TECTONICS OF INDONESIA

I. PLATE TECTONICS
1. 1. Basic concept of plate tectonics
The concept of plate tectonics has involved some hypotheses, which have been
introduced before, i. e., the continental drift, sea floor spreading, and transform fault. This
concept was proposed almost simultaneously by Mc. Kenzie and Parker (1967) and by
Morgan (1968). These have been outlined in detailed by Le Pichon (1973).
The basic idea of plate tectonics is that the outermost strong shell of the earth, i.
e., the lithosphere, suffer strong deformation only along relatively narrow linear mobile
belts. The mobile belts and the interconnecting transform faults divide the lithosphere
into a series of rigid plates, which do not undergo significant stretching or folding, but
which move relative to each other. Most of the global release of tectonic and seismic
energy is concentrated at the boundaries between plates.
There are 3 basic types of plate boundary, i. e.:
a. Divergent or constructive boundaries, where new lithosphere is produced at the crests
of mid oceanic ridges;
b. Convergent or destructive boundaries, where the lithosphere is being destroyed as two
plates approach each other;
c. Transform faults or conservative boundaries, where 2 plates move laterally relative
one to each other and lithosphere is neither produced nor destroyed.
The convergent or destructive boundaries are of two main types. The first type
develops when an oceanic plate approaching and subducting / sinking under another
plate, which might be oceanic or continental plate. In this case the oceanic lithosphere in
destroyed and recycled into the mantle. The sinking of lithosphere forms a subduction
zone which dips away from the ocean. The oceanic lithosphere can sink into the mantle
because its average density is higher rather than that of the underlying asthenosphere. The
second type of convergent boundaries develops when 2 continental crust/plates are
approaching one to each other. Since the density of continental crust is relatively low
compared with that of the mantle/asthenosphere, one of the approaching plates can not
sink under the other plate. Consequently, a collision between two plates is not avoided
and destroy the lithosphere. Mountain range, such as Alps or Himalayas, is produced at
this boundary.
Plate tectonics provides a geometrical explanation of how sea floor spreading and
continental drift can take place on the surface of a nearly spherical earth without any
deformation oceanic floor or continental crust, except at the well known mobile belts. It
relates most of the earth tectonic activity including continental drift, fold mountain range,
ridge valley system, plateau uplift, sea floor spreading, the mid oceanic ridge, subduction
zone, trenches, island arcs, etc.
1. 2. Continental drift
The good correspondence between the opposite coastlines of the Atlantic Ocean is
a good evidence that continents drift one to each other on the earth surface. Alfred
Wegener (1912) was one who first developed the hypotheses of the continental drift in
detail, seeking evidence from widely disciplines. One of his strong argument was the

Permo-Carboniferous glaciations which affected South America, South Africa, Australia,

and India, suggesting that these continental land masses were group around the south pole
at the time. Wegener suggested that during the upper Paleozoic there was a single large
continental mass which he called Pangaea. This mass broke into fragments which tended
to drift away from the pole and towards the west during the Mesozoic and Tertiary. He
suggested the centrifugal force acting on the relatively high standing continents would
cause them to migrate towards the equator. Tidal attraction of the sun and the moon and
processional effects could cause them to move westwards.
The history of the development of the theory of the continental drift, at the
beginning was based on speculation from the similarity of opposite coastlines across the
Atlantic Ocean, then followed by the founding of many geological evidence, then
supported by a quantitative approach, i.e. palaeomagnetism, and finally verified by the
sea floor spreading and plate tectonics hypotheses.
Now-day, it is recognized that during the most of the Devonian and
Carboniferous, there were two main continental masses, i.e., the Gondwanaland as the
southern continent and Laurasialand as the northern continent. The Gondwanaland
consisted of South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Australia, and Antarctica, and in
the other side, the Laurasialand consisted of North America, Greenland, Europe, and Asia
(except India). These two continental masses collided in the Hercynian orogeny to form a
single supercontinent Pangaea, which was in existence during most of the Permian and
the Triassic. The supercontinent started to break up in the late Triassic time and the
fragments representing the present-day continental masses, which have separated one to
each other during the Mesozoic and Tertiary.
1. 2.1. The geological evidence
The fit of coastlines across the Atlantic Ocean was the longstanding geological
evidence for the continental drift. The next stage is to investigate the fit of other
geological features, including fold mountain belts, major faults, sedimentary basin, the
structure and age pattern of the basement, the stratigraphy of the sedimentary rock, etc.
The use of palaeocliclimatology, the branch of geology is found very useful to fit
the geological features by reconstructing the past climates. The methods available include
the use of:
a. Past glacial deposits to indicate artic climates.
b. Evaporites suggesting high temperature and low precipitation
c. Bauxite was formed by tropical or subtropical weather
d. Reef-deposits suggesting tropical or subtropical climates
e. Dune bedding indicating the past wind directions
For example, during the Carboniferous time, the Gonwanaland were all affected by
widespread glaciation , while reef deposits, coal, and evaporites were being formed in
Britain and USA.
1.2.2. Palaeomagnetism
Palaeomagnetism is the study of the geomagnetic field during the geological past
time. The palaeomagnetic study is found to be the most powerful tool to convince the
movement of the earth crust such as the continental drift. This study makes use of the

