Once a pioneer in the development of sewer

systems, the Indian city of Kolkata has

struggled in recent decades to maintain its
collection system network. Rapid population
growth and inadequate maintenance led to
chronic sanitation and drainage problems,
particularly in the citys older urban core.
However, Kolkata has embarked on an
aggressive program to rehabilitate the oldest
sections of its combined sewer system and is
already seeing markedly improved system
performance and environmental conditions.

New Life for Kolkatas Sewers

By Nilangshu Bhusan Basu and

Ayanangshu Dey, Ph.D., CEng, M.ASCE

(formerly Calcutta) emerged as

a commercial center in the late
17th century, and as it did so it gradually developed an extensive network for collecting
wastewater and storm water. Formed in 1876,
the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) assumed responsibility for the citys existing water and sewerage systems, which by the
late 19th century included multiple brick sewers of
medium to large diameter in what is today the core
area of Kolkata. Over time, the sewer network has
gradually experienced significant deterioration, the
result of age and inadequate cleaning and maintenance. However, in recent years the KMC has begun
a comprehensive sewer rehabilitation plan, the first
phase of which entails refurbishing approximately
26 km of the largest brick sewers. This article summarizes the history and features of Kolkatas brick sewers, the
problems and challenges associated with their deteriorating
condition, and the continuing efforts to rehabilitate this critical element of infrastructure in the heart of one of Indias largest and most congested urban centers.
Kolkata has long enjoyed the benefits of a systematic infrastructure network devoted to water and wastewater. As
early as 1846, its core area was receiving raw water from the
river Hooghly (Hugli) by means of brick conduits, and in
1868 the city became the first in Asia to supply potable water
from a surface source, also the river Hooghly. These developments, together with population growth, led to a demand for
measures to collect wastewater. Drainage also was a critical
consideration, as Kolkata typically receives an average annual

Glass-reinforced plastic liners

are being installed as part
of efforts to rehabilitate a section
of Kolkatas extensive network
of Victorian-era brick sewers.

rainfall of more than 1,800 mm, mostly during the monsoon

season: June to September. As a result, the system of underground sewers that was subsequently constructed was sized
to convey storm water as well as wastewater, and the network
of brick sewers remains a combined system to this day.
Upon the completion of its first brick sewer system in
1875, Kolkata was one of only a handful of cities in the world
that had an underground sewerage system. At the time the
city had roughly 61 km of brick sewers and 59 km of stoneware pipe sewers, as well as several drainage canals. Ultimately, Kolkatas core area would be served by five brick sewer systems: the Town, Suburban, Maniktala, TangraTopsia, and
TollygungePanchannagram (see table 1).
In general, the elevation of Kolkatas core area ranges from

Table 1 Basic Details of Kolkatas Catchment Basins, Sewers, and Pumping Stations
Name of system

K O L K ATA M U N ICIPAL C O RP O RATI O N

(KMC), ALL PHOTOS AND CHARTS

he Indian city of Kolkata

Basin
area (km)

Brick trunk along roads Terminal pumping Installed

sewer alignments
station
capacity (m/s)*

Town System
19.1

Baghbazar Street, Sobhabazar StreetGrey Street, Nim-

tola Ghat StreetBeadon Street, Kolutola StreetMirzapore
Street, Lenin Sarani, APC Roy Road, AJC Bose Road

Palmers Bridge
Pumping Station

48.7

Suburban System
25.7

Rashbehari Avenue, Hazra Road,

Poddapukur Road, CIT Road, Tiljala Road

Ballygunge Drainage
Pumping Station

36.1

Maniktala System
8.9

CIT Road (Kankurgachi to Ultadanga) Ultadanga

Main Road, Beliaghata Main Road

Dhapa Lock Pumping Station

13.6

TangraTopsia and 5.2+ 36.0

Served by open drains and
TollygungePanch-
smaller-diameter sewers
annagram systems

Topsia, Chingrighata, Pagladanga, 12.0 + 41.1

Kulia Tangra Pumping Stations,
Chowbhaga Pumping Station

*Figures relate to condition in 2006.

