What Reading Teachers Should Know about ESL Learners

Author(s): Mary J. Drucker

Source: The Reading Teacher, Vol. 57, No. 1 (Sep., 2003), pp. 22-29
Published by: International Reading Association
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MARY J. DRUCKER

What

teachers

reading

ESL

about

Good teaching is teaching for all. These

strategies will help English-language learners,
but they will help typical learners as well.
to figures released
by the U.S.
Census Bureau, the foreign-born population
in
of the United
States was 31.1 million

According

2000. This figure is 57%more than the 1990 figure

11.1% of the total population.
represents
across
States have English
Classrooms
the United
and

to
Learners
(ELLs) who are learning
Language
new
These
and
write
in
their
read,
language.
speak,
that can
students offer a rich resource of diversity
same
At
the
enhance
classroom
time,
dynamics.
to classroom
teach
they present a special challenge
ers and reading specialists
alike. Out of nearly 3
school
teachers
million
by the
surveyed
public
National

Center

for Education

Statistics,

41% report

teaching limitedEnglish proficient (LEP) students,

eight or more hours
of training (NCELA Newsline
Bulletin, 2002).
between
There are some similarities
reading
in a second one.
in a first language
and reading

while

only

12.5% have received

tend
readers in their first language
Accomplished
to use many of the same strategies
that successful
readers do?skimming,
native English-language
in
context, reading for the gist of a text?
guessing
they are reading in a second language. But it
to think that learning to read
would be a mistake
in a second language is simply a mapping
process

when

during which the reader uses the same set of strate

the same manner.
gies in precisely

should

know

learners

of English
and continue by offering
sug
can
as
and
that
students
support
gestions
strategies
to
strive
skills.
The
they
acquire English-language
speakers

is not hierarchical.
presented
one
more
than the others,
may be
Any
important
on
I have in
the
circumstance.
depending
specific
order of the factors

give you an idea of when

or
a student reads) and for
after
(before, during,
in the
whom
these activities
have proven useful
cluded

a Table

that will

of using an ap
past. You may see the possibility
a
at
different
time
in
your lesson, or for
proach
levels than those that I sug
learners at different
gest. Feel free to adapt strategies for your particular
if your learners differ in age or need, as
they surely will.
note here. You may
Imust add one pedagogical

situation

as you read, if a strategy de

to wonder,
begin
for one category
scribed as being helpful
(devel
for
be
cultural
schema,
might
example)
oping
a
as
in
useful
such
student
another,
helping
equally
is a re
The answer
gain academic
proficiency.
linked to various cat
yes. The strategies
are illustrative,
not prescriptive.
They
egories
so
are
to
able
often
best
and
represent
practices
a
in
number
students'
support
reading development
sounding

of different

areas.

Conversational versus
academic proficiency
as a second

Support for students

language (ESL) learn

appear able to handle the demands of func
she
classroom
because
tioning in an English-only
or he is competent
in a variety of school settings?
talking with a friend in the corridor, playing ball on

In this article, I list some of the factors that can

for nonnative
the reading
process
complicate

the playground,
on one. Itmight

22

2003

An English

er may

International Reading Association

or speaking with the teacher one

seem natural to assume that a child

(pp. 22-29)

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Suggested strategy implementation

English language level
Young Englishlanguage learners

Strategy

Beginning
readers

When to implement
Advanced
readers

Transitional
readers

Before
reading

During
reading

After
reading

Previewing
Choral reading
Shared reading
Paired reading
Books with tapes
Multicultural literature
Language experience
Interactivewriting
Total physical response
Narrow reading
Read aloud

as a second
learning English
language becomes
fluent
researchers
But
have found
fully
quickly.
can develop peer-appropriate
that, although
skills in about two years, developing
conversational
can take much
academic
in English
proficiency
here refers to the
proficiency
to use language
for reading and
to acquire information
in content

egy for native speakers whose reading skills are not

their conversation
skills.
yet on a par with
works well with students in grades 3
Previewing
through 12.
a few statements
or asking
Start by making
some rhetorical questions
that hook the students'

(Collier & Thomas, 1999; Cummins, 1989). This

because

speakers

the initial gap between

native
to persist.
continues
"Native

interest. Then, relate the passage students are going

to read to something
that is familiar to them. Next,
a
brief
discussion
provide
question that will engage
the students and, after that, provide an overview of

for
English
speakers are not sitting around waiting
ESL students to catch up. They are continuing
to
1 year's progress
make
in 1 year's
time in their
and in every school
development
&
Thomas,
1999, p. 1). English
subject" (Collier
language learners have to gain more language pro
each year than their native-speaking
peers
ficiency
in order to catch up and close the gap.

