Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

ScienceDirect
Essential oils in foods: extraction, stabilization,
and toxicity
Cristian Dima1 and Stefan Dima2
Due to their biological properties, essential oils are used as an
ingredient to enhance the functionality of various products such
as foodstuff, drinks, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, or
green pesticides. Currently, research is mainly focused on
developing innovative and eco-friendly techniques to extract
essential oils and subsequently stabilize them through
encapsulation in order to obtain GRAS (generally recognized as
safe) natural products. The emerging market of essential oils
demands diverse analytical methods and improved regulations
for their marketing and application.
Addresses
1
Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Faculty of Food Science and
Engineering, Domneasca Str. 111, RO-800201 Galati, Romania
2
Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Faculty of Science and
Environment, Domneasca Str. 111, RO-800201 Galati, Romania
Corresponding author: Dima, Cristian (cristian.dima@ugal.ro)

Current Opinion in Food Science 2015, 5:2935

This review comes from a themed issue on Food engineering and
processing
Edited by Maria Angela de Almeida Meireles

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2015.07.003
2214-7993/# 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction
The earliest humans are presumed to have subsisted on
plants and seeds (God said, See, I have given you every
plant yielding seed that is upon the face of all the earth,
and every tree with seed in its fruit; you shall have them
for food; Genesis 1:29). It follows then that essential oils
(EOs) from plants have occupied an important place in
human history. Numerous written accounts of the extraction and use of EOs have been found in different regions,
such as India (5000 BC) and Mesopotamia or Greece
(3000 BC) [1,2].
Since their discovery, EOs have been used as food flavors
and additives, medicines, aphrodisiacs, and cosmetics, or
even during cult rituals. Presently, EOs are attracting
increasing interest for research as well as diverse applications. The market demand of EOs has increased with
their wide range of uses in the foodstuff, pharmaceuticals,
cosmetics and perfumes, aromatherapy, and agriculture
www.sciencedirect.com

[1,2,38]. Thus, approximately 40 00060 000 tons of

EOs are produced annually with an estimated market
value of 700 million US dollars [4]. The prices of the
products depend on the plant quality, extraction methods, and area of application (http://www.edenbotanicals.
com; http://www.newdirectionsaromatics.ca 19.03.2015).
The present paper aims to emphasize the main research
directions regarding the extraction, stabilization, and
application of EOs as natural components in the food
industry.

Extraction and processing of EOs

EOs are complex mixtures of volatile compounds
extracted from plants. These low molecular mass compounds are insoluble in water. However, the exact definition of EOs is still debated in the scientific community
[22]. The majority accept the definition of the International Standards Organization (ISO), which limits the
extraction methods used to obtain EOs. According to
the ISO 9235.2 specifications, EO is defined as A product
obtained from vegetable raw material either by distillation with water or steam or from the epicarp of Citrus
fruits by a mechanical process, or by dry distillation
[2,9]. The regulation also states that steam distillation
can be conducted in the presence or absence of water in
the distillery, whereas dry distillation does not permit the
presence of water or water vapors in the still. In addition,
various possible methods of processing raw EO such as
redistillation, rectification, and aeration are highlighted.
Aromatic plants used in EO extractions are ubiquitous.
Some aromatic plants were collected from wild flora (wild
collection) growing beneficially in natural conditions.
However, most of the aromatic herbs are harvested from
systematic crops, which are cultivated under ecological
conditions.
More than 3000 types of EOs are currently known, of
which only 300 are of commercial interest [1,5].
After being synthesized in different parts of herbs, EOs
are released as an aroma through the epidermal cells of
petals, or they are accumulated and stored in different
anatomical parts of the plant, such as intracellularly
secreting cells, glandular trichomes, or secretory canals
and pockets [9,10].
Whole aromatic herbs or parts such as leaves, flowers,
buds, seeds, fruits, roots, wood or bark are harvested during
Current Opinion in Food Science 2015, 5:2935

