She WAS afraid that he MIGHT LOSE customers.
The obligatory post-adjectival modifier should be called THE
COMPLEMENT of the head adjective in a predicative adjective phrase to be
distinguished from any possible optional post-adjectival modifier of the

head adjective.
An adjective may be both pre-modified and post-modified. Preadjectival modifiers are always optional whereas post-adjectival
modifiers may be either optional or obligatory. The combination of an

adjective and its optional post-modifier is an example of THE STRUCTURE

OF MODIFICATION whereas the combination of an adjective and its
obligatory complement displays THE STRUCTURE OF COMPLEMENTATION.
Thus, it is crucial to observe what follows the head adjective in a
predicative adjective phrase and to determine whether it is A
COMPLEMENT

110

or A MODIFIER.

29 Classification of English adjectives according to their post-modifiers

We may give a affirmative answer to the above question because
English adjectives vary in the kinds of post-modifiers that are possible
after them:
29.1 Many adjectives do not allow any post-modifier (though they may
take a pre-modifier): big, blue, astute, sudden, tall, criminal, etc.:
(1)a. This IS another really big problem.
b. This problem IS really big.
(2)a. She HAS blue eyes.
b. Her eyes ARE blue.
(3)a. ItS a criminal waste of public money.
b. Their actions ARE criminal.
29.2 Some adjectives allow one or more kinds of optional post-modifiers:
cInteresting may take only an infinitive (phrase):
(4) His book IS interesting to read.
dAttentive allows only a prepositional phrase:
(5) The audience WAS attentive tothe speaker.
eSafe allows either a prepositional phrase or an infinitive phrase:
(6)a. This toy IS safe for children.
b. This tree IS safe to climb up.
f Anxious, however, take all three kinds of post-modifiers:
(7)a. He IS very anxious about his wifes health,
b. He IS very anxious to please everybody,
c. He IS very anxious that no one should accuse him of laziness.
29.3 Some adjectives require one or more kinds of oblibatory postmodifiers, which are also known as adjectives complements:
g Fond and tantamount must take as its complement a prepositional

phrase:
111

(8)a. IM fond of swimming.

b. Her remarks WERE tantamount to slander.
h Loath must take as its complement a non-finite to-infinitive clause:
(9) They WERE loath [E] TO LEAVE this district.
i Aware must take as its complement either a prepositional phrase or a

finite dependent clause:

(10)a. He WAS aware of a creaking noise.
b. He IS aware that very few jobs ARE available.
c. [I dont think] youRE aware how much this MEANS to me.
j Afraid must take as its complement either a prepositional phrase or a

finite dependent clause beginning with the subordinator that:

(11)a. She WAS afraid of losing customers.
b. She WAS afraid that he MIGHT LOSE customers.
c. She WAS afraid of what MIGHT HAPPEN
if Edward turned round and saw her.

_________________

30 Types of adverbial adjuncts

30.1 All VPs are optionally modified by one or more adverbial adjuncts
which provide circumstantial information about the action, process or event
talked about in the clause in which they occur. Circumstantial information
includes information about the place, time, manner, etc. of the action, process
or event [Jackson, 1980: 25]. Being adverbials, adjuncts are frequently in
form of adverbs or adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, infinitive phrases,
participial phrases and subordinate finite clauses.
30.2 Adverbial adjuncts can be sub-categorised according to the meanings
they express. Note that cthe adverbial adjunct in question is underlined
and the Vgrp IS CAPITALISED for better identification and that donly
INTRANSITIVE VERBS are employed to simplify the following analysis a bit:
112

30.2.1 Adverbial adjuncts of Time have four subcategories within them:

c Adverbial adjuncts of Point of Time tell when an event takes place,
answering the question When? or At what time?:
(1)a. My father WORKS at night.
b. WeLL BE FLYING over France at eight thirty tonight.
c. ILL COME some time/next week.
d. They ARRIVED the next day/at a quarter past nine.
d Adverbial adjuncts of Duration or Extent in Time describe how
long an event lasts, answering the question How long?:
(2)a. ID LIKE TO GO for a week in silence.
b. The two drivers MUST STAY until the police get there.
c. He WORKS hard from morning till night.
d. The bell RANG all day long.
e. It LASTED years.
f. IVE BEEN WORKING here since 1981/since I graduated from my
university.
e Adverbial adjuncts of Frequency describe how often an event
occurs, answering the question How often? or How many times?:
(3)a. He COMES home late from time to time.
b. We MEET twice a week and EAT OUT every Friday evening.
c. The roof LEAKS whenever it rains.
d. The electrician always/usually/often/sometimes/rarely/never
WORKS overtime.
f Adverbial adjuncts of Temporal relationship convey the temporal
relationship between two events or states, answering the question When?
(4)a. After this the conversation SANK for a while into mere sociability.
b. They HAD ARRIVED before the meeting started.
30.2.2 Adverbial adjuncts of Place (also called Space) have six
subcategories within them:
c Adverbial adjuncts of Location or Position describe the very place
in, on or at which an action occurs, answering the question Where?:
(5)a. They STOMPED upstairs.
113

b. My sister and her boyfriend MET at a dance.

c. I CAN hardly STUDY at home.
d. A Panamanian passenger bus LAY in a ditch.
e. He always HIDES where I can never reach.
d Adverbial adjuncts of Distance or Extent in Space include both
general description of distance and specific measurements of an action,
answering the question How far?:
(6)a. I CANT WALK much farther.
b. We RAN no more than two blocks.
c. ILL JOG as far as I can.
d. You SHOULD NOT GO too near/too close.
e. TheyVE WALKED for seven miles.
e Adverbial adjuncts of Direction give a general orientation or the
direction of an action, answering the question In what direction?:
(7)a. A visitor CAME in.
b. A tiger HAS GOT out.
c. We ARE FLYING due north.
d. Opinion IS SHIFTING in favour of the new scheme.
f Adverbial adjuncts of Terminus describe the direction of an action
towards a destination, answering the question Where?:
(8)a. The director HAS COME home.
b. She GOES to the church to take a few pictures.
c. He JUMPED onto the ground/into the air.
d. They GO where(ever) they are told.
g Adverbial adjuncts of Source describe the direction of an action
from a point of origin, answering the question From which? From where?
or From whom?:
(9)a. She GRADUATED from Cambridge with a degree in law.
b. He BORROWED freely from other writers.
c. He JUMPED off the roof.
d. HeS COME straight back from the construction site.
114

h Adverbial adjuncts of Path describe the pathway of an action,

answering the question By/Through/Along/Via/By way of which?:
(10)a. They ARE TRAVELING to France by way of London.
b. You CAN GO from London to Washington via New York.
c. He JUMPED out of the window/over the wall.
d. A lot of vehicles TRAVEL along the street.
e. The train WHISTLED past (the village).
f. We CAME by country roads, not by the motor road.
g. The burglar GOT in through the window and ESCAPED through the
back door.
30.2.3 Adverbial adjuncts of Manner describe the way in which
something is done, answering the question How? or By what way?:
(11)a. The gears WORK very smoothly.
b. She CAME in gently/in a gentle way.
c. He JUMPED this way.
d. I LINGERED on purpose.
e. He BEHAVES quite strangely/in a very strange way/as if he is
going to be attacked.
30.2.4 Adverbial adjuncts of Behalf or Guise answer the question
Who for?, Instead of whom?, On behalf of whom?, What as? or What
into?:
(12)a. I COME here as a friend.
b. Tom CAME instead of Paul.
c. He SET out poor/as a pauper.
d. He CAME back rich/a rich man/as a millionaire.
e. Mavis LEFT the house a smiling, confident woman.
30.2.5 Adverbial adjuncts of Comparison compare the manner of a
state or action relative to another, answering the question How?
(13)a. Our coach LEFT earlier than it should have done.
b. This M.C. SPEAKS more fluently than accurately.
c. He DID as much as he could.
115

d. The students CANT TRANSLATE as well as their professor does.

e. You MUST TRANSLATE as accurately as possible.
f. The lip CURLED like a snails foot.
30.2.6 Adverbial adjuncts of Accompaniment lie along the
continuum from clearly conveying manner to encompassing more ambiguous
meanings. They usually answer the question With/Without whom?,
With/Without what? or And who/what else?:
(14)a. I WENT to the ball with the handsome Prince Igor.
b. I LEFT with someone else.
c. HeS COMING downstairs with two sleeping bags over the top of
his head.
The adverbial adjuncts in (14)a-b show physical accompaniment.
Though they are not always obviously answers to a How? question, they can
be replaced by the opposite adverbial adjuncts of Manner such as
independently or by myself and thus fit the manner category most clearly. In
some sense, the adverbial adjunct in (14)c conveys information about the
Manner of coming downstairs, but the precise semantic relationship between
this adverbial adjunct and the rest of the clause is difficult to define. Below
some more adverbial adjuncts of Accompaniment:
(14)d. I CANT LIVE without you.
e. IVE COME out without any money.
f. Tom CAME as well as Paul.
30.2.7 Adverbial adjuncts of Means tell the means by which an
activity or state was accomplished, answering the question How? or By what
means?:
(15)a. Mrs. Brown never TRAVELS by air.
b. They GOT over to that deserted village on foot/on horseback.
c. I GO to work by bus.
d. He GOT here by running all the way from home.
30.2.8 Adverbial adjuncts of Instrument describe the item used to
undertake a task, answering the question With/Without what?:
116

(16)a. The prisoner ESCAPED with only a razor blade.

b. I CAN hardly STUDY without an up-to-date dictionary.
c. She frequently WRITES in pencil.
d. You SHOULD NOT READ by artificial light.
e. They usually PAY in cash, not by check.
f. She often SEWS with cotton thread.
30.2.9 Adverbial adjuncts of Cause and of Reason both answer the
question Why? Traditionally, cause has been associate with a relatively
objective statement, as in (17)a-c, while reason has implied a more
subjective assessment, as in (17)d-e:
(17)a. He [was buried under bricks, and] DIED of head injures.
b. We MISSED the plane through being held up on the motorway.
c. The old man WALKED slowly because of his bad legs/
because his legs are bad.
d. I WENT there because I was told.
e. IVE BEEN WAITING here as I know youll certainly come and pick
me up.
In the majority of cases, however, it is difficult to judge the level of
objectivity and thus to discern between cause and reason, as with the
following examples:
(17)f. The plan FELL down because it proved to be expensive.
g. He THRIVES on positive criticism.
30.2.10 Adverbial adjuncts of Contingency, like adverbial adjuncts
of Cause, also answer the question Why. However, it is necessary to note
that adverbial adjuncts of Cause give as a reason of something which is
happening, has happened, or will happen while adverbial adjuncts of
Contingency give as a reason of something which might have happened, or
which may happen [Campbell, 1962: 59]. The first is certain, the second is
only possible or probable, as shown in (18)a-d:
(18)a. They DECIDED to retreat at once
for fear (that)/lest they should be cut from the main force.
b. You SHOULD LEAVE immediately in case of fire.
117

c. You HAD BETTER NOT SKI in case the weather is really bad.
d. We STARTED early for fear of a possible traffic jam.
30.2.11 Adverbial adjuncts of Purpose answer the question What
for? or For what purpose?:
(19)a. IVE GOT TO WRITE to report what Ive been doing so far.
b. She just WORKS for her own account.
c. HeS GONE on business, not for pleasure.
d. I JOG for the sake of my health.
e. The ground crew even CRAWLED into the un-pressurised luggage
compartments so as not to be left behind.
f. They always WALK
so that/in order that they may/might get plenty of exercise.
Purpose is also closely related to reason, it is possible, for example, to
paraphrase (19)a as The reason Ive got to write IS to report what Ive been
doing so far.
30.2.12 Adverbial adjuncts of Result:
In Purpose Sentences something is done deliberately in order to bring
about a certain result. The Subordinate Clause often has MAY or MIGHT. In
Result Sentences something happens by chance and brings about a certain
result. The Subordinate Clause never has MAY or MIGHT. [Campbell,1962: 58]
(20)a. He DRANK so much that hes got stomachache.
b. My father SMOKED so heavily that he got lung cancer.
c. He JUMPED so high that he easily crossed the barrier.
d. The third couple DANCED so beautifully that all the examiners
awarded them the maximal point.
30.2.13 Adverbial adjuncts of Concession express material that
runs counter to the proposition of the rest of the clause or, in the case of
adverbial adjuncts realized as clauses, counter to the proposition in the
main clause:
(21)a. He DOESNT SUCCEED however hard he tries.
b. She FAILS however much she does.
118

c. They KEPT on swimming

(even) though/in spite of the fact that the weather was bad.
despite/in spite of the bad weather.
d. [1700 miners have been out for seven months and,]
despite intimidation, no one HAS GONE back to work.
30.2.14 Adverbial adjuncts of Condition express the conditions
which hold on the proposition of the main clause, including both positive and
negative conditions. They usually answer the question Under what
condition(s)?:
(22)a. These people CANNOT OPERATE unless they receive support.
b. You MAY LEAVE right now
provided that you work overtime tomorrow.
c. We CAN PLAY as long as it doesnt rain.
d. You CAN LEAVE, if necessary.
e. And if you were in the mood we COULD at least GO.
30.2.15 Adverbial adjuncts of Degree or Extent tell the extent to
which a proposition holds, answering the question How much?, How many?
To what degree? or To which extent?:
(23)a. [The government had predicted that] rateable values WOULD RISE
by about seven times.
b. The land tenure system VARIES slightly from place to place.
c. He POINTED very obviously at the woman in the fur coat.
d. He CAN hardly HAVE ARRIVED yet.
e. The girl SLIPPED and almost FELL.
f. SheS GETTING on a bit now.
g. I HAD TO AGREE partially/completely/to a certain extent.
h. I quite AGREE/UNDERSTAND.
i. I CANT AGREE more.
30.2.16 Adverbial adjuncts of Addition or Restriction
c Adverbial adjuncts of Addition (also called additive adjuncts) show
that a current proposition is being added to a previous one:
119

(24)a. She also PLAYS well.

b. I DID, too.
c. I DIDNT, either.
It is important to note that unlike conjuncts, adverbial adjuncts of
Addition do not serve primarily to link units of discourse. Rather, their
primary purpose is to show that one bit of propositional content is being added
to a previously mentioned idea or entity. [Biber et all, 1999: 779]
d Adverbial adjuncts of Restriction (also called restrictive adjuncts)
emphasize that the proposition is true in a way which expressly excludes some
other possibilities:
(24)d. IM only JOKING.
e. Well, they just FELL behind, you know.
A feature shared by adjuncts of Additive and those of Restrictive
is that, unlike many other adverbials, they often cannot be moved without
affecting their meaning in the clause. The position of the adverbial is
important in determining what element of the clause is the focus of the
addition or restriction. Thus, the following pairs of sentences are not
equivalent. Only the adverbs in (25)a-b are adjuncts; the adverb in (25)a is
a disjunct while that in (25)b is a conjunct:
(25)a. A heart born especially for me, Jackie USED TO TEASE.
a. Especially a heart born for me, Jackie USED TO TEASE.
b. Mr. Arce Gomez also HAS a human rights reputation.
b. Also Mr. Arce Gomez HAS a human rights reputation.
30.3 Note that adverbial adjuncts may precede and/or follow the Vgrp
of the VP:
S

NP
PropN

VP1
VP2
Vgrp
[intrans]

NP

AdvP
[opA of Location]
PP

VP1
AdvP
VP2
[opA of Manner]
Vgrp
Adv
[intrans]

(26)a. Phil SUNBATHED beside a stream. (26)b. A tourist suddenly COLLAPSED.