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7 to 12 m above mean sea level. Because

the landscape naturally slopes from west
to east, away from the river Hooghly, major trunk sewers were constructed so as to convey flows in this direction
to various pumping stations. Several canals in and around the core area also serve
as outfall points for storm-water runoff
from their catchments. Kolkatas combined wastewater and storm water are
pumped to respectively dry-weather flow
and storm-water flow channels. These
channels ultimately discharge to the river Kulti, approximately 36 km away.
Records indicate that about 180 km
of brick sewers exist in Kolkata today.
Of these, approximately 88 km are categorized as so-called man-entry sewers,
Excessive siltation has greatmeaning that they have a diameter greater
matters, the sewers were designed to serve
ly diminished the conveythan 1.07 m. As for their shape, the sewers
significantly smaller populations than is the
ance capacity of many of Kolvary from one stretch to another. Historicalcase today, while the dramatic increase in
katas aging brick sewers.
ly, Kolkatas sewers were oval or egg shaped
impervious pavement that has accompanied
to ensure that flow velocities would suffice to
Kolkatas population growth has exacerbated
keep them clean during dry-weather flows (see table 2). At drainage problems throughout the citys core area.
least one sewerthe Rashbehari Avenue sewer, part of the
Despite these problems, Kolkatas major brick sewers,
Suburban Systemwas designed in the shape of a basket some of which are more than a century old, continue to serve
handle (horseshoe) and included a rectangular brick channel as the main system for collecting wastewater and storm water
centrally located at the bottom to convey dry-weather flow. in the core area. Having received either limited or no mainteInitially, Kolkatas brick sewers were flushed using water nance since their installation, it is hardly surprising that the
from the river Hooghly during high-tide conditions. How- sewers are showing the effects of age and corrosion. In fact,
ever, over time such practices were discontinued, and subse- several previous studies found cases in which extreme siltquent siltation diminished sewer capacity and contributed ation was blocking normal flows. As a result, low-lying loto drainage problems aboveground. Further complicating cations within Kolkatas core experience perpetual drainage
problems, even after nominal rainfalls.
Table 2 Information on Kolkatas Major Man-Entry Brick Sewers
As the entity in charge of providing safe sanitation and adequate drainage for Kolkata, the KMC
Name of sewera Shape Size, b d (m)b Length (m)c Remarks
has conducted several studies to assess the baseline


These sewers converge
AJC Bose Road
Oval
2.78 2.13
4,986
condition of its ailing collection system infrastruc
at the Palmers Bridge
APC Roy Road
Oval
2.79 2.15
4,631
ture. As a result of these studies, the KMC gained


Pumping Station
an
insight into the extremely dilapidated condi Nimtola Ghat
Egg
2.39 1.86
1,785
Upstream of Beadon
tion
of the brick sewers and their high level of silt Street
Street sewer
ation, as well as the extent to which these circum Beadon Street
Egg
2.42 1.89
747
Terminates at APC
stances were contributing to drainage problems

Roy Road sewer
and sewer collapses. The main causes of the dete Canning Street
Egg
2.42 1.89
557
Upstream of Kolutola
rioration were determined to be the highly lim
Street Sewer
ited and localized maintenance work, the absence
Kolutola Street
Egg
2.42 1.89
2,000
Terminates at APC
of facilities for screening flows entering sewers, in
Roy Road Sewer
discriminate dumping of solid waste, and a lack of
Lenin Sarani
Egg
2.39 1.88
2,787
Terminates at APC
public awareness.