30 Food engineering and processing

plant-specific stages of maturity. Then, they are stored

under controlled conditions of light, temperature, and
humidity, and then subjected to different extraction methods [10].
Systemized extraction techniques in terms of required
quantities, process complexity, and field of application are
presented in Figure 1. Thus, large amounts of EOs for
commercial use can be obtained via classical methods
such as distillation, organic solvent extraction, and cold
pressing.
Distillation is the oldest and simplest method of extracting EOs, applicable in several technologies. The main
technological difference underlying methods such as
hydrodistillation, vapor-hydrodistillation, and steam distillation is the presence or absence of water in contact
with vegetal material. However, these methods have
some disadvantages such as high energy consumption,
long extraction time (46 hours), simultaneous extraction
of other polar components (coumarins and plant pigments), degradation of temperature-sensitive compounds, and environment pollution [9,11].
Citrus EOs are obtained by cold pressing, wherein oil
glands localized in the external part of the mesocarp are
pressed to release EOs, which are further separated by
centrifugation.
New extraction technologies that eliminate some of
the disadvantages of the classical methods have been

developed over the past years. Some methods such as

ultrasound-assisted extraction [12] or microwave-assisted
extraction [1315] employ alternative sources of energy,
whereas others such as supercritical fluid extraction [16
19] or subcritical water extraction [9,20] enhance the
solvent characteristics.
CO2 is mostly used in supercritical fluid extraction for its
unique properties such as decreased values of critical
parameters (Tcr = 31.1 8C and Pcr = 7.4 MPa), low chemical reactivity, low toxicity, and reasonable price. In the
supercritical phase (3155 8C and 0.57.4 MPa), CO2
behaves as a nonpolar liquid with high diffusivity, which
allows the extraction of nonpolar components from the
targeted material.
Subcritical water extraction (SWE), also known as pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE) or pressurized lowpolarity water extraction (PLPWE), is a novel method of
EO extraction [21]. Here, superheated water is used at
temperatures ranging between 100 and 375 8C (critical
temperature) at high pressures (>20 bar). Under these
conditions, the water polarity decreases with the decrease
in dielectric constant until 14.86 (350 8C and 250 bar),
which ensures that nonpolar components are solubilized
and extracted from plant materials [9,11]. In general,
SWE is mainly used at the laboratory and pilot plant
scales to produce reduced quantities of EOs. These new
techniques have the following important advantages over
traditional methods: reduced power consumption and
extraction time, extraction of a much higher number of

Figure 1

INNOVATIVE METHODS
Supercritical fluid extraction
Subcritical liquid extraction
Ultrasound assisted extraction
Microwave assisted extraction
Microwave hydrodiffusion
Microwave steam distillation
Solvent free microwave extraction
LABORATORY
SCALE AND
MICROSAMPLING
TECHNIQUES

CONVENTIONAL
AND CLASSICAL
METHODS
Hydrodistillation
Steam-distillation
Hydrodiffusion
Organic solvent
extraction
Cold pressing
Dry distillation

ESSENTIAL OILS
EXTRACTION METHODS

Clevenger
distillation
Microdistillation
Headspeace
Solid-phase
microextraction
Current Opinion in Food Science

Essential oils extraction methods.

Current Opinion in Food Science 2015, 5:2935

www.sciencedirect.com

Essential oils in foods: extraction, stabilization and toxicity Dima and Dima 31

components in a larger quantity, no degradation of temperature-sensitive components, and decreased environment pollution.
Some research articles and review papers have described
these unconventional methods as well as their application
in bioactive component extraction [1218]. The optimization of parameters is particularly of interest for increasing the extraction yield and product quality [11,18].
Further, microextraction methods are also being studied
with the main aim of rapidly analyzing the extracted
components. These methods use low quantities of raw
material and allow all analyses to be performed immediately after extraction (headspace techniques and solidphase microextraction). Often, raw EOs are processed
further through redistillation, molecular distillation, or
rectification to remove any traces of lipids or natural
waxes and therefore obtain highly pure fractions of bioactive components [23].
Authenticity of EOs is a pertinent issue. EOs are most
commonly falsified by using inauthentic herbs, adding
natural volatile compounds of poor quality, or even mixing
with other simple vegetable oils [23]. Falsification
modifies the quality and safety of the EO product for
subsequent use (foodstuff, cosmetics, and drugs). Thus,
international quality control organizations have introduced
rules and standards for EO usage to prevent and detect
falsification. In addition, new authentication techniques
have been developed, including gas chromatography (GC),

chiral GC, isotope-ratio mass spectrometry, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and (HP)TLC
analysis, vibrational spectroscopy (infrared, IR; Fourier
transform infrared, FTIR; and near infrared, NIR), and
coupled and multidimensional chromatography (GCGC,
GCmass spectrometry (MS)) [24,25].