120

30.4 Also note that two or more adverbial adjuncts of different types
may occur together, following a variety of orders:
(27)a. He TRAVELS a lot (Degree)
from and to Hanoi (Source and Terminus).
b. She WROTE quickly (Manner) in order to finish in time (Purpose).
c. The cat CREPT silently (Manner) towards the bird (Direction).
d. I WANT TO GO somewhere slightly more exotic (Terminus)
for a change (Purpose).
e. He WILL certainly (Degree) DIE
if you dont call a doctor (Condition).
S

NP

VP1

PRO
AdvP1
[opA of Frequency]

VP2
VP3

DEG headAdv

VP4
Vgrp
[intrans]

(27)f. She hardly ever GOES

AdvP2
[opA of Point of Time]

AdvP3
[opA of Terminus Purpose]

PP

PP

to bed

before midnight.

30.5 An obligatory adverbial adjunct can sometimes be left out provided

that there is enough contextual support. The missing adverbial adjunct is
supplied in < > in the examples below:
(28)a. [The two patients WERE also RELEASED from Guys yesterday
afternoon.] One REMAINED <in hospital> for an exploratory operation
on a shoulder injury.
b. Why HAVE I BEEN here? he wanted to say. How long DO I HAVE TO
STAY <here>?
30.6 An optional adverbial adjunct may follow an obligatory
adverbial adjunct. In (29)a-f there exists an adverbial obligatory adjunct
of Place (i.e. either of Location, Terminus, Path, Direction or of Source):
121

(29) a. We HAVE LIVED here (Location) for ten years (Extent in Time).
b. We WENT to Rome (Terminus) by Milan and Florence (Path).
c. A van carrying farm workers RAN off a foggy rural road (Source)
and PLUNGED into a murky canal (Terminus) today (Point of Time).
d. HeS COMING downstairs (Direction)
with two sleeping bags over the top of his head (Accompaniment).
e. She SLID over the questions (Path)
without answering them (Manner).
f. Daddy CAME home (Terminus) from work (Source)
earlier than usual (Manner).
30.7 Quite often, only one obligatory adverbial adjunct is enough to make
the meaning conveyed by the VP of a given sentence complete. In some
cases, however, both adverbial adjuncts in the VP are obligatory:
(30)a. The project WOULD GO forwards (Direction) as planned (Manner).
b. The project WOULD GO forwards (Direction).
c. The project WOULD GO as planned (Manner).
(31)a. The jumbo jet FLEW up (Direction) into the open air (Terminus).
b. The jumbo jet FLEW up (Direction).
c. The jumbo jet FLEW into the open air (Terminus).
It is not always easy to tell whether an adverbial adjunct is obligatory
or optional. However, this distinction is crucial as far as the meaning
expressed by the whole VP in which the adjunct occur is concerned.
30.8 The above illustrations indicate that a number of nouns or noun
phrases can, and sometimes must, appear without prepositions when they are
the adverbial adjuncts of Time, of Place or even of Manner in VPs.
Among these nouns/noun phrases are Tuesday; the next day; last night; next
week; the day before yesterday; yesterday afternoon; all the time; every Friday
evening; some time; home; there; here; then; this way; a bit; a lot; a pauper; a
rich man; a smiling, confident woman; etc. Jacobs [1995: 26] believes that
this characteristic is a relic marked by special case suffixes rather than
prepositions. In addition, adjectives like rich or poor can also be the
adverbial adjunct of Manner or of Guise.
122

S
NP1

S
VP1

PRO

VP2

NP
AdvP

Vgrp
[intrans]

(32)a. I
b. I
c. He

LL COME
LL COME
JUMPED

PRO

NP2

VP1
VP2

AdvP

Vgrp
[intrans]

AP
A

some time.
next week. (33)a. He
this way.
b. He

SET out
CAME back

poor.
rich.

_________________

31 Noun phrase analyses

Using a tree-diagram to give a complete analysis for each of the
following NPs means not using any triangle notation.
(1) much evening enjoyment
(3) a much more expensive trip
(2) a much harder job
(4) much more white sand
(5) [That was] much the best meal Ive ever tasted
ANSWER:

1. In much evening enjoyment, much2 is a quantifying adjective

meaning a large amount or quantity (of sth), pre-modifying the N2 evening
enjoyment, which is in fact a compound noun. In this case, the determiner
position is unfilled.
NP

NP
N1

DET
AP

N2

QA

ComN
ModN

headN

(1) much evening enjoyment

2

N1

DET
ART

N2

AP
DEG

(2) a much

headComparA

harder

headN

job

much /mt/ (quantifying adj., used with uncountable nouns; esp. with negative an
interrogative verbs or after very, as, how, so, too) = a large amount or quantity (of sth): I
havent got much money. Theres never very much news on Sundays. Take as much time
as you like. How much petrol do you need?
123

2. In a much harder job, much3 is a degree adverb meaning to a

great extent or degree, pre-modifying THE COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE
(ComparA, for short) harder. Much harder, in its turn, is an adjective
phrase, pre-modifying the N2 job, which is in fact the head of the whole noun
phrase.
3. In a much more expensive trip, more is a comparative degree
adverb, pre-modifying the positive adjective expensive. Since degree
adverbs cannot themselves be modified [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 65], much
cannot be another degree adverb, pre-modifying the very comparative degree
adverb more. That is why much should be considered a degree adverb premodifying the comparative adjective phrase more expensive. Much more
expensive, in its turn, is another adjective phrase, pre-modifying the N2
trip, which is in fact the head of the whole noun phrase.
NP

NP

N1

DET
ART

N2

AP
DEG1
DEG2

N1

DET

headAP

headN

DEG

headA

(3) a much more expensive trip

N2

AP1

(4)

much

headComparA

more

AP2

headN

white sand

4. In much more white sand, much is a degree adverb, premodifying more, which is the comparative form of the quantifying adjective
much in this case. The adjective phrase much more then pre-modifies the
N2 white sand, the head noun of which is uncountable.
5. In much the best meal Ive ever tasted, much is an adverb
of degree, pre-modifying the superlative the best. The subordinate

much /mt/ (adv., used with comparatives and superlatives) = to a great extent or degree:
much louder; much more confidently; Shes much better today; My favourite is usually
much the most expensive; I would never willingly go anywhere by boat, much less go on
a cruise.

124

adjective clause Ive ever tasted post-modifies the NP2 much the
best meal.
NP1
NP2

RESTRIC

SubACl

NP3
N1

DET
AP

N2

SuperA

headN

ART

much

the

best

meal

ve ever tasted

32 Mis-diagraming
Whats wrong with the two following diagrams?
NP
N1

DET
ART

(1)a. a
ANSWER:

NP
N1

DET

AP

N2

QA

headN

few

men

ART

(1)b. a

AP

N2

QA

headN

little

butter

The indefinite article a can only determine constituents that have a

singular count noun as head; it cannot determine plural count nouns (*a men)
or mass nouns (*a butter). This is why a few and a little must be treated as
constituents, as phrasal determiners. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 180]
NP
DET
Q

(2)a. a few (= some)

NP
N
headN

men

DET
Q

(2)b. a little (= some)

N
headN

butter

_________________

125

33. Structural ambiguity in English noun phrases

33.1 Define a STRUCTURALLY AMBIGUOUS noun phrase.
A noun phrase is considered as

STRUCTURALLY AMBIGUOUS

structure permits more than one interpretation.

when its

33.1.1 Some Japanese print collectors is structurally ambiguous. It

means either some Japanese collectors of prints in (1)a or some
collectors of Japanese prints in (1)b:
NP

NP
N1

DET
Q

N1

DET
N2

AP

N2

AP1
ModNP

headComN
ModN

N3

DET

headN

AP2

(1)a. some Japanese print collectors

headN1

N4
headN2

(Japanese modifies
(1)b. some Japanese print collectors
(Japanese modifies the noun print.)
the compound noun print collectors.)
33.1.2 The old Rumanian history teacher can be interpreted in
three different ways:
(2)a. the old teacher of history who comes from Rumania
NP
N1

DET
ART

N2

AP1
A1

N3

AP2
A2

headComN
ModN

the
126

old

Rumanian history

headN

teacher

(2)b. the teacher of old Rumanian history

NP

N1

DET
ART

N2

AP1
ModNP
N3

DET

N4

AP2
A1

the

old

headN1

AP3

N5

A2

headN2

Rumanian

history teacher

(2)c. the teacher of Rumanian history who is old

NP

DET
ART

N1
N2

AP1

N3

AP2

A1

ModNP
N4

DET

the

old

AP3

N5

A2

headN2

Rumanian

history

headN1

teacher

127

33.1.3 More exciting ideas can be interpreted in two different ways:

(3)a. more ideas that are exciting(3)b. ideas that are more exciting
NP

NP

N1

DET

N2

AP1

QA
[ComparA]

N1

DET
AP

AP2

N3

headN

DEG
headA
[ComparAdv]

N2

headN

more exciting ideas

MORE exciting ideas
More is the comparative form of
More is a comparative degree
adverb which modifies
the quantifying adjective many which
the adjective exciting
modifies the N2 exciting ideas
_________________

33.2 Explain STRUCTURALLY AMBIGUOUS noun phrases.

33.2.1 A small arms factory is STRUCTURALLY AMBIGUOUS because
this noun phrase can be interpreted in two different ways:
(1)a. an arms factory that is small: The adjective small premodifies the compound noun (ComN, for short) arms factory meaning
factory in which weapons like guns, rifles, explosives, etc. are manufactured.
This compound noun is composed of the modifying noun (ModN, for short)
arms and the head noun (headN, for short) factory.
(1)b. a factory for small arms: Small arms, which is a
compound noun meaning weapons light enough to be carried in the hands,
pre-modifies the head noun factory. This compound noun is composed of
the adjective (A, for short) small and the head noun (headN, for short) arms:

128

NP

NP
N1

DET
ART

N1

DET

AP

N2

headComN

ART

N3
headComN

DET

ModN

N2

AP
ModNP

headN

(1)a. a small arms factory

headN

headN

(1)b. a small arms factory

33.2.2 An old girls bicycle is STRUCTURALLY AMBIGUOUS because

this noun phrase can be interpreted in two different ways:
(2)a. a girls bicycle that is old
The adjective old pre-modifies the head noun bicycle. So does the
possessive common noun (PossCommN, for short) girls.
(2)b. a bicycle for an old girl
Thus, old is an adjective pre-modifying girl, which is the head noun of
the possessive noun phrase (PossNP, for short) an old girls.
NP

NP1

N1

DET

N2

ART AP1
A

(2)a. an old

AP2

N1

DET1
PossNP
N3

NP2

PossCommN

headN

girls

bicycle

PossMarker
N2

DET2
ART

AP
A

(2)b. an

headN1

old

N3
headN

girl

s bicycle

129

33.2.3 The world womens congress can be interpreted as the

womens congress of the world as in (3)a or the congress of world
women as in (3)b.
NP1

NP
N1

DET
ART

N1

DET1
PossNP
N2

AP1

NP2

headN1
PossMarker

N3

DET2

N2

PossCommN headN

ART

headComN

ModN

AP2

(3)a. the world womens congress

ModN

headN2

(3)b. the world women s congress

33.2.4 A nice mans fur coat can be interpreted as a mans fur coat
that is nice as in (4)a or a fur coat of a nice man as in (4)b.
NP

NP1
N1

DET

N2

ART AP1
A

DET1

AP2
PossCommN

PossNP
N3

NP2

headComN
ModN headN

(4)a. a nice mans fur coat

130

headComN

PossMarker ModN headN1

N2

DET2
ART

N1

AP
A

N3
headN2

(4)b. a nice man s fur

coat

33.2.5 A large womans garment can be interpreted as a womans

garment that is large as in (5)a or a garment for a large woman as in
(5)b.
NP1
NP
N1

DET
ART

N2

AP1
A

AP2
PossCommN

DET1

N1

PossNP

headN1

NP2
N3

N2

DET
ART

headN

PossMarker

(5)a. a large womans garment

AP

N3

headN2

(5)b. a large woman s garment

33.2.6 An advanced learners dictionary can be interpreted as an
advanced dictionary for learners as in (6)a or a dictionary for an
advanced learner as in (6)b:
NP1
NP
N1

DET
ART

PossNP
N2

AP1
A

N1

DET1

AP2
PossCommN

NP2
N3

(6)a. an advanced learners dictionary

PossMarker
N2

DET

headN

headN1

AP

N3

headN2

(6)b. an advanced learner s dictionary

131

33.2.7 A camels hair brush4 can be interpreted as an implement

with bristles used to brush, scrub, clean or tidy a camels hair as in
(7)a or an act of brushing, scrubbing, cleaning or tidying the hair of a
camel as in (7)b.
NP

NP

N1

DET
ART

N2

AP

N1

DET1
ART

N2

AP
ModNP

PossCommN

ModN

headN

(7)a. a camels hair brush

N3

DET2

headComN

PossCommN

(7)b. a

camels

headN1
headN2

hair

brush

33.2.8 That greasy kid stuff can be interpreted as that kid

stuff which is greasy as in (8)a or that stuff for greasy kids as in
(8)b.
NP
N1

DET
DEM

NP

N2

AP
A

N1

DET1
DEM

headComN
ModN

(8)a. that greasy kid

headN

ModNP

headN
N3

DET2
AP

stuff
A

(8)b. that
4

N2

AP

N4
headN

greasy kid stuff

brush 1. [C] implement with bristles of hair, wire, nylon, etc. in a block of wood, etc.

and used for scrubbing, sweeping, cleaning, painting, tidying the hair, etc.:

a clothes- brush, a tooth-brush, a paint-brush, a hair-brush.

