CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1

BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Concrete is an extraordinary and key structure material in the human history. As

written by Branaver and Copeland (1964), Man consumes no material except
water in such tremendous quantities. Concrete is a heterogeneous mix of
cement, aggregates and water. It is no doubt that with the development of
human civilization, concrete will continue to be a dominate construction
material.
The concrete industry is constantly looking for supplementary cementitous
material with the objective of reducing solid waste disposal problem and also
bring reduction in cost of construction.
Aluminium is one of the widely used construction material used in the world,
and during any aluminium smelting, huge amount of waste is produced. Among
the several waste is aluminium dross
Aluminium dross is mixture of metallic aluminium and non-metal part mostly
aluminium oxide and is a valuable by product of any aluminium smelter
The partial replacement of cement with aluminium dross in concrete production
is a welcome development especially in Nigeria.

Various research indicates that most material that are rich in amorphous silica
possesses cementitous properties and therefore sufficient enough in the partial
replacement of cement.
Cement partially mixed with aluminium dross forms a new binder which may
be useful economically and also result in a high performance concrete.

1.2

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The increase in cost and production of cement in Nigeria and also the
environmental pollution that may arise from the indiscriminate disposal of
aluminium dross.
1.3

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

To determine the suitability of aluminium dross in use for partially replacement

of cement in concrete by conducting compressive and workability test.
To determine the optimum replacement ratio of cement with aluminium dross
that produces the best economically performing concrete with desired effects.

1.5

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

The following significance are derived from the research

i. To promote use of aluminium dross economically in concrete production
which will also help in reduction of aluminium dross as a solid waste
ii. To reduce significantly cost of using cement in concrete production by
correct application of aluminium dross
1.6

SCOPE OF STUDY
i.

Obtaining and preparation of sample(Aluminium dross)

ii. The use of the concrete mix for concrete tests to be carried out. This tests
include compressive and workability.
iii. Casting of concrete cubes using different proportional ratio of cement to
aluminium dross
iv. Curing and crushing of cubes after 7, 14 and 28days to determine their
strength
v. Obtaining the optimum level of partial replacement of cement with
aluminium dross
vi.

Deriving conclusions and make recommendations with results

CHAPTER TWO
3

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1

OVERVIEW

There are several studies that show the use of aluminium dross in construction
applications as the replacement of sand or cement, to produce concrete blocks,
to manufacture aluminates cement or as a filler in asphalt product. The results
proved that concrete products can be prepared by using aluminium dross as the
replacement of sand without causing deleterious effects on concrete
characteristics, and the calcium aluminates cement can be produced by using
aluminium dross as a source of CaO and Al2O3. (Puertos et al. (1999)It was
proved that the aluminium including high alumina may be used as raw materials
in cement production industry. Pereira et al. (2000) studied the effect of
aluminium dross on the mechanical properties of Portland cement mortar and
demonstrated that aluminium dross can be used as partial replacement material
for cement limits to obtain environmental and economic advantages was
studied. Borough (2007), recommend the potential use of aluminium dross as
filler in concrete. Another study based on using new industrial waste streams as
secondary aggregates demonstrated that white and black aluminium dross have
potential as filler aggregates in concrete production when it is in processed
form(<700um) (Dunster 2005).
Further, aluminium dross and aluminium sludge was used as sources of CaO
and Al2O3, respectively in production of calcium aluminates cement mixes
4

(Ewais et al. 2009). The effect of aluminium dross on the setting time, flexural
strength, and compressive strength of concrete has been studied and suggested
to use as a retarder for hot weather concreting (Elinwa 2011). Another study
showed that the use of aluminium dross manufactured from refractory material
increases the mechanical properties of concrete when it is used as filler (Chan
Dai 2012). However in this project we use aluminium dross obtained from
smelting procedure as partial replacement of cement in order to see the effects
on the compressive strength, workability.
Although some research has been done on the use of aluminium dross and its
use in concrete, very few studies have examined the use of ground aluminium
dross replacing partially with cement in concrete production.
The construction industry relies heavily on cement for its operation in the
development of shelter and other infrastructural facilities. It then becomes
extremely difficult for majority of people to own their own houses or many
collapse structure in attempt to reduce cost. A way out of this is by either
reducing the energy costs in the burning of clinker or by increasing the
production of composite cement. The later involves replacing a proportion if the
clinker-high calorie consuming portion with other products that are suitable and
do not require further heat treatment.
2.2 CONCRETE
2.2.1 HISTORY OF CONCRETE
5

Concrete is a building material composed of cement, crushed rock or gravel,

sand and water, often with chemical admixtures and other materials. It was
known to the Romans, the Egyptians and to earlier Neolithic civilization. After
the collapse of the Roman Empire its secrets were almost lost, only to be
discovered in more recent times. Indeed, modern development spans more than
175 years, 1824 is the patent for the manufacture of the first Portland cement,
one of the most important milestone in the concrete industry.
There have been remarkable developments in the last few decades of the 20 th
century, with new structures, new techniques for handling concrete and even
new kinds of concrete. Since the middle of the 19 th century great rivers have
been spanned, huge buildings erected, vast sheets of water dammed and large
networks of roads construction. In these and a thousand other ways the face of
the world has been changed as a result of the discovery of concrete and the
many ways to which it can be put. Concrete has also played a major role in the
improving the health of the worlds inhabitants through its use for sewage
disposal and treatment and for dams and pipes providing clean water for
drinking and washing.
The oldest concrete so far discovered dates from 700BC and was found in 1985
when a bulldozer uncovered a concrete floor during construction of a road near
Yiftah el in southern Galilee, Israel .It consists of lime concrete, made from
burning limestone to produce quicklime, which when mixed with water and
6