English

the selec
they are about to read. Name
tion, introduce the characters, and describe the plot
the climax). Last, direct
(up to, but not including,
the section

language

What you can do in the classroom

In conversation,
the setting, body language, fa
cial expressions,
and a vari
intonation,
gestures,
cues
of
other
learners
ety
help English-language
understand

meaning.

Academic

English

to read the story and look for particular

Chen and Graves (1998) provided
the
example based on "Gift of the Magi" by

the students
information.

following
O. Henry:
"Now, read the story and find out why
Delia went into this shop, what she did there, and
what happened
later to the young couple on this
Christmas

has fewer

What

con

is previewing
technique
students read. Chen and Graves
(1998) provided a
for previewing
model
that can easily be used in
classrooms with ELLs. It is also an excellent
strat

it takes an English-language
learner as long as five to seven years to perform as
as native English-speaking
well academically
peers

and ELLs

by providing

they begin reading text

for them. One helpful
reading sections before

writing but also

areas. In most cases

lag occurs

can help

text for your students before

that may prove challenging

ELLs

longer. Academic
ability not only

cues. You

contextual

reading

Eve"

(p. 571).
so much preparation prior to reading
Providing
is one way to ensure that students are receiving

teachers

should

know

about ESL

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learners

23

1981). Compre
comprehensible
input (Krashen,
hensible
that
input is spoken or written
language
at a level the child can understand. At
is delivered
the same time, the level should be enough of a chal
lenge that the child needs to stretch just a bit above
his or her current abilities.

Krashen

level "I + 1,"with

portant

McCauley
choral

reading

andMcCauley
as a means

input for ESL

the recitation

hensible

called

"I" standing

this im

for input.

(1992) suggested

of providing
students. Choral

compre

reading
of a poem or short text,
and gestures that help the chil

involves

along with motions

act out the meaning.
dren dramatically
The many
a
an op
of
selection
repetitions
reading
provide
to
the
the
and
dramat
portunity
recycle
language,

ic gestures
and motions
clues
provide contextual
about the poem's meaning.
Choral reading is ap
in
for
students
through sixth
propriate
kindergarten
For

grade.
choral

or first grade,
in kindergarten
can be enhanced
through the use of

students

reading
rebus symbols.

versus
spondences)
sound-letter
regular

shallow

ones

(having mainly
correspondences)
might cause
some
for
readers of English
nonnative

difficulty

1991; Paulesu et al., 2001; Wade-Woolley,

et al. examined
Paulesu
the connection
be
1999).
tween dyslexia and cultural conventions
in orthog
(Grabe,

raphy. The researchers found that although dyslexia

is a genetic
its occurrence
disorder,
appears un
across
distributed
For
evenly
languages.
example,
the prevalence
of the United
assumption

of dyslexia
in Italy is about half that
States. Beginning
with the accepted
that there was a causal link between

deficits and brain abnor

phonological
processing
at the orthography
researchers
looked
of
mality,
in relation to their phonetic ma
languages
terial. They concluded
that dyslexies
in languages
such as Italian that have a shallow orthography may

various

in their ability to read. The dyslex

remains hidden. In deep orthography
such as English,
literacy impairments

be less affected
ia, in effect,

languages
may be aggravated.

What you can do in the classroom

Orthography and phonology

Shared

and reading are closely

connected.
Listening
At its most basic level, reading is the phonological
decoding of written text, and written text is the rep
of

resentation
Ehri

spoken.