Chemical composition and biological activity

of EOs
The chemical components of EOs are produced through
three different biosynthetic pathways: the methyl-erythritol pathway for mono-terpines and diterpenes, the
mevalonate pathway for sesquiterpenes, and the shikimic
acid pathway for phenylpropanoids [9,10]. A single type
of EO can contain more than 100 different components in
various ratios (170%). However, a systematic chemical
nomenclature for chemical compounds found in EOs
does not exist. Their scientific names are based on their
properties or prominent sources (e.g., terpenes, limonene,
pinene, thymol, among others). In general, the chemical
components of EOs are classified as terpenes, phenylpropanoids, or sulfur-containing or nitrogen-containing compounds [2,3,4,26]. These groups contain cyclic and
acyclic compounds from different classes, such as alcohols, esters, phenols, ketones, lactones, aldehydes, and
oxides (Figure 2).
In addition, the EO composition depends on the specie
and subspecie of the extracted plant, the geographic
location of this plant, harvest time, extraction techniques,

Figure 2

OH

TERPENES AND TERPENOIDS

Carbures: limonene, -terpinene; p-cimene
Alcohols: menthol, linalool, geraniol;
Esters: geranylacetate;
Limonene
CH3
Phenols: carvacrol, thymol;
Ethers; 1,8 cineole;
O
Ketone: carvone;
Aldehydes: citral;
HC
CH
3

OH

Linalool

SULFUR AND NITROGEN COMPOUNDS

Thiosulfinates: allicin;
Allyl sulfides: diallyl sulfide, diallyl disulfide;
Pyrazines, Isothiocyanates,

CH3

H3C

1,8 cineole

AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
Phenols: eugenol, chavicol;
Aldehydes: cinnamaldehyde;
Alcohol: cinnamylalcohol;
Metoxi derivatives: methyl cinnamate
methyl eugenol, methyl chavicol;

Thymol

Carvone

CH3

Citral

O
H
OCH3
OH

Eugenol

Cinnamaldehyde
O
S

S+

Allicin

Diallyl sulfide

Current Opinion in Food Science

The main chemical compounds in essential oils.

www.sciencedirect.com

Current Opinion in Food Science 2015, 5:2935

32 Food engineering and processing

and processing methods. Thus, terpene-rich EOs are

extracted from the Apiaceae, Asteraceae, and Lamiaceae
families; phenylpropanoid-rich EOs are extracted from
the Apiaceae (Umbelliferae), Lamiaceae, Myrtaceae,
Piperaceae, and Rutaceae families; and EOs rich in
sulfur-containing and nitrogen-containing compounds
are found in plant families such as Alliaceae, Rutaceae,
and Brassicaceae [26].
The chemical components of EOs account for their
different biological properties such as antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, antiviral, antimutagenic, antiprotozoal,
anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antioxidant properties [2730]. These features can be exploited to develop
innovative pharmaceutical or functional food products
that contribute to the health of the consumer.

Stabilization of EOs
EOs are sensitive to few physicochemical factors such as
oxygen, light, temperature, and pH. Thus, oxygen in the
presence of light leads to oxidation of the unsaturated
compounds with the generation of free radicals. EOs lose
small quantities of volatile compounds when stored at
high temperatures. Moreover, some components are
highly unstable with varying pH, for instance, citral,
which is easily decomposed in an acidic environment
[31]. EOs can be protected during storage, transport,
and processing through encapsulation. This can not only
protect EOs from various physicochemical factors but also
preserve their flavor and their biological activity, mask

their odor/smell and taste, and transform them into watersoluble powders [32]. Microcapsules slowly release the
EO components, which ensures that flavor is preserved
and shelf life is extended. EO-loaded micro-particles and
nanoparticles must be produced via an integrated process
with interrelated stages. This process should ensure that
these micro-particles and nanoparticles enhance the functionality of the foodstuff, such as safety, increased nutrition value, health benefits, good sensorial properties, and
affordable price [3336]. The food-grade encapsulant
material and the encapsulating techniques should agree
with the nature of the food matrix containing the EO. For
example, EOs to be introduced in liquids must be converted into liquid colloidal dispersions, or nano-emulsions
and microemulsions [37,38], or they can be included in
water-soluble molecular systems such as cyclodextrins
[39]. Polymer micro-capsules and nanocapsules loaded
with EOs are used in dairy [40,41], meat [4244],
or bakery and confectionery products [1]. The various
delivery systems used in the food industry are presented
in Figure 3.