Roy Road Sewer
The collapse of a sewer is the ultimate stage of its
deterioration.
Earlier reports indicated that degener Hazra Road
Circular 1.64 to 2.17
4,044
Terminates at
ation of bricks and eroded mortar had caused struc
Ballygunge Drainage

Pumping Station
tural distress and failure in several places. Meanwhile, growing traffic loads on overlying roads and
Rashbehari
Horse-
2.13 to 3.05
4,813
Ballygunge Drainage
excavation of sewers for the purpose of installing
Avenue
shoe
Pumping Station
other utilities also contributed to sewer collapses.
Sewer is named after its alignment along major road, avenue, street, or boulevard (see the map on page 73).
In fact, sewer collapses increased at an alarming rate
b and d are maximum clear horizontal and vertical dimensions of the sewer; sewer sizes vary along length.
between 1980 and 2006 (see the figure on page 74).
Overall length of sewer from its origin to its culmination at either a pumping facility or another sewer.
A
B

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Table 3 Summary of Repair Costs and Traffic Blockage in Sewers

Table 3 summarizes the lengths of sewers subject to
name Length
Traffic blockage (hours)1
Capitalized
collapse during this period, the extent to which such Sewer

(m)
1980
1991 1995 2001 direct
collapses affected vehicle traffic, and the capitalized 1985 1985
1990 1995 2000 2006 cost (U.S.$2
millions)
costs for repairs. The KMC thus set out to refurbish
these brick sewers so as to significantly improve their APC Roy Road 4,986 319 516 713 1,086 1,135 8.972
hydraulic capacity and ameliorate the drainage situ- AJC Bose Road 4,631 282 464 646 997 1,044 8.268
ation in the core area.
Nimtola Ghat
1,785 141 229 317 485 506
3.343
The repair of a collapsed sewer requires open Street
excavation, necessitating roadway closures, traffic
70 109 148 226 234
1.935
diversions, and related disruptions and inconve- Beadon Street 747
66 106 145 224 236
1.935
nience for residents and businesses. In many cas- Canning Street 557
es, the indirect costs associated with such repairs Kolutola Street 2,000 145 237 328 504 529 3.870
can significantly exceed the costs of the repairs
Lenin Sarani 2,787 160 262 364 560 585 4.222
themselves. Seeking to reduce such indirect costs as
Hazra Road 4,044 275 444 611 940 979 7.213
much as possible, the KMCs Planning and Devel-
opment Department produced a structured plan Rashbehari Ave. 4,813 376 586 796 1,217 1,267 9.324
for upgrading and rehabilitating Kolkatas brick
Total
26,350 49.082
sewer network, beginning with the man-entry Estimated hours of traffic blockage associated with social and indirect costs.
sewers (see table 4). In determining which sewers Project costs are in 2012 dollars; figures do not include indirect and social costs.
to repair first, the KMC reviewed detailed histori A gate or barrier was used to isolate a selected stretch of
cal records on sewer collapses and repairs and considered such
factors as the serviceability of sewers, their vulnerability to brick sewer. Flows were diverted around the bypassed section
further deterioration, and whether immediate rehabilitation of sewer by pumping from the upstream to the downstream
was required. In general, the age of the sewer and the type of manhole through flexible pipes laid on the surface. In addimaterial used in its construction dictated the order in which tion to standby units and surcharge controls, traffic and other
safety precautions were implemented.
sewers were to be repaired.
Whenever possible, desilting was conducted by means
Known as Priority Phase 1, the plans initial effort targeted approximately 26 km of brick sewers on an emergency of a high-pressure jetting machine and a high-volume sucbasis, seeking mainly to alleviate drainage problems in the tion machine. Silt was disposed of at either a municipal
core city area. Paid for in part by funding from the Indian na- dumping ground or a secured sanitary landfill.
Before sewers were lined, they were repaired, grouted,
tional government, the sewer refurbishment work entailed
and graded, as necessary, to ensure the required shape and
the following efforts:
Topographical, geotechnical, and closed-circuit televi- size. The liners were then tested and installed and were later
sion (CCTV) surveys of sewers were conducted. CCTV surveys inspected to verify proper installation.
were carried out after a sewer had been desilted and again af Manholes were repaired and refurbished, the work site
ter liner installation.
was cleared, and as-built drawings were submitted to the
KMC.
Before work began in the field, the
Table 4 Rehabilitation Framework for Brick Sewers
KMC developed a plan for managing the
Type of Total Upgrade and
overall project, including such functions
Tentative
brick
estimated
rehabilitation
procedure
as overseeing site conditions, assessing
sewer
length (km) efforts envisaged
space limitations, and addressing logisti Man-entry
26.4
Mechanical desilting
Preferably through suitable
cal challenges.
(Priority
and rehabilitation
trenchless method
Removing silt proved to be a major
Phase 1)
supplemented by structural
challenge
during Priority Phase 1, partic
stabilization and lining of sewer
ularly
because
in many cases the material
Man-entry
63.2
Mechanical desilting
Preferably through suitable
had
accumulated
for decades. As a result,
(Priority
and rehabilitation
trenchless method
such
mechanized
approaches
as water jet Phase 2)
supplemented by structural
ting
and
vacuum
suction
often
did not