sounds

heard

and Wilce

when

is
language
native
separated

(1985)

into groups ac
kindergartners
English-speaking
to their ability to read words. Prereaders
cording
had not yet learned to read at all; two other groups
had learned
ferent words.
words with

to read only a few words or several dif

The children were
taught to read
two different kinds of spellings: simpli

to sounds and vi
that corresponded
spellings
that did not
sually distinctive words with spellings

fied

at all to their sound. Prereaders

with
correspond
were
no previous
to
able
read
reading experience
the visual spellings more easily than the phonetic
spellings. The other children, with some experience
were

more

able to learn the phonetic

children who had begun
In
other
words,
spellings.
to
to
how
read
had
already started moving
learning
ward an orientation
sound/symbol
incorporating
reading,

correspondence.
Researchers
between
tures

24

reading
provides
English-language
an opportunity
to hear language while

its corresponding
repre
observing
phonological
sentation. McCarrier,
and Fountas
Pinnell,
(2000)
defined
shared reading as "you and your students
together from a single, enlarged text" (p.
read[ing]
the writing
should be large enough
18). Naturally,
to be seen from a distance,
and the text should be
so
in
that
it
is
clear
view of all of the
positioned
children. Aside
from its obvious
support for learn
ers of English
who need help in word-by-word
shared reading also helps children learn
matching,
(McCarrier et al.). This
left-to-right
directionality
may

extra dividends

give

for ELLs

whose

native

differs from English's

left-to-right,
Shared reading can be
directionality.
top-to-bottom
used in the early elementary
years, from kinder
third
As
garten through
always,
grade.
choosing
with an appropriate
reading materials
reading lev
orthography

el is a critical

factor. For kindergarten

and first
can
in place
be
used
rebus
students,
grade
symbols
of some or most of the text.

Li and Nes (2001) found that paired reading

have

languages

(having many

The Reading

learners with

also noted

with

deep

irregular

Teacher

was

that differences

orthographic
sound-letter

Vol. 57, No.

struc
corre

also useful

fluently
"skilled

September

in helping

ESL

students

read more

and accurately. They paired ELLs with a

reader" who read a portion of text aloud

2003

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while

Consider the following passage offered by Eskey

the language
learner read along. The lan
learner then reread the same text aloud. The

guage
researchers
effective

found
intervention

an
that paired
reading was
that improved
the students'

in reading aloud, as well as their pronun

Paired reading works well with students
some independent
have developed
social skills

fluency
ciation.
who

(2002): "It was the day of the big party. Mary won
dered if Johnny would
like a kite. She ran to her
bedroom, picked up her piggy bank, and shook it.
There was no sound" (p. 6). Eskey asked us to con
sider a series of questions
when

In general,
in
and task follow-through.
students
can
3
8
successfully.
grades
through
pair-read
students require more structure.
Younger
Studies
found

of

learning-disabled
that children benefit from
and reading

listening

& Humphreys,
(1990)
fective

students

found

stories

in improving
reading fluency.
(1996) noted that audiobooks

and Harris
means

for engaging

ated to print"

youngsters

ifMary

Casbergue
a

how

Books

and tapes work well with any student who

can independently
read text (grades 2 through 12).
For kindergarten
and first-grade
students, books
to hear the sounds
and tapes provide an opportunity
as well

literacy practices
left to right, and mak
between words and il

can

The

be

recorded

es the schema
United

listening

Schema

Other

background
knowledge
& Eisterhold,
1983). In other words,
sion requires more
than linguistic

party in the
be answered
A native

information.

is easily able to con

of the text.

students: 28 Muslim

Arabs

of cul
studied

and 24 Catholic

Each student read two different

texts,
Hispanics.
one with aMuslim
orientation and the other with a
Catholic

orientation.

students

better

those texts most

The

researcher

ferent kinds
culture,
migrant

(Carrell

knowledge.

reading

found

that the

remembered

and comprehended
to their native cultures.

similar

(1998) studied third

literate

in Dutch

both as a first

The

children

read three dif

graders becoming
and second language.

comprehen

What

birthday
cannot

the importance
and schema. Carrell (1987)

Droop and Verhoeven

a
that comprehending
theory holds
an interaction
between
the reader's

this exercise

studies have noted

tural differences
52 ESL

to the story.

and the text itself

The questions
this specific cultural

speaker of English, however,

struct a correct interpretation

Cultural differences and schema

text involves

of a child's

States.

without

hear the sounds

the tape while

with

posed can be an
swered by directly searching the text, as long as the
struc
reader knows
the vocabulary
and English
are
tures. The second five questions,
far
however,
more difficult to answer unless the reader possess

tapes
by
teacher or by other students in the class. Providing
to books and corresponding
exposure
tapes gives
an
to
learners
language
opportunity
simultaneously

along with

bank; and
was.

big problem

The point that Eskey made

is that the first five questions

the

and see the corresponding

graphic
word simultaneous
is the key
The
representation.
to both
here. Students
need many opportunities
hear the spoken word and see its graphic represen
to and read a
tation. Children who have listened
to read aloud
story many times can be encouraged

to the party;

is related

shook her piggy

what Mary's

as learn basic

turning, tracking
connections
ing meaningful
lustrations.

the kite

in the text;

are adults or children;

and Johnny

why Mary

(p. 4).

