Sensor

A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be
read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer converts
the measured temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a
calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be
read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, all sensors need to be calibrated against known standards.
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons and lamps which
dim or brighten by touching the base. There are also innumerable applications for sensors of
which most people are never aware. Applications include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine,
manufacturing and robotics.
A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the measured
quantity changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the
temperature changes by 1 C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/C. Sensors that measure very small changes
must have very high sensitivities. Sensors also have an impact on what they measure; for
instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while
the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors need to be designed to have a small effect on what is
measured, making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages.
Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale
as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a significantly
higher speed and sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches.
Sweat sensor:
A method of sensing the concentration level of at least one particular electrolyte in the sweat
fluid of a subject, includes providing a sweat sensor system having sweat fluid absorbing
material, measuring apparatus for sensing the electrical conductivity of sweat fluid absorbed by
the absorbing material and producing ionic concentration data for said at least one particular
electrolyte, and a user interface connected to the measurement apparatus for interpreting the data
to a user. The absorbing material is applied to the skin of the subject to cause sweat fluid thereon
to be absorbed by the absorbing material whereby the measurement apparatus produces ionic
concentration data for the sweat fluid absorbed and the user interface interprets the data for a
user.
Fibre optic Sweat sensor:
A sensor for sweat or other aqueous discharge onto skin comprises a plastic optical fibre
comprising a core and cladding, said core being in intimate contact at a first end with a light
emitter and at a second end with a light detector, and said fibre having a sensing zone in which
the cladding is replaced by a water-permeable translucent biocompatible polymer containing
dispersed therein a biocompatible indicator that varies the intensity of an optical signal at a
selected wavelength depending on whether the indicator is wet or dry. Such a sensor permits real

time monitoring of sweating or other discharge, and can also enable electronic recording and/or
remote monitoring.

A sensor for sweat or other aqueous discharge onto skin comprises a plastic optical fibre
comprising a core and cladding, said core being in intimate contact at a first end with a light
emitter and at a second end with a light detector, and said fibre having a sensing zone in which
the cladding is replaced by a water-permeable translucent biocompatible polymer containing
dispersed therein a biocompatible indicator that varies the intensity of an optical signal at a
selected wavelength depending on whether the indicator is wet or dry. Such a sensor permits real
time monitoring of sweating or other discharge, and can also enable electronic recording and/or
remote monitoring.
Humans perspire and an industry has grown in many countries of the world to create products for
inhibiting or controlling sweating in localised parts of the body, such as in particular in the
underarm, so as to prevent the appearances of wet patches on skin itself or in water-absorbent
clothing that comes into contact with skin. In order to develop such products, it is necessary for
the industry to be able to measure the effectiveness of the ingredients and resultant compositions
at inhibiting sweating.
In the course of their research, the instant inventors have identifies a means that overcomes one
or more of the disadvantages of the current method employed for sweat detection.
SMSI Glucose Sensor (in development)
Diabetes, unless carefully monitored and treated, has severe long-term medical complications.
Clinical studies have shown that tight glucose control significantly improves long-term clinical
outcomes. The typical glucose-monitoring regimen for diabetes patients involves piercing a
finger to obtain a blood sample, which is generally collected on a test strip and then analyzed in a
suitable device. The current standard of care recommends that this procedure be repeated a
minimum of four times per day. Because of the uncomfortable, cumbersome nature of this test
regimen, compliance is poor.
SMSI is developing a new approach to glucose monitoring that we believe will be an
improvement over existing methods. SMSI's glucose sensor, (pictured above, right and below,
left) will be implanted under the skin in a short outpatient procedure. The sensor is designed to
automatically measure interstitial glucose every few minutes, without any user intervention. The
sensor implant will communicate wirelessly with a small external reader (pictured above, left),
allowing the user to monitor glucose levels continuously or on demand. The reader is designed to
be able to track the rate of change of glucose levels and warn the user of impending hypo- or
hyperglycemia. The target operational life of the sensor implant will be 6-12 months, after which
it would be replaced.

We believe that diabetes patients will perceive this system to be an improvement in glucose
monitoring. Our clinical trials will be designed to demonstrate that this system is accurate
enough to replace standard home blood glucose monitoring. With positive results from our initial
clinical studies, supplemental clinical studies would be designed to demonstrate that the quality
and quantity of glucose data provided by the SMSI system enables patients to control their
diabetes more effectively. SMSI expects this will translate into significant adoption rates and
improved patient health.

The key distinguishing features of SMSI's glucose monitor, which will be evaluated in preclincal and clinical studies, include:

Minimally invasive. SMSI's glucose sensor implant will be placed under the skin using a
large-bore needle called a trocar. There, it will reside inside the body for up to one year,
depending on the product lifetime as demonstrated in clinical studies. Using telemetry,
the implant will communicate its glucose measurements to an external reader, without the
need to draw blood.
Continuous, effortless monitoring. As long as the patient wears the external reader, the
SMSI system is intended to automatically record a glucose level measurement every few
minutes. Further, it will be designed to alert the user to both hypergylcemia and
hypoglycemia.