2. [singular] act of brushing: give ones clothes, hair, shoes, teeth, wool coat,
etc. a good brush.
132

33.2.9 The basic book service can be interpreted as the book

service that is basic as in (9)a or the service for basic books as in (9)b.
NP

NP

N1

DET
ART

N2

AP
A

N1

DET1
ART

ComN
ModN

ModNP

headN
N3

DET2

headN

(9)a. the basic book

N2

AP

AP

N4

headN

service
(9)b. the basic

book service

32.2.10 A foreign language teacher can be interpreted as a language

teacher who is foreign as in (10)a or a teacher of a foreign language
as in (10)b.
NP

NP
N1

DET

N2

ART AP
A

N1

DET

ComN
ModN

AP

N2

ModNP

headN

ART

headN

(10)a. a foreign language teacher

N3

DET
AP

N4

headN

(10)b. a foreign language teacher

133

33.2.11 An old car enthusiast can be interpreted as a car

enthusiast who is old as in (11)a or an enthusiast about old cars as in
(11)b.
NP
N1

DET
ART

NP
N1

DET1

AP

N2

ComN
ModN

ART

N2

AP
ModNP

headN

N3

DET2

(11)a. an old car enthusiast

(11)b. an

headN

AP

N4

headN

old

car enthusiast

33.2.12 More ferocious curries can be interpreted as more

curries that are ferocious as in (12)a or curries that are more
ferocious as in (12)b.
NP

NP

N1

DET

N2

AP1

QA
[ComparA]

AP

AP2

N3

headN

(12)a. more ferocious curries

More is the comparative form of

the quantifying adjective many which
modifies the

N2

N1

DET

ferocious curries

DEG
headA
[ComparAdv]

(12)b.

MORE

N2

headN

ferocious curries

More is a comparative degree

adverb which modifies
the adjective ferocious

33.3 Disambiguate STRUCTURALLY AMBIGUOUS noun phrases.

When two or more modifying word groups occur after a head noun,
there is danger of structural ambiguity.
134

Our English grammatical system provides us with at least five

common means of avoiding such ambiguities:
1. Gender signals: The dog on the porch with (its, his) battered look.
2. Person-thing signals: The young calf of the boy
(who, which) was standing near the gate.
3. Number signals: The rooms of the house which (were, was) dirty.
4. Position: A dispute at the courthouse on drinking.
5. Co-ordination: A second-hand car that he later traded for a motorcycle
and that he loved to tinker with.
[Stageberg, 1965: 167-168]
NP1
AP1

NP2
N1

DET1

PP1

headN1 P1

NP3
NP4

ART1

DET2

AP2
N2

ART2 headN2

(1)a.

the dog

PP2
P2

NP5

on the porch with its battered look

NP1
NP2
AP2

NP3
DET

ART

headN

(1)b. the

AP1
PP1

PP2

dog on the porch with his battered look

135

NP1
AP1

NP2
N1

DET
ART

PP

N2

AP2
A

NP3
NP4

headN1

DET

SubACl
N1

ART headN2

(2)a. the young calf of the boy who was standing near the gate
NP1
NP2

AP1

NP3
N1

DET1
ART1

AP2

AP
A

SubACl

PP
N2

headN1

(2)b. the young calf

of the boy which was standing near the gate

NP1

NP2
AP

NP3

(3)a.

136

SubACl

DET

ART

headN

PP

the rooms of the house which were dirty

NP
AP

NP2
N

DET1
ART1

PP

headN1

NP3
NP4
N

DET2
ART2

(3)b. the rooms

of

SubACl

headN2

the house which was dirty

NP1
AP1

NP2
AP2

NP3
DET
ART

PP1

PP2

headN

(4)a. a dispute at the courthouse

on drinking
(4)b. a dispute on drinking
at the courthouse
NP1
AP

NP2
DET

ART

headN

PP1
P

NP2
headGer

AdvP
PP2

(4)b. a dispute on drinking at the courthouse

137

NP1
NP2

SubACl1
N1

DET
AP

N2

ComA

headN
SubACl2

(5)a. a second-hand car

Conj

SubACl3

that he later traded for a motorcycle and that he loved to tinker with
which he later traded for a motorcycle and which he loved to tinker with
NP1
SubACl

NP2
N1

DET
ART

AP
ComA

N2
headN

(5)b. a second-hand car that he later traded

for a motorcycle which he loved to tinker with
PP
P

NP1
NP2

SubACl

DET

N1

ART

headN

(6) [that he later traded] for a motorcycle which he loved to tinker with
33.4. Account for STRUCTURALLY NON-AMBIGUOUS noun phrases.
Are the following noun phrases STRUCTURALLY NON-AMBIGUOUS?
If not, how do you account for this?
138

(1) young car salesmen

(2) second-hand car salesmen
(3) some beautiful print collectors

ANSWER:

The three noun phrases young car salesmen, second-hand car

salesmen and some beautiful print collectors are not STRUCTURALLY
AMBIGUOUS. In other words, there is only one way to explain them:

1. young car salesmen: Since people, but not things, can be described
as young, young must modify a constituent of which salesmen is the head. It
cannot modify car and hence cannot form a constituent with car. The natural
structural analysis of this noun phrase, then, is:
NP
N1

DET

N2
headComN1

AP

ModN

young

headComN2

car

salesmen

2. second-hand car salesmen: Things, but not people, can be

second-hand, so second-hand must modify (and hence form a constituent
with) car, rather than any constituent having salesmen as its head. The
natural structural analysis of this noun phrase, then, is:
NP
N1

DET

N2

AP
ModNP
N3

DET

headComN

AP

N4

headN

second-hand

car

salesmen
139

3. Some beautiful print collectors is better interpreted as some

beautiful collectors of prints and not as some collectors of beautiful
prints; that is, for me at least, print, when acting as a pre-modifier itself,
does not accept beautiful as a modifier [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 164].
NP

N1

DET
Q

N2

AP
A

headComN
ModN

some

headN

beautiful print collectors

_________________

34 Verb phrase analyses

34.1 Noun phrases as the sP/sC of an intensive verb
or as the dO of a monotransitive verb
When a verb is complemented by an NP, you will have to decide
whether [Vgrp + NP] is an example of a monotransitive Vgrp + its dO or
an example of an intensive Vgrp + its sP/sC. Compare (1) with the
following (2):
S
NP
PropN

S
VP

Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP
NP[dO]

PropN

VP
Vgrp
[intens]

NP[sP/sC]

(1) Tom SPOTTED an auctioneer.

(2) Tom WAS an auctioneer.
The nature of spotting in (1) leads to a relation between two individuals
(or, participants), a spotter (the subject) and a spottee (the direct object). That
is what makes spotted in (1) a monotransitive verb.
In (2) only one individual is mentioned (by means of the subject Tom).
The rest of the sentence (the VP) is used to characterize the subject. If (2)
expresses a relation, it is the relation between an individual and a property:
the sentence expresses the ideas that Tom has the property of being an
auctioneer.
140

APs only ever identify properties. NPs, by contrast, can be used both
to identify properties and to refer to individuals. This is why an NP can
function both as predicative (complementing an intensive verb) and as
direct object (complementing a monotransitive verb). [BurtonRoberts, 1997: 87]
34.2 NP direct objects of a monotransitive verb
or NP adverbial adjuncts of an intransitive verb
Since not all verbs followed by an NP are monotransitive, it is crucial to
distinguish an NP direct object of a monotransitive verb from an NP
adverbial adjunct of an intransitive verb. Consider the two following
sentences:
S
NP1
headN

S
VP

Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP1
NP2[dO]

PRO

VP1
VP2
Vgrp
[intrans]

AdvP
[opA of Point ofTime]
NP2

(1)a. Lightning STRUCK the oak tree. (2)a. They ARRIVED the next day.
One useful way to test whether or not a sentence really contains a
monotransitive verb plus its NP direct object is to see if it has a passive
counterpart. Compare:
(1)b. The oak tree WAS STRUCK by lightning.
(2)b. *The next day WAS ARRIVED by them.
The oak tree can be the subject of the passive sentence (1)b;
therefore, struck is monotransitive. The next day cannot be the subject
of the passive sentence (2)b; it must be an optional adverbial adjunct of
Point of Time modifying arrive, which is an intransitive verb.
In addition, adjuncts are more freely moved than required
constituents [Jacobs, 1995: 55]. Thus, as an optional adverbial adjunct of
arrive, the next day can easily be shifted to the front of (2)c:
(2)c. The next day they ARRIVED.
However, (1)c does not sound English:
141

(1)c *The oak tree lightning STRUCK.

Also as an optional adverbial adjunct of arrive, the next day
can easily be removed from (2)d:
(2)d. They ARRIVED.
Such an omission will result in the ungrammaticality of (1)d:
(1)d. *Lightning STRUCK.
This proves that the oak tree is a complement of struck. It is the
direct object of struck, to be precise.
34.3 Prepositional phrases as the sP/sC of an intensive verb
or as the optional adverbial adjunct of any verb
PPs should only be treated as part of the necessary complementation
of an intensive verb (i.e. as subject-predicatives) if they cannot be omitted.
[Burton-Roberts, 1997: 88]
So, in the engine room in (1) is a sP/sC since (2) is not a complete
sentence (even though the missing element might be understood in context):
S

NP
PropN

VP
PP [sP/sC]

Vgrp
[intens]

NP

VP

PropN

Vgrp
[intens]

(1) Oscar SHOULD BE in the engine room. (2) *Oscar SHOULD BE.
However, beside a stream in (3) is only an optional adverbial
adjunct of Location of the intransitive verb sunbathed since (4) is still a
complete English sentence:
S
NP
PropN

S
VP1

VP2
Vgrp
[intrans]

NP
AdvP
[opA of Location]
PP

(3) Phil SUNBATHED beside a stream.

142

PropN

(4) Phil

VP1
Vgrp
[intrans]

SUNBATHED.

34.4 IntransVAC vs. intransVAdv

Distinguish an intransitive verb-adverbial composite (intransVAC,
for short), which is also called an intransitive phrasal verb, from a
combination of an intransitive head verb and its adverbial adjunct
(intransVAdv):
1 He TURNED up.
intransVAC meaning appeared
2 He CLIMED up.
intransVAdv
3 The two friends WALKED out. intransVAdv
4 The two friends FELL out.
intransVAC meaning quarreled
5 He DOES CARRY on,
intransVAC meaning behave strangely
doesnt he? or argue, quarrel or complain noisily
6 After drinking rapidly and
intransVAC meaning fainted or
heavily,
lost consciousness
he suddenly PASSED on.
7 They TURNED back.
intransVAdv
8 She SAT down.
intransVAdv
9 SLOW up a bit,
intransVAC meaning
or you make yourself ill.
work more energetically
10 After a month
intransVAC meaning come to an end
their food supplies GIVE out.
11 That foreign student
intransVAC meaning will survive
WILL MAKE out.
12 Why DONT you MAKE up?
intransVAC meaning put powder,
lipstick, greasepaint, etc. on your face
to make it more attractive
13 If you are so sleepy,
intransVAC meaning go to bed
why DONT you TURN in?
14 Williard WENT in.
intransVAdv
15 She STOOD up.
intransVAdv
16 She SHUT up.
intransVAC meaning stopped talking
17 She WAS LOOKING up a new intransVAC meaning was searching
word as I entered the room.
for (a new word) in a dictionary
18 She LOOKED up from her book intransVAdv
as I entered the room.
143

34.5 MonotransVAC NP vs. IntransVPP

34.5.1 How to distinguish a monotransVACNP from an intransVPP?

ANSWER:

Only the adverbial particle (Prt, for short) of a monotransVAC can

move over its NP direct object:
(1)a. She CALLED up her husband.
b. She CALLED her husband up.
Indeed, when the direct object is a pronoun, the adverbial particle must
appear after it:
(2)a. She CALLED him up.
b.*She CALLED up him.
The preposition in a PP can never move to a position following its
complement. So, particle movement provides a very reliable test for
distinguishing between a monotransVACNP and an intransVPP:
c [He] SHOUTED out the answer or [He] SHOUTED the answer/it
out is a monotransVACNP meaning [He] gave the answer in a loud voice.
d [He] LOOKED out the window is an intransVPP meaning [He]
TURNED his eyes in a certain direction to see (sb/sth) through the window;
thus *[He] LOOKED the window out is ungrammatical.
e [He] SAW through her little game or [He] SAW her little game/it
through is a monotransVACNP meaning [He] WAS NOT DECEIVED by the
trick she had tried to play on him.
f [He] SAW through her disguise is an intransVPP meaning [He]
SAW through the thing she was wearing for disguise; thus *[He] SAW her
disguise through is ungrammatical.
Note also that while g is ambiguous, h is not:
g He LOOKED up the street can be either an intransVPP meaning
[He] TURNED his eyes in a certain direction to see (sb/sth) up the street or a
monotransVACNP meaning [He] SEARCHED for the street in a map, a guide
book, etc.
h He LOOKED the street up is only a monotransVACNP meaning
[He] SEARCHED for the street in a map, a guide book, etc.
144

34.5.2 Distinguish a combination of a transitive verb-adverbial

composite (also called a transitive phrasal verb) and its NP direct
object (monotransVAC NP, for short) from that of an intransitive verb
and its PP adverbial adjunct (intransVPP, for short):
1

He TURNED down the offer.

monotransVAC meaning rejected

He TURNED down the driveway.

intransVPP

3
4

You MUST TURN in your kit

monotransVAC meaning must return
before you leave the army.
He TURNED in the street.
intransVPP

We CALLED up the plumber.

monotransVAC meaning telephoned

Mother CALLED up the stairs.

intransVPP

Frank CALLED down his son.

monotransVAC meaning reprimanded

He CALLED down the mountain. intransVPP

9 They RAN in a circle.

10 They RAN in the criminal.

11 He BROKE in his new car.

intransVPP
monotransVAC meaning arrested (the

criminal)
and took (him) to the police station
monotransVAC meaning trained

12 She dropped the plate,

intransVPP
and it BROKE in two.
13 The wind BLEW (softly)
intransVPP
down the valley.
14 The wind BLEW down the tree. monotransVAC meaning
caused (the tree) to fall down
15 Jean RAN (quickly) up the hill.
intransVPP
16 Jane RAN up a bill.

monotransVAC meaning

allowed (a bill) to accumulate

145

17 Dr. Holmes ARRIVED at

the following conclusion.
18 When did you ARRIVED
at the airport?
19 His normally placid dog
TURNED on him
and bit him on the leg.
20 WILL you TURN on the light
in this room?
21 I RAN into an old school friend
at the supermarket this morning.
22 The bus went out of control and
RAN (straight) into a shop front.
23 She
LOOKED (straight) through me.

monotransVAC meaning reached

intransVPP
monotransVAC meaning attacked

(him) suddenly and unexpectedly

monotransVAC meaning cause (the

light) to start functioning

monotransVAC meaning
met (him/her) by chance
intransVPP
monotransVAC meaning deliberately

ignored (me) whom she could see

clearly
intransVPP

24 I LOOKED through a key hole

but saw nobody in the house.
25 The police ARE LOOKING into
monotransVAC meaning
his disappearance.
are investigating
26 I LOOKED into the box
intransVPP
but saw nothing there.
34.6 MonotransVACNP vs. monotrans-prepVprepO
Distinguish a monotransitive verb-adverbial composite (monotransVAC,
for short) from a combination of a monotransitive prepositional head
verb and its prepositional object (monotrans-prepVprepO, for short):
1
2
3

146

A nice young woman WAITED upon me a monotransVAC

in Macys yesterday.
meaning served
monotrans-prepVprepO
WeVE BEEN WAITING for you here
for half an hour.
The doctor LOOKED at
a monotransVAC
my badly swollen ankle.
meaning examined

LOOK at the blackboard, please.

monotrans-prepVprepO

She SMILED/GRINNED/STARED/

monotrans-prepVprepO

GLANCED/SQUINTED/SHOUTED at me.

We LAUGHED at Jane when she said

a monotransVAC meaning
that she believed in ghosts. mocked or ridiculed (sb)

monotrans-prepVprepO

The secretary APOLOGIZED to her boss

for her being late for work.
8 What DOES that article REFER to?
9 DO you OBJECT to what Ive just said?
10 WOULD you please LISTEN to me?

monotrans-prepVprepO
monotrans-prepVprepO
monotrans-prepVprepO

_________________

35 Sentence analyses
35.1 Identify the syntactic function of a prepositional phrase.
S

NP
PropN

VP
Vgrp
[monotrans-prep]

PP [prepO]

(1)a. Max GLANCED at the falling acrobat.

Subject + a monotrans-prepositional verb + a PP prepositional object
S
NP
PropN

VP
Vgrp
[intens]

PP[sP/sC]

(1)b. Oscar SHOULD BE in the engine room.

Subject + an intensive verb + a PP subjective complement

147

S
NP

VP1

PropN

VP2
Vgrp
[intrans]

AdvP
[opA of Location]
PP

(2)a. Phil SUNBATHED beside a stream.

Subject + an intransitive verb + an optional PP adverbial adjunct
S

NP

VP1
Vgrp
[intrans]

AdvP
[obA of Location]
PP

(2)b. The National Theatre STANDS near the river.

Subject + an intransitive verb + an obligatory PP adverbial adjunct
35.2 Decide whether a prepositional phrase is
part of the complementation of a ditransitive verb:
(1) Holden IS WRITING letters to Africa.
(2) Holden IS WRITING letters to the White House.
(3) Max TOOK the hyena to the station.
(4) Max LENT his hyena to the Dramatic Society.
(5) William BAKED a cake for Mary.
(6) William BAKED a cake for Christmas.
(7) She IS SAVING a place for Sophie.
(8) She IS SAVING the money for a new car.
ANSWER:

35.2.1 A prepositional phrase (PP, for short) is counted as part of the

complementation of a ditransitive verb only if it corresponds to a NP
functioning as an indirect object. Consider (1) and (2):
(1) Holden IS WRITING Africa letters.
(2) Holden IS WRITING the White House letters.

148

(1) is not a reasonable paraphrase of (1), but (2) is a reasonable

paraphrase of (2). Therefore, the PP in (2) is part of the complementation of
the verb write, which must be subcategorised as [ditrans] in this sentence:
S
NP1

(2)

VP

PropN

Vgrp
[ditrans]

NP2[dO]

Holden

IS WRITING

letters

PP[iO]

to the White House.

In (1), on the other hand, write is a monotransitive verb, complemented

the dO noun phrase letters to Africa:
S
NP1
PropN

VP
Vgrp
[monotrans]

NP2[dO]
NP3
DET

AP
N1

PP

headN

(1) Holden IS WRITING

letters

to Africa.

35.2.2 Considering (3) *Max bring the station the hyena, we see that
(3) is not a reasonable paraphrase of (3). Therefore, the PP to the station
is the obligatory adverbial adjunct of Terminus of bring, which is a
monotransitive verb:
S
NP1
PropN

(3) Max

VP
Vgrp
[monotrans]

BRING

NP2[dO]

the hyena

PP
[obA of Terminus]

to the station.

149

Consider (4) Max lent the Dramatic Society his hyena. (4) is a
reasonable paraphrase of (4). So the PP to the Dramatic Society is the
iO of bring, which is a ditransitive verb.
S

NP1
PropN

VP
Vgrp
[ditrans]

NP2[dO]

(4) Max LENT

his hyena

PP[iO]

to the Dramatic Society.

35.2.3 Notice that it is only NPs denoting animate things (or things
that could be interpreted as being animate) that can be indirect objects.
Mary is a person; therefore, for Mary in (5) is the iO of the
ditransitive verb bake:
(5) William BAKED a cake for Mary.
S
Vgrp
dO
iO
[ditrans]

Christmas is not a person. It is a festival; therefore, for Christmas in (6)

is not the iO the ditransitive verb bake; it is in fact the optional adverbial
adjunct of Purpose of the monotransitive verb bake:
(6) William
BAKED a cake for Christmas.
S
Vgrp
dO opA of Purpose
[monotrans]

However, the moment you interpret Christmas as a person rather than

a festival, William baked Christmas a cake sounds as perfectly grammatical as
William baked Mary a cake. In other words, for Christmas can also be
considered the iO of the ditransitive verb bake as the result of the
personification of Christmas:
NP
PropN

(5) William
(6) William
150

Vgrp
[ditrans]

BAKED
BAKED

VP
NP[dO]

a cake
a cake

PP[iO]

for Mary.
for Christmas.

35.2.4 Sophie is a person; therefore, for Sophie in (7) is the iO of the

ditransitive verb is saving:
(7) She
IS SAVING a place for Sophie.
S
Vgrp
dO
iO
[ditrans]

A new car is not a person. It is a non-living thing; therefore, for a new

car in (8) is not the iO of the ditransitive verb is saving; it is in fact the
optional adverbial adjunct of Purpose of the monotransitive verb is
saving:
(8) She IS SAVING the money for a new car.
S
Vgrp
dO
opA of Purpose
[monotrans]

35.3 Explain the difference between two sentences.

ANSWER:

(1)a. The meeting LASTED three hours.

b. The meeting LASTED for three hours.
(2)a. The seafront EXTENDS four miles.
b. The seafront EXTENDS for four miles.
(3)a. He CALLED her an angel.
b. He CALLED her a taxi.
(4)a. I LL MAKE you First Secretary.
b. I LL MAKE you an omelette.
(5)a. The two friends FELL out.
b. The two friends WALKED out.
(6)a. The samovar BROKE.
b. Anna BROKE the samovar.
(7)a. Ed WILL MAKE Liz a good wife.
b. Ed WILL MAKE Liz lots of money.
(8)a. The burglar LEFT the house in a mess.
b. The burglar LEFT the house in a few minutes.

The following pairs of sentences differ from each another in the internal
structure of their verb phrases:

151

35.3.1 Verbs of measurement like last or extend link to a noun phrase or

a prepositional phrase which indicates extent (e.g. how much the subject
costs, what it measures, how long it lasts, etc.).
The verb in (1)a and (2)a is monotransitive:
(1)a. The meeting
LASTED
three hours.
EXTENDS four miles.
(2)a. The seafront
Subject
Vgrp
NP
[monotrans] [predicator complement]
The verb in (1)b and (2)b is intransitive:
(1)b. The meeting LASTED
for three hours.
(2)b. The seafront EXTENDS for four miles.
Vgrp
PP
Subject
[intrans] [obA of Extent in Time or Space]
35.3.2 Call and make in (3)a and (4)a are complex transitive verbs:
her
an angel.
(3)a. He CALLED
(4)a. I LL MAE
you First Secretary
S
Vgrp
dO
oP/oC
[complex]

Call and make in (3)b and (4)b are ditransitive verbs:

(3)b. He CALLED her
a taxi.
(4)b. I LL MA
you an omelette.
S
Vgrp
iO
dO
[ditrans]

35.3.3 Fell out in (5)a is an intransitive VERB-ADVERBIAL COMPOSITE

(intransVAC, for short) [Stageberg, 1965: 220] /an intransitive phrasal
verb meaning quarreled. This intransVAC consists of the lexical verb fell
and the adverbial particle out.

Walked out in (5)b is a combination of walked, which is an

intransitive head verb, and out, which is the adverbial adjunct of
Direction of the verb.
152

NP

VP
N1

DET
ART

N2

QA
NUM

Vgrp
[intransVAC]

NP
N1

DET
AR

headN

VP1
VP2
N2

QA
NUM

AdvP
[opA of Direction]

Vgrp
[intrans]

headN

Adv

(5)a. The two friends FELL out. (5)b. The two friends WALKED out.
35.3.4 Broke in (6)a is an intransitive verb meaning separated into two
or more parts as a result of force or strain (but not by cutting).

Broke in (6)b is a monotransitive verb meaning caused (the samovar)

to break.

NP
DET
ART

(6)a.

VP
N

Vgrp
[intrans]

NP1
PropN

VP

NP2[dO]

Vgrp
[monotrans]

headN

The samovar BROKE. (6)b. Anna BROKE

the samovar.

35.3.5 Will make in (7)a is a complex transitive verb meaning will

cause (Liz) to be/become. A good wife is the object(ive) complement of
the direct object Liz.

Will make in (7)b is a ditransitive verb meaning will provide (Liz)

with. Lots of money is the direct object while Liz is the indirect object,
both complementing the verb.
S
NP1
PropN

S
VP

Vgrp NP2[dO]
[complex]

NP1
NP3[oC]

PropN

VP
Vgrp
[ditrans]

NP2[iO]

NP3[dO]

(7)a. Ed WILL MAKE Liz a good wife. (7)b. Ed WILL MAKE Liz lots of money.
153

35.3.6 Left in (8)a is a complex transitive verb meaning caused or

allowed (the house) to remain in a certain condition, and in a mess is the
object(ive) complement (oC) of the direct object (dO) the house.
Left in (8)b is a monotransitive verb meaning went away from (the
house), and in a few minutes is an adverbial adjunct of Point of Time of
the head verb.
S
NP1

VP
Vgrp
[complex]

(8)a. The burglar

NP2[dO]

LEFT the house

PP[oP/oC]

in a mess.

NP1

VP1
VP2
Vgrp
NP2[dO]
[monotrans]

AdvP

[opA of Time]
PP

(8)b. The burglar LEFT the house in a few minutes.