Although the typical ESL student is not learn

of English
like page

of would;

the nature of the party

in
the sound/symbol
ing disabled,
correspondence
these studies
is interesting.
Consider
providing
ELLs with books and corresponding
audiotapes.

or

the definition of kite;

the definition of piggy bank;

ef

"provide
are not habitu

who

present,

wondered;

the meaning

(Conte

reading was

while

the story took place?past,

what Mary

have

1989; Janiak, 1983). Rasinski

that listening

the reading:

future;

the simultaneous

of audiotaped

about

of texts:

texts

texts that referred

that referred
to the cultures

to Dutch
of the im

and neutral texts. It is not sur

children,
that the researchers found that the children

prising
had better reading comprehension
and reading effi
were
ciency with texts that
culturally familiar.

teachers

should

know

about ESL

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learners

29

Illustrations

What you can do in the classroom

texts that will match
choose
possible,
schemata and background
knowledge
of your English-language
learners. Folk tales that
are translations of stories children may have heard
When

are especially
language
be able to relate more easily

Students

will

helpful.
to books

that depict characters that are similar to them. Two

and first-grade chil
concept books for kindergarten
a
and Round Is a Mooncake
dren, Red Is Dragon

(Thong, 2000, 2002), have delightful illustrations

of Asian

children

and simple language introducing

colors and shapes. The Ugly Vegetables
(Lin, 1999)
is a picture book suitable for grades 1 through 4. It
tells the story of a young Chinese
girl who feels

different

from her American

friends because

of the

her mother

grows in their gar

strange vegetables
den. When
the vegetables
ripen, her mother makes
a delicious
in the neighborhood
soup that everyone
and the girl learns to value her culture

enjoys,

as a

result.

Another

picture book good for first through

third grade, The Iguana Brothers
(Johnston,
1995),
tells the tale of two lizard siblings in English, with
an occasional
word in Spanish. The Spanish vo

Stories

should be appealing.

more

native

Spanish
speakers
the meanings
that makes

way
share the context
is through

indi

that students

fully
they are reading

the Language

successful

with

in grades
1 through 3.
LEA involves having students tell the story of an
they have had. The teacher acts as
experience
scribe, writing down the words so that the students
students

can see what

they look like. If the students have had

a shared experience,
such as a field trip or a visitor
to the classroom, parts of the story come from all of
a story has been
the teacher can copy it onto a large
completed,
sheet of chart paper so that students can practice
reading it together. The rationale for using LEA can
the students

be summed

in the class. After

up in these

lines:

What Ican think about Ican talk about.

What Ican say Ican write.
What Ican write Ican read.
Ican readwhat Iwrite
and what other people write forme to read.
(R.Van Allen & G. Halvoren, as cited inCantoni-Harvey,
1992, p. 178)

that much

accessible.

Multicultural
to the classroom

is a positive
addition
for all students in all grades, from

can give the reader a realistic

look at
cultures"
1996, p. 1). In
(McDonald,
it is critical
diverse U.S. classrooms,

ture which
those many

increasingly
for books to reflect
students.
ticultural

the cultural

of all
backgrounds
has culled information

Shioshita

from several

(1997)
sources on how

literature

Books

Interactive

literature

speakers
through high school. Native
kindergarten
of English
"need to be familiar with quality litera

which

and contain

Books

should

not reinforce

rather they should

individuals.

The Reading

reflect

Teacher

instructional

needs.

The idea is to help children attend to powerful examples

that can enable them to learnsomething about the writing
process that they can incorporate into their own writing.
As children gain control of the process, the examples and
areas of focus shift. (McCarrieret al., p. 11)

but
of

Interactive
grades,

Vol. 57, No. 1

children

to produce it; the children are invited to contribute

to the writing
of the text on the basis of their

current

stereotypes,
the experiences

(McCarrier et al., 2000), in

the pen with their teacher,
to share in the writing of a text

writing
share

In interac
that grows from their own experiences.
tive writing,
the teacher and the children negotiate
the meaning
of the text together and work together

to select quality mul

and offers the following
tips:

should be accurate

children

also allows

information.