Accurate. Because no sampling is involved, SMSI's glucose monitor is designed to

reduce the risk of user error substantially.

May enable improved care. Clinical studies will evaluate whether use of the device
allows improved treatment regimens by giving patients and healthcare providers a wealth
of new data. This may require supplemental regulatory approvals. Patients and health
care providers can receive tailored summaries of the data they need to make decisions.

Non-consuming. The SMSI glucose sensor does not need to consume or produce
chemicals while operating. The sensor's interaction with glucose is fully reversible, and
the device operates in equilibrium with ambient fluids.

Excellent Specificity. SMSI's sensor responds strongly to glucose, and in testing so far, is
not significantly affected by other chemicals at concentrations typically present in
interstitial fluid.

Blood glucose monitoring is a way of testing the concentration of glucose in the blood
(glycemia). Particularly important in the care of diabetes mellitus, a blood glucose test is
performed by piercing the skin (typically, on the finger tip) to draw blood, then placing the blood
on a chemically active disposable strip which indicates the result either by changing colour, or
changing an electrical characteristic, the latter being measured by an electronic meter.

Most people with Type 2 diabetes test at least

once per day (usually before breakfast) to assess the effectiveness of their diet, exercise, and
medication.[citation needed] Diabetics who use insulin (all Type 1 diabetes and many Type 2s)
usually test their blood sugar more often (3 to 10 times per day), both to assess the effectiveness
of their prior insulin dose and to help determine their next insulin dose.
Improved technology for measuring blood glucose is rapidly changing the standards of care for
all diabetic people. There are several methods of blood glucose testing currently available.
A blood glucose meter is an electronic device for measuring the blood glucose level. A relatively
small drop of blood is placed on a disposable test strip which interfaces with a digital meter.
Within several seconds, the level of blood glucose will be shown on the digital display.
While more expensive, blood glucose meters seem a breakthrough in diabetes self care[neutrality
disputed]. As the drops of blood needed for the meter become smaller, the pain associated with
testing is reduced and the compliance of diabetic people to their testing regimens is improved.
Although the cost of using blood glucose meters seems high, it is believed to be a cost benefit
relative to the avoided medical costs of the complications of diabetes.
A recent and welcome advance is the use of small blood drops for blood glucose testing from
other places than the finger tips. This alternate site testing uses the same test strips and meter, is
practically pain free, and gives the real estate on the finger tips a needed break if they become
sore. The disadvantage of this technique is that there is usually less blood flow to alternate sites,
which prevents the reading from being accurate when the blood sugar level is changing.
Continuous blood glucose monitoring
A continuous blood glucose monitor (CGM) determines blood glucose levels on a continuous
basis (every few minutes). A typical system consists of:

a disposable glucose sensor placed just under the skin, which is worn for a few days until
replacement

a link from the sensor to a non-implanted transmitter which communicates to a radio

receiver

an electronic receiver worn like a pager (or insulin pump) that displays blood glucose
levels on a practically continuous manner, as well as monitors rising and falling trends.

Continuous blood glucose monitors measure the glucose level of interstitial fluid. Shortcomings
of CGM systems due to this fact are:

continuous systems must be calibrated with a traditional blood glucose measurement

(using current technology) and therefore require both the CGM system and occasional
"fingerstick"
glucose levels in interstitial fluid lag temporally behind blood glucose values

Patients therefore require traditional fingerstick measurements for calibration (typically twice per
day) and are often advised to use fingerstick measurements to confirm hypo- or hyperglycemia
before taking corrective action.
The lag time discussed above has been reported to be about 5 minutes.[1][2][3] Anecdotally,
some users of the various systems report lag times of up to 1015 minutes. This lag time is
insignificant when blood sugar levels are relatively consistent. However, blood sugar levels,
when changing rapidly, may read in the normal range on a CGM system while in reality the
patient is already experiencing symptoms of an out-of-range blood glucose value and may
require treatment. Patients using CGM are therefore advised to consider both the absolute value
of the blood glucose level given by the system as well as any trend in the blood glucose levels.
For example, a patient using CGM with a blood glucose of 100 mg/dl on their CGM system
might take no action if their blood glucose has been consistent for several readings, while a
patient with the same blood glucose level but whose blood glucose has been dropping steeply in
a short period of time might be advised to perform a fingerstick test to check for hypoglycemia.
Continuous monitoring allows examination of how the blood glucose level reacts to insulin,
exercise, food, and other factors. The additional data can be useful for setting correct insulin
dosing ratios for food intake and correction of hyperglycemia. Monitoring during periods when
blood glucose levels are not typically checked (e.g. overnight) can help to identify problems in
insulin dosing (such as basal levels for insulin pump users or long-acting insulin levels for
patients taking injections). Monitors may also be equipped with alarms to alert patients of
hyperglycemia or hypoglycemia so that a patient can take corrective action(s) (after fingerstick
testing, if necessary) even in cases where they do not feel symptoms of either condition. While
the technology has its limitations, studies have demonstrated that patients with continuous
sensors experience less hyperglycemia and also reduce their glycosylated hemoglobin levels.[4]
[5][6][7]
Currently, continuous blood glucose monitoring is not automatically covered by health insurance
in the United States in the same way that most other diabetic supplies are covered (e.g. standard
glucose testing supplies, insulin, and even insulin pumps). However, an increasing number of
insurance companies do cover continuous glucose monitoring supplies (both the receiver and
disposable sensors) on a case-by-case basis if the patient and doctor show a specific need. The