permanent magnetization remaining in the rock, generally known as natural remanent

magnetization (NRM) which may be picked up by a rock when it is formed.
The results of palaeomagnetic studies have great importance in two ways:
a. They revealed the properties of geomagnetic field in the past, such as reversal of the
polarity
b. They provide a method of determining the palaeolatitude and palaeoazimuth of the
direction during the geological past, thus providing an important tool for determining
how continents have move relative to each other and to the equator during geological
time.
The magnetization of rocks consist of induced magnetization (by the ambient
magnetic field, i.e. the earth magnetic field; the induced magnetization is vanish when the
ambient field is vanish) and remanent magnetization. The remanent magnetization of
rock samples can be measured by astatic or spinner magnetometer. The measured
direction for a sample is used as an estimate of the direction of the magnetic field (known
as the ambient magnetic field) at the time the rock was formed or when its remanent
magnetization was pick up.
The remanent and induced magnetization of rocks are generated by relatively
small fraction of minerals which are ferromagnetic, especially magnetite. Rocks may pick
up a natural remanent magnetization (NRM) through several processes, i.e.:
a. Thermo-remanent magnetization (TRM) is the type acquired by igneous rocks when
they cooled through the Curie point (temperature) of the magnetic mineral.
b. Depositional remanent magnetization (DRM) occurs in some sedimentary rocks as a
result of alignment of the magnetic grain in the direction of the ambient field, as
deposition occurs.
c. Chemical remanent magnetization (CRM) may occur when a rock has been formed
by the production of new magnetic materials through chemical reactions associated
with diagenetic alteration, weathering or metamorphism.
d. Viscous remanent magnetization (VRM) which may be picked up when a rock lies in
a weak magnetic field at relatively low temperature for a very long period of time.
If a remanent magnetization can be retained without change through a long period
of geological time, it is said to be hard. If it is easily lost or its direction is changed, then
it is said to be soft. VRM is usually soft. The palaeomagnetic techniques used to remove
the unwanted soft component of magnetization are known as washing. Two standard
ways of washing are: (i) demagnetizing the rock in an AC field of decreasing intensity,
and (ii) heating the rock to an appropriate temperature.