stabilization and lining of sewer
work,
and
silt
had
to
be
removed
by
using
Non-man-entry
36.3
Desilting and
Opencut method
chisels
or
jackhammers.
(Priority
reconstruction
Removing silt from the sewers pro Phase 3)
duced
a huge quantity of material that
Non-man-entry
55.7
Mechanical desilting Preferably through trenchless
had
to
be
disposed of properly. It has been
(Priority
and rehabilitation
methods supplemented by
estimated
that more than 50,000 m of
Phase 4)
structural stabilization and lining
silt has been removed from the brick
Other conduit
1,207
Only mechanical and manual desilting
sewers so far as part of the Priority Phase
sewers
proposed at this stage of planning
1 work. All of this material has been
1
2

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Worldwide, trenchless technology for rehabilitating underground

pipes has become the preferred method for repairing all types of sewer
and water mains, from small localized projects to complete networks.
Even in major Indian cities, trenchless methods have been adopted to rehabilitate aging and structurally unsound sewer networks. In most cases,
traditional opencut methods are not
practicable given the surrounding infrastructure, the space limitations,
and the long-term operation and
maintenance goals. Many other issues associated with opencut methods also contribute to the push for
trenchless approaches, including inconvenience to the public, the need
to reroute traffic and relocate other
utility services, lost income and revenues for residents and businesses,
settlement of existing structures, and
concerns related to the environment,
health, and safety.
Much forethought was required
in planning rehabilitation work of
this scale to minimize disruption to
urban life in Kolkata. In choosing
a sewer rehabilitation method, the
KMC had to consider not only the
detailed project objectives but also
the availability of qualified contractors, funding levels, and the extent to
which particular sewer systems needdisposed of in secured sanitary landfills in an Workers inspect the glass-rein- ed to be upgraded. The criteria for selectforced plastic liners after their
environmentally acceptable manner.
ing the trenchless technology and liner type
Despite the urgent need to conduct desilt- installation. The use of such lin- to be used for a given project included life
ers will aid in efforts to maining within the sewers, numerous difficulties
expectancy, track record, anticipated capiwere encountered. For example, differently tain the structural integrity and tal and operation and maintenance costs,
retain the hydraulic capacshaped manholes complicated efforts to insert
funding limitations, product availability
ity of Kolkatas brick sewers.
and remove machinery, as did the intrusion
and suitability, and sewer size. In selecting
within the sewers of such other utility lines
the liner type, the KMC sought to achieve
as water mains, high-tension electrical cables, and telephone the following basic objectives: restore or increase the strucand communication lines. What is more, damaged or missing tural integrity of the brick sewers, protect internal surfaces
manhole access steps and nonexistent lighting inside sewers against deterioration and enhance service life, improve hycontributed to delays, and progress was further hindered by draulic capacity and performance, and prevent the infiltrainsufficient funds and difficulty in finding acceptable sites for tion of groundwater into the sewers and the exfiltration of
wastewater out of them.
disposing of material removed from the sewers.
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I M P E R I A L G A Z E T T E E R O F I N D I A , N E W E D ITI O N / U N I V ER S IT Y O F C H ICA G O LI B RAR Y , U S A

Worldwide, trenchless technology for rehabilitating

underground pipes has become the preferred method
for repairing all types of sewer and water mains,
from small localized projects to complete networks.