lack of insurance coverage is exacerbated by the fact that disposable sensors must be frequently
replaced (sensors by Dexcom and Minimed have been FDA approved for 7- and 3-day use,
respectively, though some patients wear sensors for longer than the recommended period) and
the receiving meters likewise have finite lifetimes (less than 2 years and as little as 6 months).
This is one factor in the slow uptake in the use of sensors that have been marketed in the United
States.
Some current and future continuous glucose monitoring products include:
This technology is an important component in the effort to develop a closed-loop system
connecting real-time automatic control of an insulin pump based on immediate blood glucose
data from the sensor. One important goal is to develop an algorithm for automatic control, by
which the system would function as an artificial pancreas. However, this is a long-term goal at
this point for companies that manufacture such systems, as such an algorithm would need to be
very complex in order to accurately control blood sugar levels without any user input.
The principles, history and recent developments of operation of electrochemical glucose
biosensors are discussed in a chemical review by Joseph Wang.[8] The concept of a feedback
loop (sensing-delivery) system has offered a unique opportunity to deliver personalized medical
care and might change the treatment of many diseases through tailored administration of drugs.
Glucose sensing bio-implants
Longer term solutions to continuous monitoring, not yet available but under development, use a
long-lasting bio-implant. These systems promise to ease the burden of blood glucose monitoring
for their users, but at the trade off of a minor surgical implantation of the sensor that lasts from
one year to more than five years depending on the product selected.
Products under development include:

The SMSI Glucose Sensor

The Animas Glucose Sensor

Implanted Glucose Bio-sensor

The Dexcom LTS (long term system)

Effectiveness
For patients with diabetes mellitus type 2, the importance of monitoring and the optimal
frequency of monitoring are not clear. One randomized controlled trial found that selfmonitoring of blood glucose did not improve the Hba1c among "reasonably well controlled noninsulin treated patients with type 2 diabetes".[9] Additionally, a recent study found that a
treatment strategy of intensively lowering blood sugar levels (below 6%) in patients with
additional cardiovascular disease risk factors poses more harm than benefit.[10] For those who
are not on insulin, exercise and diet are the best tools to aid those with type 2: BG monitoring is

in that case simply a tool to evaluate the success of diet and exercise. But those with type 2 who
use insulin need to monitor their blood sugar just as frequently as those with type 1.
[edit] Blood glucose monitoring recommendations
The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), UK released updated diabetes
recommendations on the 30th May 2008, which recommend that self-monitoring of plasma
glucose levels for people with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes must be integrated into a
structured self-management education process.[11]
[edit] Side effects
Piercing the body, particularly on the finger tips, to draw blood can be painful.
There haven't been any studies investigating the long term damage caused by continual body
piercing.
As the most common endocrine metabolic disorder for human beings, diabetes mellitus with an
obvious phenomenon of high blood glucose concentrations results from a lack of insulin. Despite
the availability of treatment, diabetes has remained a major cause of death and serious vascular
and neuropathy diseases. Continuously monitoring the blood glucose level and intermittent
injections of insulin are widely used for effective control and management of diabetes. Extensive
research has been conducted to develop optimal glucose sensors for diagnostic purposes.
Currently, the commercially available glucose biosensors still have some problems to overcome,
such as time consuming, relatively low sensitivity, bad reliability. The performance of a glucose
sensor is largely dependent upon the materials which construct the sensor. Recent research effort
for glucose sensing have turned to on nanomaterials. Nanomaterial-based biosensors already
have shown the capability of detecting trace amounts of biomolecules in real time. New research
has studied the electrochemical characteristics of platinum decorated carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
as a promising candidate for glucose sensing. Its improved performance may encourage further
exploration of this novel nanomaterial in the field of bioapplications.

The glucose sensor can continuously measure glucose present in cell culture medium in a
perfused bioreactor system. The measurement is accurate within 15 mg/dl in the glucose range
between 50 and 300 mg/dl. The glucose sensor should be calibrated once every 15 days. The
sensor performed satisfactorily up to 55 days in a bioreactor cell run.
The glucose control system consists of a glucose sensor, a glucose stock solution, and the
necessary hardware and software to run the system. The glucose sensor measures the glucose of
the perfused culture medium in the bioreactor where mammalian cells are grown. A glucose
stock solution consisting of a high glucose concentration was added to the perfused culture
medium to keep the glucose within a known range. The volume of the stock solution needed for
25 mg/dl of glucose change is 2 ml for a bioreactor volume of 380 ml. It should be noted that the
glucose consumption rate decreases