26

of the material

depict

Experience
Approach
learners of all ages
(LEA; Rigg,
1981). Language
enjoy this approach, but in a classroom
containing
more
native English
LEA
is
speakers
generally

a cul

with

to be certain

Another

cabulary can be easily understood

through context
native
the Spanish
by
English
speakers. However,
and culturally
illustrations
language
appropriate
may provide
tural context

realistically
ethnicities.

of different

the cultural

in their native

should

viduals

September

writing

generally

has been

successful

first through

2003

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

third.

in the early

Vocabulary
On a very basic level, vocabulary
is critical to
the reading process. Fluent first-language
readers
There have
have large recognition
vocabularies.
been numerous

studies

actual number

of words

need

tends to be more successful with students

Labeling
who have a greater ability to work independently,
generally grade 4 through high school. We can also
or add synonyms for words that
explain meanings,
seem to cause (or seem likely to cause) difficulty for
some of the students, as challenging
words appear
the
shared
described
exercise
earlier.
during
reading

to quantify
the
readers
second-language

attempting

a text. It is not
in order to comprehend
that some researchers
have found that

to know

surprising

Schunk (1999) suggested a different approach

to vocabulary

learners need approximately

the
second-language
same number of words
as
in their lexicon
first
language readers (Goulden, Nation, & Read, 1990).
This need presents a particular challenge because of
the large amount of prerequisite
information ELLs
must learn in order to be at a reading level compa
rable to their peers. W. Nagy

& P. Herman

(as cited

inBell, 1998) found that students between 3rd and

12th grade
Classroom

of vocabulary
In addition, many

teaching
approaches
ESL learners. Freeman
that although

ELLs

and Freeman
enjoy

(2000)

noted

exercises,

vocabulary

in context. According

Given

a separate

glossary,

when

to Yeung
readers

(1999),

encounter

students with

or
exercises
preteaching
vocabulary
a
creates
load
that
the
glossaries
cognitive
splits
learner's attention. He found that when definitions
are placed next to the challenging
lexical items,
better

the cognitive

load is lowered.

is "built

and action;

speech

of a language
as total physical

teaching

response
the coordination
of

around

to teach

it attempts

language

through physical (motor) activity" (Richards &

children to act
1998, p. 87). Encouraging
Rodgers,
out songs such as "Itsy Bitsy Spider" and having
them play games associated
with
like
language
of this approach.
Says are other examples
act
out
children
songs, poems,
Having
physically
or readings?all
an
forms of TPR methodology?is
Simon

to support vocabulary

way

development.

Schmitt and Carter (2000) suggested narrow

as an effective

reading

method

cabulary. In narrow reading,

tic writing
about the same

vo
for developing
learners read authen

topic in a number of
texts.
different
By doing this, students are exposed
to a common body of vocabulary.
In this way, these
words are recycled and ultimately
integrated with
the learner's
ment

learner must

our stu
Although we cannot edit the materials
dents use so that vocabulary
are inte
definitions
the text, it is possible
to encourage
grated with
to write word meanings
on labels that are
or as near the challenging
in the margins

placed
item as possible. This may help to reduce the cog
nitive load and enhance
vocabulary
acquisition.

reading

encounter

is not clear agree

that a language

There

vocabulary.
the number

about

of times
a new

lexical

term before

it

is actually
learned, but Zahar, Cobb, and Spada
6 and
(2001) found that estimates
range between
on the context in which expo
20 times, depending
sure to the word occurs. Depending
on the materials
available,

What you can do in the classroom

What

known

methodology
(TPR). TPR

able to learn the meanings

of
unfamiliar
words. He suggested
that in this inte
is not split, and
grated format, students' attention

students

is reminiscent

approach

effective

Yeung posited that the difficulty with providing

students were

in singing as a form of language re

paired with sign language, improved on re
identification
of targeted vocabulary. This

ceptive

an un

familiarword, they need to leave the text, turn to the vo

cabulary list, temporarily store itsmeaning, and then
revert to the text and try to incorporate themeaning into
the text. (p. 197)

that elemen

engaged

hearsal,

item by item.
of the standard vocabulary
have been ineffective
with

they have trouble applying the information they

memorize

who

learn up to 3,000 new words each year.

teachers are simply unable to teach this

amount

She found

acquisition.

tary school children (kindergarten throughgrade 5)

students
school

through high

in grades 2 or 3 all the way up

can engage in narrow reading.