1. 3. Sea floor spreading

1. 3. 1. Oceanic magnetic anomalies
Oceanic magnetic anomalies can be measured by using Fluxgate magnetometers
or Proton precession magnetometers, which have an accuracy of about 1 gamma (10 -9
tesla) with the sensing element is towed behind a ship. The distance between the sensing
element should be far enough to avoid the effects of the ships magnetic field.
A great discovery was made when the magnetic anomalies of the West Coast of
North America were first mapped in some detail. An unexpected pattern of north-south
oriented strip-like of positive and negative magnetic anomalies was found to dominate
the whole region surveyed. The continuity of the strips is interrupted by the east-west
fracture zones, such as Mendocino and Pioneer fracture zones. The individual strips are
about 10-20 km wide and the peak to peak amplitude between the positive and negative
magnetic anomalies reach up to 1000 gammas.
Later works have shown that strip-like magnetic anomalies are typical of oceanic
region. Furthermore, it has been shown that the strips run parallel to the crests of ocean
ridges and their pattern are symmetrical about the crests. These anomalies are in strong
contrast with the continental magnetic anomalies, which show no such simple and regular
pattern and are generally of much smaller amplitude.
The large amplitude magnetic anomalies must be caused by highly magnetic rocks
at relatively shallow depth. In general oceanic crust, whose thickness is on average about
6-7 km can be divided into three layers, i.e., the oceanic sediment layer 1, the oceanic
volcanic layer 2, and the main oceanic crustal layer 3. The oceanic sediment layer 1 are
effectively non magnetic. Therefore, the strong magnetic anomalies should be caused
mainly by strong lateral variation in magnetization within the oceanic volcanic layer 2
(depth reason), although magnetization within main oceanic crustal layer 3 may also
contribute. This is consistent with the basaltic composition of the layer 2, as basalt or
intrusive rocks of basic composition, which are common for magnetic rocks.
1. 3. 2. The idea of sea floor spreading
The modern concept of the oceanic crust development was suggested by Hess
(1962) and Dietz (1961). They state that new oceanic lithosphere forms from mantle
material beneath the crests of oceanic ridges by the progressive upwelling mantle
material from greater depth. Then the ocean floor spread laterally (separately) in both
directions to accommodate the new formed material. It was suggested that the sea floor
spreading is responsible for the continental drift.
South America and Africa, for instance, were gradually drifted apart, as new
oceanic lithosphere was formed under the crest of Mid Atlantic oceanic ridge. These
drifts produced the Atlantic Ocean over the last 200 My. On the other hand, sea floor
spreading in Pacific Ocean should be related to the sinking (subduction) of oceanic
lithosphere at or near the active continental margin around the Pacific Ocean, the Circum
Pacific Belt.
The spreading ocean floor can also be regarded as the uppermost visible part of
mantle convection system. Whatever the flow pattern at greater depth, an upwelling
current beneath the ridge crests brings hot asthenospheric material almost to the surface
as it turns to flow horizontally in both directions and cools to form the oceanic

lithosphere. As pressure is released during the upward flow, partial fusion starts at depth
probably between 150 and 30 km and the upwelling material becomes increasingly
enriched in a basalt magma fraction. A small fraction of the upwelling material separate
to the top where it cools rapidly to form new oceanic crust (about 6-7 km thickness). The
reminder is pushed laterally as it cools more slowly to form the oceanic lithosphere
(about 100 km thickness).
1. 3. 3. The Vine-Matthews hypothesis
Spectacular support for the sea floor spreading hypothesis has come from the
study of oceanic magnetic anomalies. The first important hypothesis was introduced by
Vine and Matthews, who suggested that the alternating strips of positive and negative
magnetic anomalies are caused by underlying blocks of layer 2, which were alternatively
magnetized in the normal and reversed directions of the earth magnetic field. They
pointed out that this interpretation follows the combination between sea floor spreading
and the periodic reversal of the earth magnetic field, which had been established shortly
before by palaeomagnetic observation.
As new crust is formed in the crestal zone of an oceanic ridge by igneous
processes, shortly after the solidification it cool through the Currie point and picks up a
strong component of permanent (remanent) magnetization, whose direction was oriented
by the ambient magnetic field. As the results, if the crust then spread laterally in opposite
directions (symmetrically about the crest of the MOR), the strips of positive and negative
remanent magnetization will be recorded in the oceanic crust of layer 2.
According to the Vine-Matthews hypothesis, the past history of reversals of the
earths main magnetic field is fossilized in the oceanic crust at least as far back as the late
Mesozoic. The oceanic layer 2 has acted as a magnetic tape, recording the polarity of the
earths magnetic field. Therefore, study of oceanic magnetic anomalies can be used to
study the past character of the main magnetic field and to provide a tool for dating the
formation of oceanic crust.