EOs in foods and safety issues

Plants have long been an integral part of human life.
Based on experience, humankind began to use plants for
their benefits. Presently, plants are often used for food
preservation or treatment of various diseases. However,
the quantity of used plants and plant extracts is limited by
the sensitivity of the olfactory and taste sensors. Thus, no
safety issues have been identified for these types of

Figure 3

LIPID-BASED MICRO AND NANO PARTICLES

Emulsions

Nanoemulsions Microemulsions

Solid lipid
nanoparticles

POLYMER- BASED
MICRO AND NANO
PARTICLES

Liposomes

MOLECULAR
INCLUSION

ESSENTIAL OILS MICRO

AND NANO PARTICLES
Filled microgels
, , - Cyclodextrins
Current Opinion in Food Science

Micro and nano systems used to encapsulation of essential oils.

Current Opinion in Food Science 2015, 5:2935

www.sciencedirect.com

Essential oils in foods: extraction, stabilization and toxicity Dima and Dima 33

natural products, which are mostly neglected. Concepts

such as a long history of safe use and the principle of
self-limitation are used to consider natural flavor complexes safe under intended condition of use. In general,
based on these two aspects, the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) decided that 160 EOs are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for use in food preparation, drugs, and cosmetics [45]. The food industry mainly
uses cinnamon, citrus, clove, lemongrass, coriander, oregano, sage, pimento, thyme, and rosemary EOs [46].
Testing the composition of natural products has become
all the more important with the increasing consumer
demand. As a result, the chemical and toxological characterization of EOs used in the food industry has been
increasingly investigated of late. International organisms
such as FDA, Codex Alimentarium, Food Chemical Codex (FCC), the Flavor and Extract Manufactures Association (FEMA), the International Organization of Flavor
Industries (IOFI), and the Council of Europe (CoE) have
established protocols for chemical and toxicological analyses, good practice guides for processing aromatic plants
and EOs, and the limits for the quantities of minimal and
maximal volatile components to be found in EOs. For the
commercial use of EOs as food flavors, the FCC mandates
that the mean concentrations of the congener components be stated, as well as the confidence limits for a
sufficient number of EOs; its key constituents, with a zinc
daily intake higher than 1.5 mg/day, which may be used to
monitor its quality; and the trace constituents that could
affect its safety. Furthermore, three classes of toxic constituents were established: The first class includes lowtoxicity compounds that do not require special investigations, at the fifth percentile no observed effect level
(NOEL) of 3.0 mg/kg per day; the second class includes
components less harmless than the first class, which do
not raise major toxicity suspicions, at the fifth percentile
NOEL of 0.91 mg/kg per day; and finally the third class
contains components of significant toxicity, which
decreases the safety of the EO, at the fifth percentile
NOEL of 0.15 mg/kg per day. Unidentified components
are also categorized under the third class [47].
One of the most commonly used EOs in the food industry, coriander EO belongs to the first class and can be
safely consumed when used appropriately. The calculated individual consumption of coriander EO is 0.3624 mg/
day or 0.00604 mg/kg per day (total lower-intake value;
FEMA) and 2.9476 mg/day or 0.0478 mg/kg per day
(high-intake value; National Academy of Science). Based
on FEMA, the maximum quantities of coriander EO that
can be used in various domains of the food industry are as
follows: meat products, 68.47 ppm; alcoholic beverages,
121.20 ppm; nonalcoholic beverages, 8.94 ppm; baked
goods, 62.06 ppm; frozen dairy, 47.35 ppm; and chewing
gum, 6.62 ppm [1]. The following chemical components
of EOs are registered and generally recognized as safe for
www.sciencedirect.com

use as flavoring agents in the European Union (EU)

countries: carvacrol, carvone, cinnamaldehyde, citral,
p-cymene, eugenol, limonene, menthol, and thymol.
Estragole and methyl eugenol were removed from the
safe list [48].

