Professional Documents
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Torre de Pisa
Torre de Pisa
tower of Pisa
J. B. Burland 7 M. Jamiolkowski 7 C. Viggiani
Introduction
The town of Pisa is situated some 10 km from the Ligurian
Sea (Fig. 1), having developed around a port on the River
Arno. A naval base in Roman times, it was the birthplace
of Galileo Galilei (15641642) and became a powerful Tuscan city state with a flourishing commercial centre in the
Middle Ages. However, it is probably best known for its
leaning tower (Fig. 2). This white marble bell tower, begun in 1173, was the third and final structure of the cathedral complex and is some 56 m high. After three storeys
had been completed, uneven settlement of the building occurred. Construction work was suspended several times,
but the inclined tower was ultimately completed in the
14th century.
Following the collapse without warning of the civic tower
in Pavia in 1989 when four people were killed, the Italian
Minister of Public Works and Buildings appointed a Commission to advise on the stability of the Pisa tower. The
Commission, under the chairmanship of Professor Michele
Jamiolkowski, re-assessed all the data available including
that obtained by the well-known 1965 Polvani Commission
(Ministero 1971).
This paper describes the tower itself and the ground conditions on which it was built. The history of the tilting is
reviewed and the temporary remedial works undertaken to
date are described. Possible permanent stabilisation measures are discussed.
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J. B. Burland et al.
Fig. 1
Location of Pisa, Italy, some 10 km from
the Ligurian Sea
ferential settlement was already taking place. Work recommenced in about 1272 and building continued to the
seventh floor when there was a further cessation in 1278.
Various reasons for the cessation have been suggested: it
may have been related to the military action taking place
around that time or the tower may have reached its original planned height. The possible effects of earthquakes in
the area have not been documented in detail but it is of
note that in 1279 there was a large earthquake centred in
the Camerino/Nocera Umbra area, some 160 km from Pisa;
in 1322 an earthquake of 4.2 Ms was recorded in Pisa while
between 1325 and 1345, three more severe earthquakes ocFig. 3
The Piazza dei Miracoli showing the cathedral, Baptistry and
leaning tower
Fig. 2
View of the leaning tower of Pisa
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Fig. 4
Cross section through the tower
Fig. 5
Geological map of the Pisa area, taken
from the 1 : 250,000 Carta Stutturale
DellAppennino Settentrionale
Ground conditions
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J. B. Burland et al.
Table 1
Soil profile beneath the Tower (AGI 1991)
Made Ground
Sandy/clayey silts
A1
Upper sand
A2
Upper clay
B14
Intermediate clay
B5
Intermediate sands
B6
Lower clay
B7
B8
B9
B10
the sediments and to the presence of inclined layers, characteristic of sediments formed in such conditions. Indeed,
it is reported that difficulty was experienced in correlating
the geology in some boreholes only 2 m apart. Previous investigations have noted the difference in oxidation state
within the materials. This may be related to the difference
between the normally laminated materials which would
have been exposed at low water and hence oxidised, compared with the creek infills which will not have the same
lithologies, sedimentary structures and/or oxidation state.
As seen from some cone tests for this upper estuarine layer
(Fig. 7) and examination of samples, the material to the
south of the tower appears to be finer-grained than that to
the north, while the sand layer is locally much thinner. In
contrast to the upper estuarine sediments (Horizon A), the
lower marine sediments (Horizon B) are more uniform in
nature, although evidence of estuarine characteristics are
recorded. The results of numerous laboratory tests on high
quality samples extracted from the sub-soil are given by
Calabresi, Rampello and Callisto (1993).
The natural ground water level is 12 m below the ground
surface but in the past, water extraction from the lower
sand has resulted in downward seepage from the upper
layers. As a consequence, between the upper estuarine deposits and the lower sand there is a vertical pore pressure
distribution which is slightly below hydrostatic.
Borings undertaken around the tower and beneath the
structure itself indicate a hollow at the boundary between
the upper estuarine deposits and the upper clay (Fig. 6).
This hollow was caused by the localised loading imposed
by the 14 500 ton tower of Pisa.
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Fig. 7
Comparison of cone resistance profiles to the north and south of
the tower
Fig. 8
Deduced history of inclination the tower during and subsequent
to construction
Children building brick towers on a soft carpet will be familiar with this phenomenon. Because the plan dimensions
of the Baptistry and Cathedral are so much larger, these
structures are well below their critical heights and in no
danger of leaning instability.
Since 1911, theodolite measurements have been made on a
regular basis to establish the extent of any movement taking place. In 1928 four levelling stations were installed
around the tower at plinth level, referenced to a bench
mark established on the Baptistry. Unfortunately no readings were taken between 1929 and 1965. However, in 1934 a
plumb line (pendulum) was suspended from the sixth floor
and in the same year, a 4.5 m long spirit level was embedded into the masonry to allow measurements of both
north-south and east-west movement to be taken. Figure
10 shows the change in inclination of the tower since 1930
relative to the zero readings begun in 1911. It can be seen
that the inclination is increasing with time and in 1990 it
was about 6 arc seconds per year (i.e. about 1.5 mm displacement of the top of the tower).