Note that there exists an intensive relationship linking the dO and its
oC. This can be tested by a paraphrase with be: The house WAS in a mess.
No such relationship can be found between the house and in a few minutes:
*The house WAS in a few minutes.
35.4 Re-analyse sentence pairs, using tree-diagrams.
The following pairs of sentences differ from each other in the internal
structure of their verb phrases:
(1)a. He
TASTED the strange meat with great care.
S + monotrans headV + NP/dO + PP/adjunct of Manner
(1)b. The meat TASTED
salty and spicy.
S + intensive headV + AP/subject(ive) complement (sC)

154

(2)a. His favorite pastime

IS
swimming.
S + intensive headV + NP/(sC)
(2)b. He
LIKES
swimming in his leisure time.
S + monotrans headV + NP/dO + PP/adjunct of Time
(3)a. We
WERE
reluctant to leave.
S + intensive headV + AP/(sC)
(3)b. We
WERE
reluctant, to tell the truth.
S + intensive headV + AP/sC + disjunct 5/sentence modifier
(4)a. My brother STAYED an outstanding student
NP/sC
S + intensive headV +
(4)b. The government STAYED the execution.
S + monotrans headV + NP/Do
Note that as an intensive verb, stayed means remained; as a
monotransitive verb, stayed means delayed (something).
TURNED
red
at the thought.
(5)a. She
S + intensive headV + A/sC + PP/adjunct of Cause
(5)b. She TURNED
right ( left)
at the corner.
S + intrans headV + Adv/obA of Direction + PP/ adjunct of Location

(5)b. She TURNED

right (= exactly) at the corner.
S + intrans headV + Adv +
PP/adjunct of Location
Note that as an intensive verb, turned means became or got; as a
intransitive verb, turned means went round something.
(6)a. He
RETURNED a slightly different umbrella.
S + monotrans headV
+ NP/dO
5

A disjunct refers to the expression of the speakers stance or attitude to what he is

saying [Jackson, 1980: 26]: Frankly, I cant see George doing the job either.

155

(6)b. He RETURNED
home
several hours later.
S + intrans headV + Adv/adjunct of Terminus + AdvP/adjunct of Time
Note that as a monotransitive verb, returned means give, bring, send
(sb, sth) back; as an intransitive verb, returned means came or went back to
a place.
(7)a. Mark
GOT
a scheme to win Kathys heart.
S + monotrans headV +
NP/dO
(7)b. Mark
GOT
a job to earn money for his holiday.
S + monotrans headV + NP/dO + InfP/adjunct of Purpose
(8)a. I
RAN across
my old friend.
S + monotransVAC/monotrans inseparable phrasal headV NP/dO
(8)b. I
RAN
across a field.
S + intrans headV + PP/adjunct of Path
(9)a. LEAVE
the door open.
complex trans headV + NP/dO +A/oC
(9)b. LEAVE the cooking to me.
ditrans headV + NP/dO + PP/iO
(10)a. Several women MOVED
to help her.
S + intrans headV + InfP/adjunct of Purpose
(10)b. Several women OFFERED
to help her.
S + monotrans headV + InfP/dO
(11)a. We
ASKED
some questions.
S + monotrans headV NP/dO
(11)b. We
ASKED
three times.
S + intrans headV + NP/adjunct of Frequency

156

(12)a. I
LOVED
her
the instant I saw her.
S + monotrans headV + pronoun/dO + NP/adjunct of Time
(12)b. I
GAVE
her
the ticket she asked.
S + ditrans headV + pronoun/iO + NP/dO
(13)a. I never
HOLD
that man
my friend.
S + Adv + complex headV + NP/dO + NP/object(ive) complement (oC)

adjunct of Frequency

(13)b. My brain CANT HOLD so much information.

S + monotrans headV + NP/dO
Note that as a complex transitive verb, hold means regard or
consider; as a monotransitive verb, hold means contain.
_________________

36 Structural ambiguity in English verb phrases

Re-explain the structural ambiguity of each of the given verb
phrases, using tree-diagrams.
1. [He] considered the applicant hard.
This verb phrase is structurally ambiguous because:
(1)a. hard is an adverb meaning carefully or with care, being an
optional adverbial adjunct of manner of the monotransitive verb considered,
which means thought about or took into account:
He CONSIDERED
the applicant
hard.
S + monotrans headV + NP/dO + adjunct of Manner
(1)b. hard is an adjective meaning difficult to be accepted, being
the object predicative (oP)/the objective complement (oC) of the dO
noun phrase the applicant. Both the dO and its oP/oC follow the complex
transitive verb considered meaning regarded:
He
CONSIDERED
the applicant
hard.
S + complex trans headV + NP/dO + adjective/oP or oC

157

2. [He]

watched the hunters with binoculars.

This verb phrase is structurally ambiguous because:

(2)a. With binoculars is a PP, an adjectival post-modifier of the
NP the hunters:
He WATCHED the hunters with binoculars.
S + monotrans headV + NP/dO
(2)b. With binoculars is a PP, an optional adverbial adjunct of
means of watched, which is a monotransitive verb:
He
WATCHED
the hunters with binoculars.
S + monotrans headV + NP/dO + adjunct of Means
3. [The car] coasted into the garage with lights on.
This verb phrase is structurally ambiguous because:
(3)a. With lights on is a PP, an adjectival post-modifier of the NP
the garage. The NP the garage with lights on, in its turn, is the
complement of the preposition into, resulting in the PP into the garage
with lights on. This PP is an optional adverbial adjunct of terminus of
the intransitive verb coasted, which means move, esp. downhill (in a car, on
a bicycle, etc.) without using power:
The car COASTED into the garage with lights on.
S + intrans headV + PP/adjunct of Terminus
(3)b. With lights on is a PP, an optional adverbial adjunct of
manner of the intransitive verb coasted. And into the garage is another PP,
an optional adverbial adjunct of terminus of coasted:
The car COASTED
into the garage
with lights on.
S + intrans headV + PP/adjunct of Terminus + PP/adjunct of Manner
4. [They] are moving sidewalks.
This verb phrase is structurally ambiguous because:
158

(4)a. Moving is the present participle of the verb move, a verbal,

part of the finite verb are moving:
They ARE MOVING
sidewalks.
S + monotrans headV + Compound Noun/dO
(4)b. Moving is the present participle (V-part, for short) of the verb
move, an adjectival pre-modifier of the compound noun sidewalks:
They
ARE
moving
sidewalks.
S + intensive headV + V-part/adjectival pre-modifier + Compound Noun/dO
5. [The witch] turned on the stove.
This verb phrase is structurally ambiguous because:
(5)a. On the stove is a PP, an optional adverbial adjunct of
location of the intransitive verb turned, which means move so that a
different side faces outwards or upwards:
The witch TURNED
on the stove.
S + intrans headV + PP/adjunct of Location
(5)b. Turned on is a monotransitive VAC meaning caused (the
stove) to start functioning:
The witch
TURNED on
the stove.
S + monotransVAC
+ NP/dO
6. [She] decided on the train.
This verb phrase is structurally ambiguous because:
(6)a. On the train is a PP, a (obligatory) prepositional object
(prepO, for short) of the monotransitive prepositional verb decided meaning
chose, selected or took, accepted. Thus, the whole sentence may mean:
She selected to travel by train.
She
DECIDED
on the train.
S + monotrans-prep headV

+ PP/prepO

(6)b. On the train is a PP, an (optional) adverbial adjunct of

location of the intransitive verb decided, which means made up her mind.
159

Thus, the whole sentence may mean: She made up her mind (while she was
travelling) on the train.
She
DECIDED
on the train.
S + intrans headV + PP/adjunct of Location
7. He runs the office and deals with critical clients well.
This verb phrase is structurally ambiguous because:
(7)a. Well is an adverb, an (optional) adverbial adjunct of manner
of the verb phrase deals with critical clients.
With critical clients is a (obligatory) prepositional object
(prepO, for short) of the monotransitive prepositional verb deals:
He runs the office and DEALS
with critical clients
well.
S+
monotrans prepositional headV PP/prepO adjunct of Manner
(7)b. Well is an adverb, an (optional) adverbial adjunct of manner
of the structure of co-ordination which consists of two VPs: runs the office
and deals with critical clients. These two VPs are linked by the coordinate conjunction and:
He RUNS the office and DEALS with critical clients
S + VP1 + co-ordinate conjunction + VP2

well.

Adv/adjunct of Manner

8. [The teacher] stood drinking in the moonlight.

This verb phrase is structurally ambiguous because:
(8)a. Drink in (the moonlight) is a monotransitive VAC meaning
observe (the moonlight) with pleasure.
The participial phrase (PartP, for short) drinking in the moonlight is
an obligatory adverbial adjunct of manner of the intransitive verb
stood:
The teacher STOOD drinking in the moonlight.
S + intrans headV + PartP/adjunct of Manner

160

(8)b. The PP in the moonlight is an optional adverbial adjunct of

location of drinking, which is the present/progressive participle of the
intransitive verb drink.
The participial phrase drinking in the moonlight is an obligatory
adverbial adjunct of manner of the intransitive verb stood:
drinking in the moonlight.
The teacher STOOD
S+
intrans headV + PartP/adjunct of Manner
9. [Max] found Ed an amusing companion.
This verb phrase is structurally ambiguous because:
(9)a. Found is a ditransitive verb:
S + ditransV + iO + dO

= S + ditransV + dO

iO
Max FOUND Ed an amusing companion. = Max FOUND an amusing companion for Ed.

(9)b. Found is a complex transitive verb:

Max
FOUND
Ed an amusing companion.
S + complex transV + dO + oP/oC
10. [The members] only were allowed to buy beer.
This verb phrase is structurally ambiguous because it may or may not
contain the adverb only:
(10)a. Only is an adverb; and it plays the role of a restricter to emphasize
the NP the members:
The members only
WERE ALLOWED to buy beer.
NP/Subject +
VP/Predicate
b. Only is an adverb; and it plays the role of an optional adverbial adjunct
of degree or extent which is used to emphasize the VP were allowed to buy
beer:
The members
only WERE ALLOWED to buy beer.
NP/Subject +
VP/Predicate
The above illustrations prove that the adjectival post-nominal
position coincides with the adverbial pre-verbal position.
________________
161

37 Phrase structure
37.1 Definition:
Phrase structure is the division of a sentence into parts, and
the division of those parts into subparts. [Kaplan, 1989: 191] For
instance, the sentence Our French teachers have just left for France
can be first divided into two parts as follows:
S

Our French teachers

have just left for France.

Its usually easy to split a sentence into two parts. The left part
normally functions as subject, the right part as predicate. Within the subject
and the predicate, though, the division isnt always so straightforward. In the
above sentence, for example, there are two possibilities for dividing up the
NP subject our French teachers:
(1) Our French teachers may mean our teachers, who come
from France. French in this case is an adjective of nationality meaning
of or concerning France. It pre-modifies the head noun teachers,
resulting in the noun phrase French teachers.
(2) Our French teachers may mean our teachers whose subject
is French. French in this case is a noun meaning the language spoken in
France. It is one of the two free bases which are combined together to form
the compound noun French teachers.
NP

N1

DET
PossA

NP

AP

N2

headN

(1) our French

DET

teachers

PossA

headComN

ModN

(2) our

French

headN

teachers

37.2 How to determine phrase structure?

37.2.1 Apply the SUBSTITUTION criterion: One approach to
determining phrase structure is a substitution test: whatever you can
162

substitute a single word for, preserving grammaticality, is a chunk, a phrase

[Kaplan, 1989: 191].
37.2.1.1 Substitution usually supports the intuitive division of a
whole sentence into subject and predicate.
Sentence
Subject Predicate
A white horse cantered eagerly around the coral
Substituting Max

You
I
They

burped gives: A white horse burped,

snored
Max cantered eagerly around the coral,
laughed
I cantered eagerly around the coral,
dozed
They snored, etc.

Substitution produces sentences like Max cantered eagerly around

the coral, I cantered eagerly around the coral, a white horse burped,
they snored, etc. Since these are grammatical, the division of the sentence
into two parts a white horse and cantered eagerly around the coral is
supported.
37.2.1.2 Suppose we believed the sequence horse cantered
eagerly was a phrase, a chunk of the sentence. We should search in vain
for a substitution for it that would preserve grammaticality:

A white horse cantered eagerly around the coral

letter
existed
Substituting of
gives:
clearly
green

*A white letter around the coral,

*A white existed around the coral,
*A white of around the coral,
*A white clearly around the coral,
*A white green around the coral, etc.
Because the results of substituting are not grammatical sentences,
horse cantered eagerly is not a phrase.
37.2.1.3 It is also useful to extend the substitution criterion a bit
further, first, by substituting not just a single word, but a word sequence for
163

another word sequence, and second, by examining mutual substitution

possibilities in a range of environments. The idea is that word
sequences which are mutually substitutable in a given environment are
likely to be phrases; and if they are mutually substitutable in different
environments they are even more likely to be phrases [Kaplan, 1989: 193].
Suppose we suspect the underlined word sequences in the
following sentences are phrases:
(1)a. The puppy scratched at the screen door.
(2)a. I want that little striped kitten.
(3)a. Little Susie yawned.
(4)a. I really like swimming in the reservoir.
In the context of (4)a, these four underlined word sequences are
mutually substitutable.
(4)b. I really like the puppy.
c. I really like that little striped kitten.
d. I really like Little Susie.
In the context of (1)a, (2)a, and (3)a; the puppy, that little striped
kitten, and Little Susie are mutually substitutable:
(1)b. That little striped kitten scratched at the screen door.
c. Little Susie scratched at the screen door.
(2)b. I want the puppy.
c. I want Little Susie.
(3)b. The puppy yawned.
c. That little striped kitten yawned.
In these contexts we cannot place swimming in the reservoir:
(1)d. *Swimming in the reservoir scratched at the screen door.
(2)d. *I want swimming in the reservoir.
(3)d. *Swimming in the reservoir yawned.
In other contexts, however, swimming in the reservoir is mutually
substitutable with other candidate phrases:
164

(5)a. The puppy can really be fun.