Caption goes here Caption goes

here Caption goes here Caption goes here Caption goes
here Caption goes here Caption goes here Caption goes
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here Caption goes here

The Sewerage Rehabilitation Manual (Swindon,

United Kingdom: Water Research Centre plc)
describes three liner types: type I liners form a
bond with the sewer wall and act as a rigid composite section; type II liners act as a stand-alone
pipe; and type III liners provide corrosion protection and improvement in flow capacity. For

A modified version of
a 1908 map from the
Imperial Gazetteer of
India depicts the locations of the major
brick sewers in the
core area of Kolkata.

this project, type II liners were used and were designed to withstand all soil, overburden traffic,
and hydraulic loadings with a minimum expected life of 50 years under field conditions. For the
large-diameter man-entry sewers, such thermoplastics as polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene
could not be used because of their relatively low
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C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g [73]

Table 5 Project Schedule and Current Status

Project
Rehabilitation
program
Brick sewer


cost (U.S.$ Contractor
Start
End

millions)*

AJC Bose Road

APC Roy Road

October 2008 November 2011

November 2007 September 2010

26.25
Angerlehner Hoch- und Tiefbau Gesellschaft mbH, Pucking, Austria
24.47

Nimtola Ghat Street November 2008

Beadon Street
November 2011

January 2011
May 2012

10.80
3.45

Michel Bau GmbH & Co. KG, Neumnster, Germany

Canning Street
Kolutola Street

November 2011
November 2007

May 2012
January 2011

2.28
11.33

Angerlehner Hoch- und Tiefbau Gesellschaft mbH, Pucking, Austria

Lenin Sarani
Hazra Road

April 2008
November 2011

May 2010
May 2014

17.03
15.69

Michel Bau GmbH & Co. KG, Neumnster, Germany

Rashbehari Avenue November 2011 September 2013

22.20

Angerlehner Hoch- und Tiefbau Gesellschaft mbH, Pucking, Austria

Total project cost

133.5

*Adjusted to present U.S.$ costs in 2012.

Number of sewer collapses

long-term modulus of rigidity and resulting Sewer collapses have become mium on environmental sustainability. This
significantly more frequent in
thickness. Therefore, type II liners of glassissue becomes even more important in the
Kolkata in recent decades.
reinforced plastic (GRP) were selected as the
case of sewerage and drainage infrastructure,
most viable alternative for rehabilitating
for rehabilitation in such cases is comparaKolkatas Victorian-age man-entry brick sewers. The results tively critical and logistically challenging, especially in conof the CCTV surveys had a bearing on this decision by reveal- gested cities. Besides extending the service life of Kolkatas
ing structurally weak and badly deteriorated interior condi- brick sewers, this project has furthered the goals of sustaintions within most sewers. The GRP liners were also designed able development through its selection of an appropriate
to meet the requirements for deflection, strength, and buck- technology for rehabilitation.
ling set forth in such standards as water industry specificaUltimately, the use of GRP lining within the brick sewers
tion 4-34-02, developed by London-based Water UK; ASTM will do more than simply maintain structural integrity and
D-3262, developed by ASTM International; and AS 3571, retain hydraulic capacity. For example, GRP liner material is
developed by Standards Australia, based in Sydney. Annular sec250
tions between the original sewers
APC Roy Road sewer
and the liners were grouted with
225
AJC Bose Road sewer
concrete of approved grade.
Nimtola Ghat St. sewer
200
Safety is a primary concern in
Beadon St. sewer
sewer rehabilitation work, espe175
Canning St. sewer
cially as it pertains to the workers
Kolutola St. sewer
entering the sewers. Several pre150
cautionary measures were impleLenin Sarani sewer
mented, including ventilation,
Hazra Road sewer
125
use of exhaust fans, purging of inRashbehari Ave. sewer
100
side air, monitoring for poisonous
gases, cleaning sewers with hot
75
water, maintaining logbooks, and
requiring workers to use protec50
tive gear. As a result of strict adherence to these norms, there have
25
been no fatalities through four
0
years of rehabilitation activity.
19801985 19861990 19911995 19962000 20002006
Current trends in managing
Range of Years
urban infrastructure place a pre[74] C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g j u l y / a u g u s t 2 0 1 2