Conclusions
Due to their traditional flavor and their antibacterial and
antioxidant characteristics, EOs have been used as alternatives to synthetic additives in food that is both highly
safe and savory. Studies focused on embedding EOs into
micro-particles and nanoparticles are ongoing, for use in
food processing or for developing new packaging technologies. However, more toxicological studies on EOs
and their effect on consumer health are warranted.

References and recommended reading

Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review,
have been highlighted as:
 of special interest
 of outstanding interest
1.

Burdock GA, Carabin IG: Safety assessment of coriander

(Coriandrum sativum L.) essential oil as a food ingredient.
Food Chem Toxicol 2009, 47:22-34.

2.


Schmidt E: Production of Essential Oils. In Handbook of

Essential Oils. Science, Technology, and Applications. Edited by
Baser KHC, Buchbauer G. Taylor & Francis Group; 2010:83-118.
This book develops all aspects of essential oils: sources, chemistry,
extraction methods, analysis, antimicrobial activities, toxicology and
safety, encapsulation, storage and transport, and European legislation.
3.

Bakkali F, Averbeck S, Averbeck D, Idaomar M: Biological effects

of essential oils: a review. Food Chem Toxicol 2008, 46:446-475.

4.

Burt S: Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and

potential applications in foods: a review. Int J Food Microbiol
2004, 94:223-253.

5. Raut JS, Karuppayil SM: A status review on the medicinal


properties of essential oils. Ind Crop Prod 2014, 62:250-264.
This paper presents the pharmaceutical and biological activities of
essential oils.
6.

Turgis M, Dang Vu KD, Dupont C, Lacroix M: Combined

antimicrobial effect of essential oils and bacteriocins against
foodborne pathogens and food spoilage bacteria. Food Res Int
2012, 48:696-702.

7.

Prakash B, Kedia A, Mishra PK, Dubey NK: Plant essential oils as

food preservatives to control moulds, mycotoxin
contamination and oxidative deterioration of agri-food
commodities potentials and challenges. Food Control 2015,
47:381-391.

8.

Calo JR, Crandall PG, OBryan CA, Ricke SC: Essential oils as
antimicrobials in food systems a review. Food Control 2015,
54:111-119.

9.


El Asbahani A, Miladi K, Badri W, Sala MEH, Addi EH,

Casabianca H, El Mousadik A, Hartmann D, Jilale A, Renaud FNR,
Elaissari A: Essential oils: from extraction to encapsulation. Int
J Pharm 2015, 483:220-243.
This review articles provides an excellent overview of the sources,
extraction methods, and encapsulation techniques of essential oils.
10. Franz C, Novak J: Sources of essential oils. In Handbook of
Essential Oils. Science, Technology, and Applications. Edited by
Baser KHC, Buchbauer G. Taylor & Francis Group; 2010:39-73.
11. Pavlic B, Vidovic S, Vladic J, Radosavljevic R, Zekovic Z: Isolation
of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) essential oil by green
extractions versus traditional techniques. J Supercrit Fluid
2015, 99:23-28.
Current Opinion in Food Science 2015, 5:2935