b. That little striped kitten can really be fun.
c. Little Susie can really be fun.
d. Swimming in the reservoir can really be fun.
(6)a. I just love that little striped kitten.
b. I just love Little Susie.
c. I just love swimming in the reservoir.
(7)a. What the puppy means to me is a good time.
b. What that little striped kitten means to me is a good time.
c. What Little Susie means to me is a good time.
d. What swimming in the reservoir means to me is a good time.
Therefore, we can tentatively conclude that all four of these
candidate phrases are in fact phrases.
37.2.2 Apply the CONJOINABILITY criterion: Phrases are conjoined
with and [Kaplan, 1989: 194]. All the conjoined word sequences are
phrases:
(8)a. Max left and Stella stayed.
(2 conjoined clauses)
b. King Arthur and Queen Guinevere both lustre after gold.
(2 conjoined NPs)
c. Mark runs the office and deals with clients. (2 conjoined VPs)
d. A very large and kind of scary dog is barking next door.
(2 conjoined APs)
But non-phrases cannot be conjoined:
(9) *The boy ran into the and girl dashed out of the schoolyard.
The reason why this example is ungrammatical is that boy ran into
the and girl dashed out of the are not phrases.
The way to apply the conjoinability test is to try to conjoin a
suspected phrase with one containing different words, but what seems to
165

be the same internal structure. For instance, if you suspect (as you should)
that in the sentence Max devoured the sweet jam the word sequence the
sweet jam is a phrase, you should try to conjoin it with something similar,
like the stale toast: On the table is the sweet jam and the stale toast.
This is a grammatical sentence, so you conclude, tentatively, that the sweet
jam is a phrase. [Kaplan, 1989: 195]
37.2.3 Apply the MOVEMENT criterion: Any sequence of words that
moves as a unit, linguists have reasoned, is a unit [Kaplan, 1989: 196]. For
instance, in Max bought some great toys for Alisons four-year-old
daughter, the word sequence some great toys and Alisons four-yearold daughter can both be switched:
(10)a. Max BOUGHT some great toys for Alisons four-year-old daughter.

b. Max BOUGHT Alisons four-year-old daughter

some great toys.

Both movements indicate phrase-hood [Kaplan, 1989: 196]. The

movements in (10a-b) result in the deletion of for while those in (11)a-b
result in the addition of was and by:
(11)a. A moron BURNED that old house.

b. That old house WAS BURNED by a moron.

Although the movements in the following examples show neither
deletion nor addition, they identify certain word sequences as phrases:
(12)a. Jane BOUGHT a new leather handbag.
b. A new leather handbag IS what Jane BOUGHT.
(13)a. That Max loves blue cheese dressing IS surprising to no one.
b. It IS surprising to no one that Max loves blue cheese dressing.

166

(14)a. Ed CRIED when Sally left.

b. When Sally left, Ed CRIED.
(15)a. She said he would wash the dishes, and he DID WASH the dishes.
b. She said he would wash the dishes, and WASH the dishes he DID.
37.2.4 Check whether or not a sequence of words is THE ANTECEDENT
for A PRO-FORM:
Pronouns, pro-verb phrases, pro-sentences, pro-prepositional phrases,
and pro-adjective phrases all take phrases as antecedents, not non-phrase
strings of words. In the following examples, the underlined sequences of
words (all phrases) are the antecedents for the understood pro-forms
[Kaplan, 1989: 198]:
(16)a. Pronoun: The old men stopped because they were tired.
b. Pro-verb phrase: Jeff asked Sandy to dance before Peter could do so.
c. Pro-sentence: Smith now plays the horses,
and it doesnt surprise me one bit.
d. Pro-prepositional phrase: We put the bugs in the jar
and left them there overnight.
e. Pro-adjective phrase: Lavern is really obese but she didnt become so
until after she inherited all the money.
When we can find evidence from more than one criterion, the case for
a particular sequence being a phrase is obviously strengthened. [Kaplan,
1989: 196]
37.3 Phrase structure exercises
Which criterion (substitution, conjoinability, movement or
checking the antecedent for a Pro-form) can satisfactorily discover the
phrase structure of a white horse? Support your choice.
ANSWER:

37.3.1 In a white horse, if we can find a single word to substitute for a

white, then we are justified in calling a white a phrase. For a white we can

167

substitute the, my, this, one, in each case preserving grammatically: the
horse, my horse, this horse and one horse.
(1)
a white horse

Substituting:

the
my
this
one

gives:

the horse
my horse
this horse
one horse

On the basis of this, we can divide the phrase like this: a white horse.
However, for white horse, we can also find grammatical substitutes:
piano, horse, tree, man, soul: a piano, a horse, a tree, a man, a soul.
(2)
a white horse

piano
horse
Substituting: tree
man
soul

a piano
a horse
gives:
a tree
a man
a soul
On the basis of this, we can divide the phrase like this: a white horse.
Unfortunately, substitution fails to tell us which of the two groupings, either
(1) or (2), is correct.
37.3.2 How helpful is conjoinability in helping us decide on the phrase
structure of a white horse? Unfortunately, not very. Both a white and white
horse are conjoinable with similar sequence:
(3)a. A6 white horse and gray pony7 WERE DELIVERED yesterday.
b. A white and a gray horse8 WERE DELIVERED yesterday.
6

Since a white horse and a gray pony have exactly the same internal structure, the
repeated indefinite article a/an is acceptably omitted in the second noun phrase, i.e.
after the co-ordinate conjunction and.
7
pony /p6n1/ (noun) a small type of horse
8
Since a white horse and a gray horse have exactly the same internal structure, the
shared head noun of these two noun phrases , which is horse, is acceptably omitted in
the first.
168

Therefore, as with the substitutability criterion, according to the

conjoinability criterion both a white and white horse are constituents.
But they cant both be, since they overlap.
37.3.3 Can the movement criterion determine the phrase structure of a
white horse?
Look at the movement pattern shown below:
(4)a. Though he IS a careful typist, he still makes mistakes.
b. Careful typist though he IS, he still makes mistakes.
(5)a. Though she WAS a fast finisher, she didnt win all her races.
b. Fast finisher though she WAS, she didnt win all her races.
Significantly, this pattern applies to white horse, but not to a white:
(6)a. Though he IS a white horse, he will fit in with the rest of the herd.
b. White horse though he IS, he will fit in with the rest of the herd.
(7)a. Though he IS a white horse, he will fit in with the rest of the herd.
b. *A white though he IS horse, he will fit in with the rest of the herd.
Since the result of the movement in (6)a-b is grammatical, but that in
(7)a-b is ungrammatical, it seems reasonable to conclude that the phrase
structure of a white horse is a white horse; it is not a white horse.
NP

ART

*NP

N1

DET
AP

N2

headN

white

ART

white

headN

horse

horse

169

37.3.4 There is a so-called pronoun one that can refer to white horse
as an antecedent, if not in a white horse, at least in the identity structured
the white horse:
(8) I want the white horse by the gate, not the one in the stall.
On the basis of movement and being an antecedent for a pro-form,
then, we can be fairly confident about assigning the phrase structure a
white horse to the phrase a white horse.
________________

38 Phrase structure rules

38.1 Phrase-structure Rules specify the constituency of syntactic
categories in the language.
For example, in English a Noun Phrase (NP) can be an Article (Art)
followed by a Noun (N) The Phrase Structure Rule which makes this
explicit can be stated as:
NP Art N
This rule conveys two facts:
(a) A Noun Phrase can be an Article followed by a Noun.
(b) An Article followed by a Noun is a Noun Phrase.

Phrase-structure Rules make explicit speakers knowledge of the order

of words and the grouping of words into syntactic categories. [Fromkin and
Rodman, 1993: 87-88]
38.2 The following Phrase Structure Rules are part of the grammar of
English:
38.2.1 Phrase-structure Rules for rewriting Noun Phrases:
1. NP N
(NP consists of N)
2. NP DET N
(NP consists of DET + N)
3. NP DET A N
(NP consists of DET + A + N)
4. NP DET A N PP (NP consists of DET + A + N + PP)
These four rules can be collapsed into a single rule if we place
parentheses around optional elements (that is, around elements that need not
be present). Notice that the only constituent required in each NP rewrite rule

170

is N: the other constituents DET, A, and PP are optional and must be

placed in parentheses. The abbreviated rule looks like this:
5. NP (DET) (A) N (PP)
Because DET, A, and PP are optional, we can rewrite NP not only as in
1, 2, 3, and 4 above, but also in other ways, including 6 and 7.
6. NP A N
7. NP DET N PP
38.2.2 Phrase-structure Rules for rewriting Sentences and Verb Phrases:
To capture the fact that sentences and clauses have two basic
constituent parts, we formulate the following phrase structure:
8. S NP VP
Having seen various expansion of NP, we turn now to the internal
structure of VP to explore its expansion and the rewrite rules necessary to
accommodate them:
9. VP V: Lou won.
10. VP V NP: Lou won a bicycle.
11. VP V NP (S): Lou warned [the cook] [that he must wash the celery].
12. VP V (NP) (PP) (S): Lou warned [the cook] [on Monday]
[that he must wash the celery].
13. VP V (S): The indictment charged [that Lou embezzled funds].
14. VP V PP: Lou flew to Miami.
15. VP V NP PP: Lou won the bike in a contest.
16. VP V PP S: Lou denied in court that he flew to Miami.
38.2.3 Phrase-structure Rules for rewriting Prepositional Phrases:
Other well-form English sentences indicate that a PP consists of a
preposition and that all prepositions take complements and their complements
are always nominals [Stageberg, 1965: 196-199]. In other words, a
preposition is always dominated by a PP and always has a nominal
complement as a following sister:
17. PP PREP NP
171

38.2.4 We have now arrived at the following phrase-structure rules for

English:
S NP VP
NP (DET) (A) N (PP)
VP V (NP) (PP) (S)
PP PREP NP
________________

39 Surface structures vs. deep structures

Each sentence is considered to have two levels of structure: the deep
structure and the surface structure. The surface structure is generally the
syntactic structure of the sentence which a person speaks, hears, reads or
writes, e.g. the passive sentence
The newspaper was not delivered today.
The deep structure is much more abstract and is considered to be in the
speakers, writers or readers mind. The deep structure for the above
sentence would be something like:
(NEGATIVE) someone (PAST TENSE) deliver the newspaper today (PASSIVE)
The items in brackets are not lexical items but grammatical concepts
which shape the final form of the sentence. Rules which describe deep
structure (phrase-structure rules) are in the first part of the
grammar (BASE COMPONENT). Rules which transform these structures
(transformational rules) are the second part of the grammar
(TRANSFOMATIONAL COMPONENT). [Richards, Platt and Weber, 1987: 74]
Thus, we postulate two levels of sentence structure in the sentence
John loves Richard more than Martha. The level that is represented by
the linear string of morphemes and words as uttered or written is called a
surface structure The other level of structure is an abstract level underlying
the surface structure. Structure at this level is called deep structure or
underlying structure.
From an underlying structure, a surface structure is generated by
application of a series of syntactic processes called transformational rules, or
transformations. [Finegan, 1994: 141-142]
172

The phrase-structure rules we proposed earlier would actually

generate a deep structure. Then the syntactic processes the
transformations would operate on the deep structure generated by the
phrase-structure rules to produce a surface structure. We can represent
the situation schematically as follows:
PHRASE-STRUCTURE RULES

Deep structure

TRANSFORMATIONAL RULES

Surface structure

Lets consider the two following examples:

Ex1. PHRASE-STRUCTURE RULES:

S NP VP
NP PropN

VP V NP AdvP

Deep structure: John LOVES Richard more than he LOVES Martha.

THE OMISSION TRANSFORMATIONAL RULE:

Omit the repeated subject he and the repeated verb loves.

Surface structure: John LOVES Richard more than Martha.

Ex2. PHRASE-STRUCTURE RULES:

S NP VP
NP PropN

VP V NP AdvP

Deep structure: John LOVES Richard more than Martha LOVES Richard.

THE OMISSION TRANSFORMATIONAL RULE:

Omit the repeated verb loves and the repeated direct object Richard.

Surface structure: John LOVES Richard more than Martha.

173

The two above examples prove that two different deep structures may
share the same surface structure as a result of the application of a certain
transformational rule. Note also that a sentence is structurally ambiguous
when its only surface structure is derived from two or more different deep
structures.
________________

40 Signals of syntactic structures

There exist five signals of syntactic structures: word order,
function words, inflections, derivational contrast, and prosody.
40.1. Word order /w3:d ,0:d6/ is the arrangement of words in a
sentence. Languages often differ in their word order ... In English, the
position of a word in a sentence often signals its function. Thus, in the
sentence: Dogs eat meat. The position of dogs shows that it is the SUBJECT,
and the position of meat shows that it is the OBJECT.
In some languages, including English, a change from the usual word
order may often be used to emphasize or contrast, eg:

That cheese I really dont like.

where the object is shifted to the beginning.
[Richards, Platt and Webber, 1987: 313]
40.2. Function words /f7k6n ,w3:dz/ are words which have little
meaning on their own, but which show grammatical relationships in and
between sentences (grammatical meaning). Conjunctions, prepositions,
articles, e.g. and, to, the, are function words. [Richards, Platt and Webber,
1987: 61]
A preposition is a word that shows the relation between

pronoun and other words in a sentence.

I walked
to the house
around the house
through the house

the book

a noun or a

by him

him
about him
for

In the above examples, prepositions make great differences in meaning

when they link the house with walked, and him with the book.

174

Co-AP
AP1

Conj

A1

(1)a. stupid

Co-NP
AP2
A2

but persevering

NP1

NP2

N1

N2

Conj

NP3
N3

(1)b. sandwiches, relish, and coffee

Stupid but persevering is a

CO-ORDINATE ADJECTIVE PHRASE

with

stupid and persevering coordinated by but.