1. 4. Fracture zones and transform fault

Fracture zones are prominent topographical features on the sea floor which cross ocean
ridges. They are typically long linear depressions with associated parallel uplift blocks, often but
not always perpendicular to the ridge crest. They appear to form some of the straighter features
on the earths surface but in reality they are found to be arcs of circles on the surface.
One of important resulting from the magnetic anomaly surveys in the north eastern
Pacific was the large lateral displacement of the magnetic anomaly pattern across the Mendocino,
Pioneer, and Murray fracture zones. The Mendocino and Pioneer fracture zone show a left lateral
displacement of the anomaly pattern about 1400 km, while the Murray shows a right lateral
displacement about 680 km at the western end and only 150 km at the eastern end. The problem
is how to understand such large horizontal displacement can affect adjacent blocks of the oceanic
crust, and this lateral displacement can change drastically along the length of a single fault such
as the Murray fracture zone. A similar problem is posed by the great continental strike-slip fault
such as the San Andreas fault in California.
A simple solution as to how these large strike slip faults can terminate has been
suggested, within the frame work of the sea-floor spreading hypothesis, by Wilson (1965). He
suggested that they terminate at the end of mobile belts, which they meet, commonly, but not
necessarily, at right angles. The lateral displacement on one side of the fault is taken up either by
formation of new oceanic crust along a terminated segment of ocean ridge or by crustal
shortening along a terminate segment of mountain range or ocean trench. Wilson called this
newly recognized class of strike-slip fault by the name transform fault.
Transform faults were grouped by Wilson into six basic classes depending on the type
and orientation of the two mobile belts they joint (fig.). The three possible junctions at one end
are (i) an ocean ridge, (ii) a concave compression feature, and (iii)
a convex compression feature. Each of the six classes can be further subdivided into left lateral
(sinistral) and right lateral (dextral) types.

U D

Figure 1.1. Six possible types of dextral transform fault. Parallel

lines = MOR, single line = transform fault, and curved line = trench (subduction)

Theoretically, the transform faults are terminated by MOR or trench. However, especially the
transform fault which interconnects separating MOR will continue beyond the MOR such as in
figure 1.2. The transform fault must be continuous beyond the MOR, if the spreading rates of the
two separating MOR are different one to each other.

Figure 1.2. Separating MOR interconnected by a transform fault.

The fault are usually not terminated at the MOR.

1. 5. Special region
1.5.1. Rift valley system
Rift valley system characterized the East African region. This system stretches
from Zimbabwe to the Gulf of Aden with the eastern and western branches encircling the
lake of Victoria. It extends further Northwards beyond the Read Sea into the Dead Sea,
attaining a total length of 6000 km. Another series of lake depression extends northeastwards and also westwards from Baikal Lake in South-central Siberia is over 2000 km
in length. These two rift systems have been active during the Tertiary, form (membentuk)
major linear tectonic features of the continental crust. The East African rift valley system
also appears to form a continental extension of the ocean ridge system.
Continental rift valley systems typically occur in region which have undergone
broad uparching of the crust which is unrelated to folding. For example, the East African
rift region stands about 2 km above sea level. In addition to the broad uparching , narrow
rim uplifts may border the rift depression on either side as a result of the fault
movements. Rift region are normally affected by basaltic volcanism which may be of
alkaline character.
It has know been shown that the fault in this region are dominated by normal fault
type, which related to the rift depression.
Gravity surveys show that the uparched regions are in isostatic equilibrium. The
negative anomalies which occur locally, are usually come from the sediment-filled rift
troughs. The gravity surveys indicate the presence of high density igneous body about 20
km wide penetrating the upper crust beneath the rift zone. The seismic surveys reveal that
there is a 7.5 km/s material at about 19 km depth beneath a 6.4 km/s crust. The 7.5 km/s
layer has been interpreted as the top of an anomalous low velocity upper mantle directly
underlying the thin crust of the rift zone. This anomalous upper mantle has been
interpreted as an upward penetration of the hot and low density asthenosphere into the
lithosphere. Based on seismic and gravity surveys over the rift region, the structure of the
crust under the rift can be modeled as in figure 1.3.