known to be inert to most of the chemicals usually expected to enter or be generated within sewers. More durable and
much less prone to siltation because of their smooth surfaces,
these liners help to ensure continued serviceability of the sewers. From a hydraulic standpoint, inserting the liner material
inside the brick sewers reduces the diameter of the sewer being rehabilitated. However, the smoother surface of the liner
in comparison with the original brick surface offers less frictional resistance to flowing water. Therefore, the GRP liner retains the conveyance capacity of the sewer and will be able to
accommodate possible flow increases in the future.
Another consideration is that siltation in sewers generates emissions of such greenhouse gases as methane, carbon
monoxide, and, eventually, carbon dioxide. Rehabilitating
the sewers and maintaining them in a serviceable condition
will reduce such emissions and result in a lower carbon footprint. At the same time, removing silt from the sewers and
maintaining them in this condition will reduce the likelihood of disease vectors in the service area. As an economic
benefit, some liners are manufactured in and around Kolkata,
promoting entrepreneurship and creating local jobs.
Implementation of the project began in 2008, and in
2010 the Lenin Sarani and APC Roy Road brick sewers were
the first to be rehabilitated. Since then, rehabilitation of the
Nimtola Ghat Street, Kolutola Street, and AJC Bose Road
sewers has been completed. Meanwhile, work continues on
certain portions of the remaining brick sewers. Under the
current schedule, all work is slated for completion by May
2014, and the overall project is expected to cost U.S.$133
million (see table 5). As originally approved, 35 percent of
the costs of the project were to be borne by the federal government, 35 percent by the state (West Bengal), and the remainder by the KMC and other funding sources. However,
actual project costs have exceeded original estimates, and the
KMC has had to make up the difference itself. In addition to
the upgrades to the brick sewers, desilting work and CCTV
surveys for laterals and smaller (non-man-entry) sewers are
now either in progress or are being put out for bids.
Residents and businesses in the vicinity of the completed sewer projects are already enjoying the benefits of significant improvements in sanitation and drainage. The next few
years are expected to bring even further benefits, improving

life in Kolkatas core area. Further desilting work and the rehabilitation of branches and other critical stretches of sewers
are planned, and upon the completion of this work the various stakeholders will benefit even more. Because of the many
benefits it confers, it is expected that trenchless technology
will be used on future projects. As the KMC and local contractors gain experience on such efforts, it is likely that similar projects in the future will benefit from lower bids and lower rehabilitation costs, further helping Kolkata to achieve its
goal of improving the performance and extending the life of
ce
its critical Victorian-era sewers. 
Nilangshu Bhusan Basu is the principal chief engineer of the Kolkata Municipal Corporations Planning and Development Department and the team leader on the brick sewer rehabilitation
project. Ayanangshu Dey, Ph.D., CEng, M.ASCE, is a sewerage
consultant with DHV India Pvt. Ltd., of
New Delhi, India. The authors wish to
express their gratitude to Vernon Downes,
of Kolkata-based WERM Wink JV India
Pvt. Ltd., for his contribution to this project and to the Kolkata Municipal Corporation chief engineer Subrata Kumar Seal,
deputy chief engineers Somnath Boral, Biplab Paul, and Pranab Kumar Das, and
Basu
executive engineers Sushil Kumar Mandal,
Sarbani Kundu, Sudipta Chattopadhyay,
and Samiran Ghosh.
P r o j e c t C r e d i t s Owner: Kolkata Municipal Corporation, Kolkata, India Executing agency: Planning
and Development Department, Kolkata Municipal Corporation, Kolkata, India Sewer rehabilitation consulDey
tant: WERM Wink JV India Pvt. Ltd.,
Kolkata, India Contractors: Angerlehner Hoch- und Tiefbau Gesellschaft mbH, Pucking, Austria, and Michel Bau
GmbH & Co. KG, Neumnster, Germany Funding: Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Ministry of
Urban Development, Government of India; Government of
West Bengal; and Kolkata Municipal Corporation
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