Sandwiches, relish, and coffee is a

CO-ORDINATE NOUN PHRASE

with sandwiches, relish, and coffee coordinated by and.

40.3. Inflection
Inflection is the change, or modification, in the form of a word to
indicate a change in its meaning. [House and Harman, 1965: 15]
Inflection refers to the way English makes related forms of words of
the same part of speech, such as plurals and possessives of nouns and past
tenses of verbs. [Kaplan, 1989: 28]
Almost all English nouns have two forms: the plain form used in the
constructions like a book or the book and the inflected form which is
formed by adding inflectional suffixes to the plain form. The plain form and
its three inflected forms together make up a four-form inflectional noun
paradigm, which is a set of relative forms of a noun. Not all nouns have three
inflected forms:
one plain form
(= the stem)
mother (singular noun)

three inflected forms

(= the stem + inflectional suffixes)
mothers (plural noun)
mothers (singular-possessive noun)
mothers (plural-possessive noun)

The inflections of a verb are more complicated than those of a noun.

The inflectional paradigm of an irregular verb has four inflected forms:
breaks, breaking, broke, and broken. [To Minh Thanh, 2003: 45]
175

40.4. Derivational contrast /,der1ve1nl k4ntrast/ is

Derivation is the formation of new words by adding affixes to
other words or morphemes. For example, the noun insanity is derived
from the adjective sane by addition of the negative prefix in and the nounforming suffix ity. [Richards, Platt and Weber, 1987: 77]
The verb flirt, the noun flirtation, the adjective flirtatious, and the
adverb flirtatiously can be identified thanks to such derivational contrast.
40.5. Prosody /pr4s6d1/ is a collective term for variation in loudness,
pitch and speech rhythm [Richards, Platt and Webber, 1987: 233]
Different degrees of stress are used for emphasis. A stressed syllable
can be given greater stress by increasing its length, its loudness and/or by
raising its pitch more. In the following examples, the responses are stated
at different levels of stress:
stress for emphasis

How was the ship?

Was it a bad storm?
How was the sunset?

It was huge.
It was terrible.
It was awesome.

greater stress for emphasis

It was HUGE!
It was TERrible!
It was AWEsome!

Rhythm is a pattern in timing. We can see rhythm patterns in

many things, such as in dancing, in music, and in speech. The rhythm of
speech is based on the timing of sound segments. In English, these segments
are the word syllables. [Lujan, 2004: 4.1]
The uneven timing in STRESSED SYLLABLES and in unstressed syllables
gives English speech its characteristic rhythm:
- Id LIKE to TAKE my DOG for a WALK.
- It isnt MEREly eNOUGH.
- They DID it ALL by themSELVES.
Function words are normally unstressed and therefore are often
spoken with the same timing as unstressed syllables. In the following
dialogue, and is spoken reduced or stressed, resulting in variations of the
English rhythm:
176

Would you like soup or salad? _ Id like soup and salad.

What kind of dressing?
_ Oil and vinegar.
What to drink?
_ Coffee with cream and sugar.
And for dessert, we have cake or ice cream.
_ Ill take cake and ice cream.
________________

41 What is syntax?
Syntax is a term used for the study of the rules governing the way words
are combined to form SENTENCES." [Finch, 2000: 77]
Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules
which govern the information of sentences [Richards, Platt and Weber,
1987: 285]
Cu phap la cap o duy nhat cua ngon ng trc tiep lien he vi viec bieu at
t tng va cau la phng tien hnh thanh va dien at trc tiep mot t duy
tron ven. [Cao Xuan Hao, 1991: 24]

177

SECTION 4: SAMPLE TESTS IN ENGLISH LINGUISTICS

TRNG H KHXH&NV
HOI ONG TUYEN SINH SH 2000
TRNG H KHXH&NV

CONG HOA XA HOI CHU NGHA VIET NAM

oc lap - T do - Hanh phuc
**********

**********
E THI TUYEN SINH SAU AI HOC
CHUYEN NGANH PHNG PHAP GIANG DAY TIENG ANH
Mon thi: LINGUISTICS
Thi gian: 180 phut
PART I. SYNTAX

1. a. What is a descriptive grammar? How is it different from a

prescriptive grammar?
b. Explain deep structure and surface structure. Give an example from
English in which two deep structures are realized by only one surface
structure.
2. Determine the form (N, V, Adj, Adv, or Uninflected Words UW),
position (Nominal, Verbal, Adjectival, adverbial), and syntactic function
(Subj, DirObj, IndirObj, PrepObj, V, SubjComp, Mod) of the underlined word
in each of the following sentences.
Ex: Max was struck by lightning.
Form: V Position: Nominal Function: PrepObj
(i)
She gave him an encouraging smile.
(ii) I am too frightened to move.
(iii) They visited him in the summer.
(iv) Self-confidence is the key factor in getting yourself a good job.
(v) She works in a language center.
3. Determine whether the underlined parts in the following sentences are
constituents by using any of the following tests: substitution, coordination, and
movement. If you decide that something is NOT a constituent, you need to
identity what the constituent is by underlying it.
Ex: She sharpened the pencil with a knife.
Not a constituent (you also need to say what test you have used to
make your decision). There are in fact two constituents here:
She sharpened the pencil with a knife.

178

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

The boy turned down the radio.

They ran quickly down the road.
Everyone charged with a crime deserves a fair trial.
The roaring crowd drowned out the candidate.
I climbed out of bed and jumped into the shower.

PART II. SEMANTICS

1. a. What are primitive elements? Identify semantic properties of the

following words: democracy, maid, ruler, plod, water-lily, gull, ewe, soul
b. Give presuppositions to the following sentences:
1. I lost my grammar book on the way home yesterday.
2. It took us two day to come back from Hanoi by train.
2. a. Identify the difference between SYNONYMY and POLYSEMY. Give
examples to illustrate.
b. Interpret the meaning of the following sentences and then identify the
kinds of figurative language used:
1. The conversation back-fired suddenly.
2. He tries to sing his praises to the skies.
3. Give situations, interpret the meaning and then classify the following
sentences into different kinds of speech acts:
1. The meeting is over!
2. Hurry up, we are going to have a final exam.
3. I call her My Little Cat and she seems happy.
4. How are you?
PART III. WRITING

Write a short essay of about 300 - 350 words on either topic.

1. Should all errors made by foreign language learners be corrected at
any cost?
2. Games can help to learn a foreign language.
*********************************************************
Th sinh khong s dung tai lieu.
Giam th khong giai thch g them.
179

ANSWER KEY

1. a/ A descriptive grammar describes how a language is actually spoken or

written. A prescriptive grammar to lay down rules about how people
ought to speak and write rather than how they actually do. (1/2 point)
b/ The deep structure is the propositional core of a sentence, and the
surface structure is the way it appears in an actual sentence.
An example of two deep structures realized by only one surface structure:
They feed her dog biscuits.
(or any other structurally ambiguous sentence).
(1 point)
2. (i) She gave him an encouraging smile. Verb, Adjectival, Mod
(ii) I am too frightened to move. Verb, Adjectival, SubjCom
(iii) They visited him in the summer. Verb, Verbal, Predicator
(iv) Self-confidence is the key factor in getting yourself a good job.
Noun, Adjectival, Mod
(v) She works in a language center. Noun, Adjectival, Mod (1 point)
3. (i) The boy turned down the radio. not a constituent, as the underlined
part of the sentence cannot be moved as a whole (The radio was turned
down). The constituent here is the radio.
(ii) They ran quickly down the road. a constituent because it can be
moved as a whole (Down the road they ran quickly.)
(iii) Everyone charged with a crime deserves a fair trial. not a constituent
because the underlined part of the sentence cannot be substituted by one
word (eg charged with it). The constituent is a crime.
(iv) The roaring crowd drowned out the candidate. not a constituent (The
candidate was drowned out)
(vi)

I climbed out of bed and jumped into the shower. not a constituent
(Out of bed I climbed and into the shower I jumped).

Writing (3 points)

- Form (spelling, punctuation, grammar) - Usage of English

- Ideas, organization of ideas
- Persuasiveness and effectiveness
180

H QUOC GIA TP HO CH MINH

CONG HOA XA HOI CHU NGHA VIET NAM
TRNG H KH XA HOI & NHAN VAN
oc lap - T do - Hanh phuc
__________
_________
TUYEN SINH CAO HOC
NGANH PHNG PHAP GIANG DAY TIENG ANH (TESOL)
MON THI: NG HOC
THI GIAN: 180 PHUT
PART ONE: SYNTAX

1. Do you or dont you agree with the following statement by Kaplan (1989:
267): Embedded sentences typically function as subjects and direct objects
and as sentence-adverbial phrases. Give examples to support your answer.
2. What do you know about the post-modification in English adjective
phrases? Give three appropriate examples to illustrate your presentation.
3. How do sentences in each of the following pairs differ from each other?
(3a) I will see you the day before you go.
(3b) I will give you the information before you go.
(3c) Several women moved to help her.
(3d) Several women offered to help her.
4. Explain the structural ambiguity of the phrase and the sentence given
below, using tree diagrams:
(4a) the motor boat of the man that would not start
(4b) Fred said that he would pay me on Thursday.
PART TWO: SEMANTICS

1. What are semantic features? Consider the following table and give the
semantic features to each of the given words.
English

Vietnamese
anh

brother
sibling

em
sister

ch

181

Chinese
huynh
e
muoi
ty

2. Distinguish true synonymy from partial synonymy? Give two examples

to illustrate each.
3. Identify the presupposition(s) in the following sentences:
(3a) Ive been dreaming of having a house of my own.
(3b) If they hadnt waited until the last minute, they would have passed
the exam.
4. Interpret the following sentences and identify the figure(s) of speech
employed.
(4a) Her beloved father was laid to rest in this cemetery.
(4b) Dont live in such a sea of doubt.
5. For each of the following utterances, provide two situations so that one
utterance performs two different speech acts. Interpret the utterances and
identify the speech acts performed in the light of the situations you
provide.
(5a) Why dont you live with your parents?
(5b) Youre home early.
PART THREE: WRITING

Write a short essay of about 300-350 words on either topic.

1. How can you help your students to enlarge their vocabulary?
2. Is it true that one who is good at English grammar can write well in
English?
Ghi chu: Can bo coi thi khong giai thch g them.

182

ANSWER KEYS
Part one: Syntax (30 iem = 3/10)

(6 iem) 1. Students are supposed to answer positively with a few examples like:
Embedded sentences functioning as subjects:
(2 iem)
That Mary swallowed a gold fish grossed everyone out.
It grossed everyone out that Mary swallowed a gold fish.
Where we are going has not been decided.
Embedded sentences functioning as objects:
(2 iem)
Jack made whoever came here the same offer. (IO)
They found what they wanted. (DO)
We will name the baby whatever his grandmother wishes. (OC)
Embedded sentences functioning as sentence-adverbial phrases: (2 iem)
Julia laughed when Max snored.
when Max snored, Julia laughed.
(10 iem) 2.
2.1. Many adjectives do not allow any kind of post-modification: big, blue,
sudden, tall, astute, etc.
(2 iem)
2.2. For most English adjectives, post-modification is optional; for a few,
however, it is obligatory. Aware, for example, cannot occur without its
adjective complement:
* He was aware.
He was aware of a creaking noise.
(2 iem)
2.3. There are three kinds of post-modifier or complement:
(3 iem)
- a prepositional phrase: He is very anxious about Jims health.
- an infinitive phrase: He is very anxious to please everybody.
- a that-clause: He is very anxious that no one should excuse him of laziness.
2.4. Not all adjectives allow all the three above-mentioned kinds of
complement. Some allow only one or two of them. Interesting, for example,
may take only an infinitive phrase: this book is very interesting to read; safe
allows either a prepositional phrase or an infinitive clause (but not a thatclause): this toy is safe for children, this tree is not safe to climb up. (3 iem)

183

(8 iem) 3.
verb Head
simple transitive verb
(3a) I will see

pronoun
direct object
you

noun phrase/adverbial
adjunct of time of will see
the day before you go.
(2 iem)

verb Head
pronoun noun phrase subordinate clause/adverbial
double transitive verb IO
DO
adjunct of time of will give
(3b) I will give
you the information
before you go.

(2 iem)
verb Head
intransitive verb
(3c) Several women moved

infinitive phrase/adverbial
adjunct of purpose
to help her.
(2 iem)

verb Head
simple transitive verb
(3d) Several women
offered

infinitive phrase
nominal/DO
to help her.

(2 iem)

(Note that tree diagrams are equally acceptable here.)

(6 iem) 4.
(4a) the mans motor boat which would not start vs. the man who
would not start (3 iem)
(4b) Fred said on Thursday that he would pay me. vs. Fred said
that it is on Thursday that he would pay me. (3 iem)
(Note that tree diagrams must be used in this question. Any explaination
without its acommpanying illustrating diagram(s) is not acceptable.

184

Part two: Semantics (30 iem = 3/10)

(6 iem) 1. Semantics features are the smallest units of meaning in a word.
The meaning of a word may be described as a combination of its smallest
units of meaning _ its semantic features.
a. Sibling has only one semantic feature: [+born by the same parents].
b. Brother and sister both have two semantic features: [+born by the same
parents] and [male]
c. Anh and ch both have three semantic features: [+born by the same
parents], [male] and [+older].
d. Em has only two semantic features: [+born by the same parents] and
[+younger].
e. Huynh, e, muoi and ty all have three semantic features: [+born by the
same parents], [male] and [older].
(6 iem) 2. True synonymy vs. Partial synonymy
2.1. TRUE SYNONYMY is a sense relation in which TWO OR MORE WORDS/
VARIOUS WORDS are written and pronounced differently but have the
same meaning.
E.g.:
- The two English verbs hide and conceal are synonyms; they both
mean keep sb/sth from being seen or known about.
- The four English nouns kind, type, sort and variety are synonyms;
they all refer to a group having similar characteristics.
2.2. PARTIAL SYNONYMY is a sense relation in which a polysemous word
shares one of its meanings with another word.
For example, one meaning of deep is synonymous with profound:
You have my deep/profound sympathy.
Similarly, one meaning of broad is synonymous with wide:
The river is very broad/wide at this point.
(6 iem) 3. Presuppositions
(3a) I havent had/onwed/possessed any house (yet).
(3b) They waited until the last minute (and thus they failed the exam).