Schmitt and Carter (2000) suggested the fol

lowing

kinds

port vocabulary
Collect
topic

of narrow-reading

to sup

acquisition.

newspaper
for students

story is one that will

teachers

activities

should

know

on a continuing
to read. Be certain each
stories

appeal

to them.

about ESL

This content downloaded from 202.88.145.246 on Wed, 11 Sep 2013 15:26:04 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

learners

27

on sub
to bring in magazines
jects they like. Have them read several arti
cles from the magazines.

Ask

Use

students

on almost

texts available
books

Assign

students

novel

tends to recycle.

read texts written

by a single

author.

Finally,
read-alouds
Freeman
which

The
tended

to read. The vo

issues

the power

of

in supporting vocabulary development.

and Freeman
(2000) pointed to a study in
teachers read aloud a story to students three

scores
times a day for a week. Group vocabulary
rose by 40%. "The key was finding
interesting
books and coaching
teachers to use reading tech
to pictures, gesturing,
and
niques such as pointing
be sure students

paraphrasing...to

understood

the

story" (p. 123).

In classrooms
diverse,

that are becoming

increasingly
teaching is an important
rele
instruction. Culturally
is "the kind of teaching
that is de
relevant

culturally
of literacy
component

vant

teaching
to fit the school culture to the
signed not merely
students' culture but also to use student culture as the

basis

for helping
students
and others, structure social

understand

themselves

interactions, and concep

tualize knowledge"
2000, p. 142).
(Ladson-Billings,
not simply a
is
Effective
instruction
literacy

collection

of strategies

help English-language
stream classrooms.

and approaches
learners succeed

that will
in main

The environment
in which
as
as the
at
is
learn
and
least
important
study
and
methods,
you may
strategies,
approaches
a culturally
to employ. Using
relevant
choose
means
that students' second lan
teaching approach
ELLs

to the class
guages can be viewed as an additive
room environment,
that
rather than as a deficit
that academic
lan
needs to be remedied. Realize
in a second
proficiency
long time to develop. To facilitate
to use their native
mit students
guage

(Nichols,
necessary
Rupley,
needs
2000). The classroom

28

The Reading

Teacher

takes a
language
that process, per
when
languages

& Webb-Johnson,
to be a validating

Vol. 57, No. 1

Williams

"Would

I want

(2001)
to be a

(p. 754).
in this article

are not in
strategies
to be prescriptive
solutions
for particular
in literacy development.
They are a few of
listed

speakers,

"Second

language learners benefit

that incorporate a range of

from reading programs

and in which
contexts, both social and functional,
as a means
and
is
used
reading begins, develops,
of communication"

(Nichols et al., 2000, p. 2).

It is also important to remember the concept of
I + 1 (1981), mentioned
Krashen's
earlier. Texts
must be at a level appropriate to the student's abili
ty. Recall also that academic
language proficiency
takes much
than conversational
longer to develop
"In
other
students to
words, encourage
proficiency.
read at their reading level?not
at their oral profi
level"

is
2001, p. 751). There
(Williams,
to
like
"Read
promote
nothing
reading
reading.
aloud to students every day. This practice supports
well as literacy devel
language development...as
ciency

Many possible approaches

students.

that can be useful for

many possible
approaches
all students, both native speakers of English as well
as English-language
learners in the classroom. Like
native

do not underestimate

for all

suggested
asking yourself,
student inmy classroom?"

of

variety

any topic.

for the students

in any given

cabulary
Have

is a wide

the Internet?there

environment

(p. 751).

opment"

to
Finally, give students plenty of opportunities
to
to
read independently.
learn
and
read,
"People
read better,
2002,
p. 8).
by reading"
(Eskey,
Students
learn to read well when they are engaged
in reading materials
that are not only at an appro
to
and relevant
but
also
level
priate
interesting
them.

Drucker teaches education courses at Utica

College of Syracuse University in Utica, New
York (1600 Burrstone Road, Utica, NY 13502
4892,

USA).

E-mail mdrucker@utica.edu.

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Review,

ESL

57, 541-572.

learners

29