34 Food engineering and processing

12. Assami K, Pingret D, Chemat S, Meklati BY, Chemat F:

Ultrasound induced intensification and selective extraction of
essential oil from Carum carvi L. seeds. Chem Eng Process
2012, 62:99-105.
13. Gavahian M, Farahnaky A, Farhoosh R, Javidnia K, Shahidi F:
Extraction of essential oils from Mentha piperitausing
advanced techniques: Microwave versus ohmic
assisted hydrodistillation. Food Bioprod Process 2015, 94:5058.
14. Suzara S, Costa SS, Gariepy Y, Sandra CS, Rocha SCS,
Raghavan V: Microwave extraction of mint essential oil
temperature calibration for the oven. J Food Eng 2014,
126:1-6.
15. Filly A, Fernandez X, Minuti M, Visinoni F, Cravotto G, Chemat F:
Solvent-free microwave extraction of essential oil from
aromatic herbs. From laboratory to pilot and industrial scale.
Food Chem 2014, 155:193-198.
16. Dima C, Ifrim GA, Coman G, Alexe P, Dima S: Supercritical CO2
extraction and characterization of Coriandrum sativum L.
essential oil. J Food Process Eng 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/
jfpe.12218.
17. Fornari T, Vicente G, Vazquez E, Garca-Risco MR, Reglero G:
Isolation of essential oil from different plants and herbs by
supercritical fluid extraction a review. J Chromatogr A 2012,
1250:34-48.
18. Arranz E, Jaime L, Lopez de las Hazas MC, Reglero G, Santoyo S:
Supercritical fluid extraction as an alternative process to
obtain essential oils with anti-inflammatory properties
from marjoram and sweet basil. Ind Crop Prod 2015,
67:121-129.
19. Duba KS, Fiori L: Supercritical CO2 extraction of grape seed oil:
effect of process parameters on the extraction kinetics. J
Supercrit Fluid 2015, 98:33-43.
20. Larkeche O, Zermane A, Meniai A-H, Crampon C, Badens E:
Supercritical extraction of essential oil from Juniperus
communis L. needles: application of response surface
methodology. J Supercrit Fluid 2015, 99:8-14.
21. Eikani MH, Golmohammad F, Rowshanzamir S: Subcritical water
extraction of essential oils from coriander seeds (Coriandrum
sativum L.). J Food Eng 2007, 80:735-740.
22. Kubeczka K-H: History sources of essential oil research. In
Handbook of Essential Oils. Science, Technology, and
Applications. Edited by Baser KHC, Buchbauer G. Taylor & Francis
Group; 2010:3-38.
23. Tien Do TK, Hadji-Minaglou F, Antoniotti S, Fernandez X:
 Authenticity of essential oils. Trends Anal Chem 2015,
66:146-157.
This is a comprehensive overview on adulterations in essential oils, and it
describes some analytical methodologies used in their detection.
24. Gad HA, El-Ahmady SH, Abou-Shoer MI, Al-Azizi MM: Application
of chemometrics in authentication of herbal medicines: a
review. Phytochem Anal 2013, 24:1-24.
25. Smelcerovic A, Djordjevic A, Lazarevic J, Stojanovic G: Recent
advances in analysis of essential oils. Curr Anal Chem 2013,
9:61-70.
26. Carson CF, Katherine A, Hammer KA: Chemistry and
bioactivity of essential oils. In Lipids and Essential Oils as
Antimicrobial Agents. Edited by Thormar H. John Wiley & Sons;
2011:204-223.
27. Mazzarrino G, Paparella A, Chaves-Lopez C, Faberi A, Sergi M,
Sigismondi C, Compagnone D, Serio A: Salmonella enterica
and Listeria monocytogenes inactivation dynamics after
treatment with selected essential oils. Food Control 2015,
50:794-803.
28. Chang Y, McLandsborough L, McClements DJ: Fabrication,
stability and efficacy of dual-component antimicrobial
nanoemulsions: essential oil (thyme oil) and
cationic surfactant (lauric arginate). Food Chem 2015,
172:298-304.
Current Opinion in Food Science 2015, 5:2935