The tower has been shown to be very sensitive to ground
disturbance and changes in ground water conditions. In
1934, 361 holes were drilled into the foundation masonry
and 80 tons of grout injected in order to strengthen the
stonework and decrease its permeability. At this time,
either as a result of ground disturbance or temporary lowering of the ground water, there was a sudden increase of
tilt of 31 arc seconds. In 1966, some additional drilling into
the foundations was undertaken, resulting in a further
6 arc seconds of tilt. In the late 1960s and early 1970s,
pumping from the alluvial sands caused subsidence and
the tower tilted further towards the south west by some
41 arc seconds. When the pumping was reduced, the rate
of movement returned to its former level. In 1985 further
drilling in the foundations was undertaken and the tower
responded with 10 arc seconds of inclination due to accidental penetration of the underlying ground.
Careful consideration of the changes of inclination of the
tower over a number of years shows that they have a distinct seasonal pattern. In September the inclination of the
tower begins to increase towards the south. This southerly
movement continues until about February and amounts to
approximately 6 arc seconds. From February through the
summer little north/south change in inclination occurs.
The acceleration of inclination in September coincides
with heavy rainstorms and rapid rises in ground water level in Horizon A. There is also a fairly rapid fall in ambient
temperature. The tower also shows an annual east-west cycle of inclination of about 3 arc seconds. In August/September the tower begins to move towards the east and in
about February it begins to move back towards the west. It
is clear that both rises in ground water levels in Horizon A
and reduction in temperature cause southwards inclinations of the tower but the mechanisms involved are not
fully understood.
Fig. 9
Relationship between time and inclination for the computer simulation of the history of the Pisa tower
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J. B. Burland et al.
Fig. 10
Change in inclination of the foundations
in the 20th century
Fig. 13
Change in inclination of the tower during the application of the
counterweight
Permanent Stabilisation
Fig. 11
Placing the first lead ingot, 14 July 1993
Fig. 12
Applying load on the pre-cast ring
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J. B. Burland et al.
Conclusions
Fig. 14
Proposed method of inducing subsidence by soil extraction
Fig. 15
Trial showing the 7 m diameter eccentrically loaded footing with
the inclined drill undertaking selective soil extraction
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The 56-m-high Tower of Pisa, founded on alluvial sediments, appears to have deviated from the vertical at an
early stage during its construction which extended over a
total of some 200 years. Originally the inclination was
slightly to the north but during the second construction
phase, 12721278, it began to lean to the south such that
when the work was again interrupted, it was at an angle of
0.67 from the vertical. Since this time the southerly inclination has progressively increased, with relatively rapid dramatic tilting occuring at some periods. Following instrumentation in the 19th and 20th centuries, it was appreciated that the tower was not only sinking on the southern
and rising on the northern sides but it responded to fluctuations in ambient temperature and ground water levels
in Horizon A.
Two specific problems were identified: the distress in the
masonry of the structure itself and the sensitivity of the
foundation materials. As a consequence, prior to temporary ground works being undertaken, masonry strengthening
at the level of the first to second cornice was carried out to
ensure structural failure did not take place. The installation of temporary plastic coated steel tendons has provided
support to the cracked walls without creating any noticeable visual impact. Temporary remedial groundworks involving the placement of lead ingots on the northern side
of the tower were undertaken in 1993/94. This successfully
modified the southerly tilt but is aesthetically unacceptable
in the long term and its benefits are only temporary.
The permanent works now envisaged to reduce the tilt involve the drilling of a series of boreholes from which small
volumes of soil can be removed. The field trials undertaken
have shown that carefully positioned and drilled holes will
close rapidly, resulting in preferential settlement which, if
engineered at selected locations, should modify the general
tilt of the tower. The decision has been taken by the Commission to carry out preliminary soil extraction beneath
the north side of the tower itself. Before this work is undertaken, a safeguard structure is to be constructed in the
form of a horizontal cable stay attached to the tower at the
third storey. If the preliminary soil extraction proves successful, it is estimated that it will take about two years to
reduce the inclination of the tower by about 0.57, which
will be barely visible. Other additional stabilisation methods are under consideration.
Although continued monitoring will be undertaken in the
foreseeable future, it is hoped that these works will stabilise the famous Leaning Tower of Pisa, preserving this historic monument for many generations to come.
References
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Found Eng. Florence
Burland JB, Potts DM (1994) Development and application of
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Burland JB, Viggiani C (1994) Observazioni sulcomportamento della Torre di Pisa. Rivista Italiana di Geotecnica
28 : 179200
Burland JB, Jamiolkowski M, Lancellotta R, Leonards
GA, Viggiani C (1994) Pisa update behaviour during counterweight applications. ISSMFE News 21 : 2
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