185

(6 iem) 4. Figures of speech

(4a) Her beloved father was laid to rest in this cemetery.
Was laid to rest is an expression of euphemism meaning was buried.
(4b) Dont live in such a sea of doubt.
- Live in a sea of doubt is an overstatement/an expression of hyperbole
meaning be too suspicious.
- Doubt is implicitly compared to a sea, both being characteristic of their
immeasurability. This is a metaphor.
(6 iem) 5. Speech Acts
Answers to the questions in this part vary depending on the situations
provided by the student. If there is no situation provided, there will certainly
no mark counted.)
Part three: Writing (40 iem = 4/10)
Noi dung y tng: 10 iem
Bocuc/dan y: 10 iem
Lien ket trong va gia cac oan van: 10 iem
Ng phap/von t: 10 iem

186

AI HOC QUOC GIA TP. HO CH MINH

Trng ai Hoc Khoa hoc Xa hoi va Nhan van
HOI ONG TUYEN SINH SAU AI HOC NAM 2003

YUUUZ
E THI TUYEN SINH SAU AI HOC
I. Semantics:

Mon c s: LINGUISTICS
Thi gian lam bai: 180 phut

Part 1: Why is it said that sense and reference are two aspects of the
meaning of a word? Which of the two is the aspect of meaning that
first come to the mind of a child who is exposed to his/her native
language at an early stage (say, from the age of 8 months to the age of
15 months)?
Part 2: What is the connotation of a word? Identify three possible (positive or
negative) connotations of the word titanic.
Part 3: Read the following sentence carefully and answer the questions.

English is spoken in more parts of the world than in any other

language by more people than any other tongue except Chinese.

1. Is there any instance of synonymy in the above sentence?

2. What is the sense relation between the terms English, language, and
Chinese in the above sentence?
3. Like many other words in English, tongue is a polysemous word,
which can lead to lexical ambiguity when it is used in a certain
utterance. Is the word tongue in the above sentence an instance of
ambiguity?
4. What is the figure of speech expressed through the use of tongue in
the above sentence?
Part 4: Identify the speech acts performed in the following underlined
utterances.
1. A. Hey, buddy! Theres a big hole in front of our classroom!
B. Thanks.
2. A. You know what I found on he first day of my new school year?
Theres a big hole in front of our classroom.
B. Really?
187

3. A. Oh, my God! Theres a big hole in front of our classroom!

B. Its not unusual around here.
II. Syntax:

Part 1: Make a complete IC analysis of the following sentence by using an

upside-down-T diagram (e.g. she smile happily)

Research into the health effects of air pollution is going.

Part 2: What are the syntactic functions typical of a noun phrase? Illustrate
your answer with examples.
Part 3: Compare and contrast the following underlined phrases.
1. She is very beautiful.
2. She is of great beauty.
Part 4: What are the types of verbs that do not allow passive transformation?
Part 5: How many types of noun clauses are there? Give an example for each
type.
III. Academic writing:

The goal of teachers who uses the Communicative Approach is to

have students become communicatively competent. While this has
been the stated goal of many of the other methods, in the
Communicative approach the notion of what it takes to be
communicatively competent is much expanded.
State the reason why you are for/against the above idea.

188

AP AN MON C S: LINGUISTICS
I. Semantics (10 points):

Part 1 (3 points):
1.1 It is said that sense and reference are two aspects of the meaning of a
word because the meaning of a word comes to our mind sometimes as
sense (0.3 points) and sometimes as reference (0.3 points).

The meaning of a word that comes to our mind can be established

as the intra-linguistic relationship between the word (in question) and

another word or other words that are semantically equivalent to the
word in question (0.3 point). This is called sense. (0.3 point)
sense (meaning)
word

semantically equivalent word(s)

The meaning of a word that comes to our mind can also be

established as the extra-linguistic relationship between the word (in

question) and its referent(s) (i.e. the thing(s) in the real world the word
in question refers to) (0.3 point). This is called reference. (0.3 point)
1.2 The aspect of meaning that first comes to mind of a child who is
exposed to his/her native language at such an early stage (from the age
of 8 months to the age of 15 months) is reference (0.3 points). The
reason is that there is only one way for an adult/caretaker/babysitter to
communicative with a child of this age, which is to point to specific
referents of word whenever using that word talking to the child (e.g.
point at a teddy bear when saying bear to the child) (0.3 points)
Part 2 (1.5 points):
The connotation of a word is the association(s) that a word has over and
above its denotation (0.3 points). A word like titanic (whose denotation is
[+huge] (0.3 points) may have such connotations as [+romance/romantic]
(0.3 points), [+ship] (0.3 points). [+sacrifice/sacrificial] (0.3 points), etc.

189

Part 3 (3.5 points):

1. There is an instance of synonymy in the above sentence (0.25 points).
The synonymy found here are language and tongue (0.25 points).
2. The sense relation between these word is hyponymy (0.25 points)
because the superordinate term (or hypernym) language (0.25 points)
can be English (a hyponym) (0.25 points), Chinese (anther hyponym)
(0.25 points), etc.
language
English

Chinese

(0.25 points)
The classification of language into English, Chinese, etc. is often referred
to as taxonomy (0.25 points).
3. The word tongue in the above sentence is not an instance of ambiguity
(0.25 points) because the context English is spoken by more people
than any other tongue is clear that tongue here can only be
interpreted as a synonym of language (0.25 points).
4. The figure of speech found in the use of tongue in the above sentence
is metonymy (0.25 points) because tongue, which is associated with
language (0.25 points), especially spoken language, is substituted for
language (0.25 points). However, native speakers of English use the
word tongue with this sense so naturally that many of them are
unaware that that this is an instance of metonymy (0.25 points).
Part 4 (2 points):
1. In this utterance, the speaker performs an illocutionary act of
warning (0.4 points). This speech act is a directive (0.4 points).
2. In this utterance, the speaker performs an illustration act of
stating/reporting a fact (0.2 points). This speech act is a
representative (0.4 points).
3. In this utterance, the speaker performs an illocutionary act of
exclaiming (0.2 points). This speech act is an expressive (0.4 points).

190

II. Syntax (10 points):

Part 1 (2 points):
Research into the health

effects of air pollution

is going.

Notes: According to functional grammar, such a preposition phrase as of air

pollution is regarding as an endocentric structure (of which the head is
the preposition) and can be diagrammed as follows.
of air pollution

Part 2 (3 points): The syntactic function typical of a noun phrase are subjects
of a verb (0.3 points), object of a verb (direct object, in direct object)
(0.3 points), object of a preposition (0.3 points), and complement
(subject complement, object complement) (0.3 points).
E.g. My dog is sleeping.
(subject of is)
(0.3 points)
I gave the little boy a toy.
(IO)
(DO)
(0.6 points)
Hes fond of Chinese tea.
(0.3 points)
(object of the prep. of)
She is a counsellor.
(subject complement)
(0.3 points)
I consider him my archenemy.
(object complement)
(0.3 points)
Part 3 (1 point):
The two phrases are both adjectivals (0.2 points), very beautiful being
an adjective phrase (0.2 points) and of great beauty a prepositional phrase
(0.2 points). Although they are almost the same in meaning (0.2 points), of
great beauty is a much more formal structure than is very beautiful.
191

Part 4 (2 points):
Verbs that do not allow passive transformation are of two main types
(0.2 points): all intransitive verbs (0.3 points) including linking verbs (0.3 points)
and some transitive verbs, especially verbs of state (0.3 points).
E.g.
Active
Passive
He worked very hard.
(0.3 points)
(intransitive verb)
He was a marketeer.
(0.3 points)
(linking verb/copula)
He has two sister.
(0.3 points)
(transitive verb of state)
Part 5 (2 points):
There are three types of noun clause (0.2 points): that-clause (i.e. a
noun clause beginning with that (0.2 points), whether/if-clause (i.e. a noun
clause beginning with whether/if) (0.3 points), and (W)H-clause (i.e. a noun
clause beginning with W)H-word) (0.3 points).
E.g. He said that he would come.
(0.3 points)
She wanted to know whether he could come.
(0.3 points)
She asked me who would come.
(0.3 points)
III. Academic writing (10 points):

Trong bai can neu bat mot so y sau:

1. Communicative competence involved being able to use the language
appropriate to given context.
2. Students need knowledge of linguistic forms, meanings, and functions.
3. Students need to know that many different form can be used to perform
a function and also that a single form can often serve a variety of
functions.
4. Students must be able to choose from among these different forms the
most appropriate form, given the social context and the roles of the
interlocutors.
5. Students must also be able to manage the process of negotiating
meaning with their interlocutors.
Chu y cach tnh iem:
iem toan bai = iem Semantics + iem Syntax + iem Writing
192

AI HOC QUOC GIA TP HO CH MINH

TRNG H KHXH&NV

CONG HOA XA HOI CHU NGHA VIET NAM

oc lap - T do - Hanh phuc

**********
**********
MON THI C S: LINGUISTICS
CHUYEN NGANH PHNG PHAP GIANG DAY TIENG ANH
THI GIAN LAM BAI: 180 PHUT

PART I. SYNTAX

1. What is the difference between descriptivism and prescriptivism.

2. The following sentence is structurally ambiguous. Paraphrase the
sentence in two different ways and draw tree diagrams to show the
ambiguity involved.
He killed the robber with a knife.
3. Explain the difference between the following underlined structures,
which are apparently similar.
a. I never accept the idea that public housing cant be beautiful.
I cant understand the idea that he has been toying with.
b. He turned off the motorway at Lancaster.
He turned off the light in the living room.

PART II. SEMANTICS

1. a. What are proforms? Give two examples to illustrate.

b. Identify the presuppositions in the following sentences:
1. Where did you buy the motorbike?
2. You are late for the meeting again.
2. Interpret the meaning of the following sentences and then identify the
kinds of figurative language used.
a. Dont substitute the good for the best.
b. The man is a demon of energy.
3. Provide situations, interpret the meaning and then classify the following
utterances into different kinds of speech acts.
a. We are going to be in the rainy season!
b. What time is it according to your watch?
c. We always call him Jack of all the trades.
193

PART III. WRITING

Write an essay of about 250 - 300 words on either topics:

1.
English has played an important part in providing employment
opportunity for many people in Vietnam.
2.
Advantages and disadvantages in teaching English to adults learners
in the current situation in Vietnam.
AP AN MON THI C S: LINGUISTICS

PART I. SYNTAX (3m)

1. The differences between descriptism and prescriptivism: (1m)

Prescriptivism

Descriptism

To prescribe rules for the To describe the language as it is

correct use of the language actually used by native speakers
(often irrespective of how the of that language
language is actually used by
native speakers of that language)

Subjective; speculative in nature

Examples (or evidence)

often contrived or made up

Objective; empirical; data-based

are Use
of
naturally-occurring
language data as evidence

2. He killed the robber with a knife. is structurally ambiguous: (1m)

a. He used a knife to kill the robber.
S

NP

VP
V

Pro.

He

NP
Art.

killed

the

PP
N

robber
194

Prep.

with

NP
Art.

knife.

b. He killed the robber who was carrying a knife.

S

NP

VP
V

NP
Art

NP
N

PP
Prep.

Pro.

He

killed

the

robber

with

NP
Art.

knife.

3. The differences between the following underlined structures: (1m)

a. I never accept the idea that public housing cant be beautiful.

That public housing cant be beautiful is a noun clause

functioning as an appositive (of the noun phrase the idea).
That public housing cant be beautiful = the idea
I cant understand the idea that he has been toying with.

That he has been toying with is a adjective/relative clause

functioning as a post-modifier of the noun phrase the idea.
the idea
that he has been toying with
b. He turned off the motorway at Lancaster.

Off the motorway is a prepositional phrase modifying the

intransitive verb turned and indicating direction/location.

He

turned

off the motorway

195

at

Lancaster.

He turned off the light in the living room.

The light in the living room is a noun phrase functioning as

the direct object of the phrasal verb turned off.

He

turned off

the light in the living room.

PART II. SEMANTICS (3m)

1a. What are PROFORMS? Give two examples to illustrate. (0.5m)

Definition: Proforms are forms which can serve as replacements for
different elements in sentence. (1/4m)
1). A: I hope you can come.
B: I hope so. (So replaces that I can come.) (1/8m)
2). A: I like green tea.
B: We do too. (Do replaces like green tea.) (1/8m)
1b. Identify PRESUPPOSITIONS in the following sentences: (0.5m)
1. Where did you buy the motorbike? (You bought the motorbike.) (1/4m)
2. You are late for the meeting again. (You were late before.)

(1/4m)

2. Interpret the meaning of the following sentences and then identify

the kinds of FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE used. (0.5m)
a. Dont substitute the good for the bad.
the good and the bad in this context means good work and bad work.
This is metonymy. (1/4m)
b. The man is a demon of energy.
a demon of energy in this context means the man is very energetic/
full of energy/ very active. This is metaphor. (1/4m)
3. SPEECH ACTS (1.5m)
Marking the answers according to the situations provided by the candidates.
(no situation: no marking)
PART III. WRITING (4m)

Content:
Organisation:

Grammar:
Language use:

1m
1m
196

1m
1m