29. Koul O, Singh R, Kaur B, Kanda D: Comparative study on the

behavioral response and acute toxicity of some essential oil
compounds and their binary mixtures to larvae of Helicoverpa
armigera, Spodoptera litura and Chilo partellus. Ind Crop Prod
2013, 49:428-436.
30. Ruben O, Valeria N, Ruben GN: Antioxidant activity of fractions
from oregano essential oils obtained by molecular distillation.
Food Chem 2014, 156:212-219.
31. Choi SJ, Decker EA, Henson L, Popplewell LM, McClements DJ:
Stability of citral in oil-in-water emulsions prepared with
medium-chain triacylglycerols and triacetin. J Agric Food
Chem 2009, 57:11349-11353.
32. Augustin MA, Sanguansri L: Challenges in developing delivery
systems for food additives, nutraceuticals and dietary
supplements. In Encapsulation Technologies and Delivery
Systems for Food Ingredients and Nutraceuticals. Edited by Garti ,
McClements DJ.. Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2012:19-48.
33. Dima S, Dima C, Iordachescu G: Encapsulation of functional
lipophilic food and drug biocomponents. Food Eng Rev, DOI:
10.1007/s12393-015-9115-1.
34. Dima C, Cotarlet M, Alexe P, Dima S: Microencapsulation of
essential oil of pimento [Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr.] by chitosan/
k-carrageenan complex coacervation method. Innov Food Sci
Emerg 2014, 20:203-211.
35. Martins IM, Barreiro MF, Coelho M, Rodrigues AE:
Microencapsulation of essential oils with biodegradable
polymeric carriers for cosmetic applications. Chem Eng J 2014,
245:191-200.
36. Donsi F, Annunziata M, Sessa M, Ferrari G: Nanoencapsulation
of essential oils to enhance their antimicrobial activity in
foods. Food Sci Technol 2011, 44:1908-1914.
37. Piorkowski TD, McClements DJ: Beverage emulsions: recent
 developments in formulation, production, and applications.
Food Hydrocolloids 2014, 42:41-50.
This is an excellent review of the design, formulation, and production of
beverage emulsions. The authors conducted a theoretical and experimental study on emulsion stability, physicochemical properties, and
fabrication methodology. These strategies can be adopted when using
essential oils in the beverage industry.
38. Salvia-Trujillo L, Rojas-Grau A, Soliva-Fortuny R, Martn-Belloso O:
Physicochemical characterization and antimicrobial
activity of foodgrade emulsions and nanoemulsions
incorporating essential oils. Food Hydrocolloids 2015,
43:547-556.
39. Pinho E, Grootveld M, Soares G, Henriq M: Cyclodextrins as
encapsulation agents for plant bioactive compounds.
Carbohydrate Polymers 2014, 101:121-135.
40. Boroski M, Giroux HJ, Sabik H, Hele`ne V, Petit HV, Visentainer JV,
Matumoto-Pintro PT, Britten M: Use of oregano extract and
oregano essential oil as antioxidants in functional dairy beverage
formulations. LWT Food Sci Technol 2012, 47:167-174.
41. Asensio CM, Nelson R, Grosso NR, Juliani HR: Quality
preservation of organic cottage cheese using
oregano essential oils. LWT Food Sci Technol 2015,
60:664-671.
42. Jayasena DD, Cheorun J: Essential oils as potential
antimicrobial agents in meat and meatproducts: a review.
Trends Food Sci Technol 2013, 34:96-108.
43. Pesavento G, Calonico C, Bilia AR, Barnabei M, Calesini F,
Addona R, Mencarelli L, Carmagnini L, Di Martino MC, Lo Nostro A:
Antibacterial activity of oregano, rosmarinus and thymus
essential oils against Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria
monocytogenes in beef meatballs. Food Control 2015,
54:188-199.
44. Dussault D, Dang Vu K, Lacroix M: In vitro evaluation of
antimicrobial activities of various commercial essential oils,
oleoresin and pure compounds against food pathogens and
application in ham. Meat Sci 2014, 96:514-520.
45. Tisserand R, Young R: Essential Oil Safety. A Guide for Health Care
 Professionals. edn 2. Churchill Livingstone; 2014:. pp 2338.
www.sciencedirect.com

Essential oils in foods: extraction, stabilization and toxicity Dima and Dima 35

This is probably the best book on the safety, skin sensitization, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity of essential oils.
46. Tajkarimi MM, Ibrahim SA, Cliver DO: Antimicrobial herb and
spice compounds in food. Food Control 2010, 21:1199-1218.
47. Adams TB, Taylor SV: Safety evaluation of essential oils: a
constituent-based approach. In Handbook of Essential Oils.

www.sciencedirect.com

Science, Technology, and Applications. Edited by Baser KHC,

Buchbauer G. Taylor & Francis Group; 2010:186-205.
48. Demyttenaere JCR, Recent EU: Legislation on flavors
and fragrances and its impact on essential oils. In
Handbook of Essential Oils. Science, Technology, and
Applications. Edited by Baser KHC, Buchbauer G. Taylor &
Francis Group; 2010: 917-947.

Current Opinion in Food Science 2015, 5:2935