The development of a hot mantle region bellow the continental lithosphere

appears to be a necessarily preliminary stage to continental uparching. Such a hotspot in
the upper mantle is probably caused by convective upwelling from the deeper part of the
mantle (mantle plumes), during with partial fusion (melting) is likely to occur as pressure
is reduced from the rising material. The continental lithosphere above such a hotspot will
be heated and bended above (uplifted), which causes horizontal tension in the lithosphere
above the hotspot. The horizontal tension will break the lithosphere, forming horst graben
system (rift system). If the upwelling mantle develop further to be a mantle convection,
the rifting will be wider and a continental spitting will occur, then an ocean will be
opened as a result of sea floor spreading. Thus the development of an ocean is started
from continental rifting, followed by continental splitting, and then by sea floor spreading
(see figure 1.4).

1.5.2

Mountain Ranges

There are two present-day belt of young fold mountains, i.e.,the Circum-Pacific
and Alpine-Himalayan belt. They show geological evidence of strong horizontal and
vertical movements affecting the rock during the Tertiary. In some aspects, the crustal
structure beneath the modern mountain ranges differs from the normal continental crust,
as has been revealed by gravity and seismic observation.
Gravity anomalies show that present-day mountain belts are in general in
approximate isostatic equilibrium . Airy isostatic anomalies depicted across the Eastern
Alps, are of much smaller amplitude than the negative Bouguer anomaly. This shows that
the isostatic equilibrium has been reached to about 90-95%, which matches with the Airy
anomalies for a crustal thickness of 20 km depth. Mean while, the seismic works shows
that the crustal depth should be about 30 km. The reason for this discrepancy is that the
sharp negative anomaly near the crest of the Alps is caused by a mass deficiency within
the crust, probably a granite. This serves as a warning against placing too much
confidence in use of isostatic anomalies to estimate crustal thickness. Pratt type isostatic
anomalies would equally account for the observed profile.
It has been widely assumed that mountain ranges are compensated by roots of
thickened low density crust beneath, according to the Airy hypothesis. The isostatic
equilibrium could be explained equally well by the Pratt hypothesis. Opinion had been
influenced by the surface geological evidence of strong overfolding and thrusting
suggesting crustal shortening by compression, but the geological evidence can be
interpreted in turn of vertical movements and gravity tectonics. There fore, seismic
evidence for crustal thickness is needed to distinguish between the isostatic hypotheses.
Seismic refraction crustal structure investigation have now been done in some
mountain ranges. These generally confirm the presence of roots of thickened crust
beneath. As the general result, the Alps thickens to about 55 to 60 km, the crust beneath
the Central Andes reaches about 70 km, and the crust beneath the Himalayas reach to
about 80 km.
The upper crust beneath the Alps is characterized by a strongly developed velocity
inversion that P-wave velocities decrease to a minimum of about 5.0 to 5.5 km/s between
10 and 30 km depth beneath the axial region, which is probably caused by partial fusion.
The Conrad discontinuity is not observed and velocity increases with depth through the
lower crust and the Moho is transitional over a depth ranges about 10 km. Refraction
survey beneath the Central Andes of Peru and Bolivia show a low velocity zones within
the 6.1-6.2 km/s upper crust and the 6.8-6.9 km/s lower crust.
The conventional interpretation of the root beneath a mountain range is that it is
caused by crustal thickening. The old hypotheses that crustal shortening resulted from a
contracting earth is no longer tenable, because the amount of shortening would be quite
inadequate. It is now apparent, within the plate tectonic framework that the crutal
thickening characteristic of young continental mountain ranges can originate in two
different ways. In Alpine-Himalyan mountain ranges, it occurs by crustal shortening as a
result of continent-continent collision. In Andean type mountain ranges it probably occurs
without significant crustal shortening as a result of addition of basaltic and andesitic
igneous material to the crust, this having been produced from the underlying mantle.