stone set to form an early concrete. The floor varies in thickness from 30 to
80mm and was laid on an even base of sandy clay. The concrete has been well
compacted and its surface is hard and very smooth. The quantity of lime needed
for the 180mm2 floor would have required an effective lime kiln and fragments
of what was probably a kiln lining have been found at the site.
The earliest known illustration of concrete work can be seen in a mural from
Thebes in Egypt dating from about 1950BC that shows various stages in the
manufacture and use of mortar and concrete. For many years concrete was just
used as an infill material for stone walls and only much later did it develop as a
structural material in its own right. The art of making concrete eventually spread
from Egypt around the eastern Mediterranean and by 500bc was being used in
ancient Greece.
The Greeks used time based compositions to cover walls of sun dried bricks. It
is reported that the palace of Croesus and AL talus were built in this way. It was
also used as a render for the porous limestone used in templis, and as a binding
material between brick and stone.
Sometime during the second century BC the Romans quarried pink volcanic ash
from near Pozzuoli. Thinking it was sand, they mixed it with lime and found
that the mixture resulted in a much stronger concrete than anything they had
previously produced.

This discovery was to have a far reaching effect in the building and civil
engineering during the next four hundred years, for the material was not sand,
but a fine volcanic ash containing silica and alumina which combined
chemically with lime to produce what became known as pozzolanic cement.
The Romans were versatile and enterprising engineers and used concrete
extensively in the foundations of their harbours and bridges. Their aqueducts,
reservoirs, and sewers were lined with it, and they even made pre-cast concrete
blocks for use underwater. One of these aqueducts at Ponte Gard near Nimes in
southern France.
A great milestone in the history of concrete was the invention of Portland
cement by Joseph Aspdin. The cement making process was improved by Isaac
Johnson who managed a cement work. He raised the temperature at which the
cement was fired, and is regarded as the father of modern Portland cement.
The very first all-concrete was built for John Bazley while at Swanscombe,
Kent, in 1835. It had concrete walls, tiles, window frames and decorative work
and even concrete gnomes in the garden. It lacked a floor of concrete. As early
as 1830 the idea of reinforced concrete was first mentioned in the encyclopaedia
of cottage, farm and village architecture which suggested that an iron rods could
be embedded in concrete. In 1848 the worlds first reinforced concrete was built
in France by Jean Louis lambert.
2.2.2 CONCRETE AT AGE
8

The late 1960s saw a continuation of the need to cater for the post war baby
boon and concrete played a major part in accommodating the influx of students
to universities and colleges.
A major factor over the years has been the increase in the strength of concrete
and this has influenced design by allowing taller, longer, and yet lighter
structures. The emphasis has now switched to durability issues, and the concept
of whole life costing, that is the construction cost of the structure plus its cost in
use. This has resulted in the increased importance being given to the cost of
repair, the energy used and projected years of service.
2.2.3 DEFINITION OF CONCRETE
Concrete is the mostly widely used construction material in the world. It is used
in many different structure such as dam, pavement, buildings or bridge. Also it
is the most widely used material in the world far exceeding other material. The
present consumption of concrete is over 10 billion ton a year, that is each per on
earth consumes more than 1.7ton concrete per year.
Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular material (the
aggregate or filler) embedded in a hard matrix of material (the cement or
binder) that fills the space between the aggregates particles and glues them
together. The simplest representation of concrete is
Concrete= Filler + Binder
9

According to the type of binder used there are different kinds of concrete. For
instance Portland concrete, asphalt concrete and epoxy concrete.
In concrete construction, the Portland cement concrete is utilized the most. For
this kind of concrete, the composition can be represented as follows
Cement (+ Admixtures) + Water

Cement Paste + Fine Aggregates

Mortar + Coarse Aggregates

Concrete
2.2.4 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF CONCRETE
Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world. It is used in
many different structures such as dam, pavement, building frame or bridge.
Also, it is the most widely used material in the world, far exceeding other
materials. Its worldwide production exceeds that of steel by a factor of 10 in
tonnage and by more than a factor of 30 in volume. The present consumption of
concrete is over 10 billion tons a year, that is, each person on earth consumes
more than 1.7 ton of concrete per year. It is more than 10 times of the
consumption by weight of steel.
2.2.4.1

ADVANTAGES:

a. Economical: Concrete is the most inexpensive and the most readily

available material. The cost of production of concrete is low compared
10

with other engineered construction materials. Three major components:

water, aggregate and cement. Comparing with steel, plastic and polymer,
they are the most inexpensive materials and available in every corner of
the world. This enables concrete to be locally produced anywhere in the
world, thus avoiding the transportation costs necessary for most other
materials.
b. Ambient temperature hardened material: Because cement is a low
temperature bonded inorganic material and its reaction occurs at room
temperature, concrete can gain its strength at ambient temperature.
c. Ability to be cast: It can be formed into different desired shape and sizes
right at the construction site.
d. Energy efficiency: Low energy consumption for production, compare
with steel especially. The energy content of plain concrete is 450-750
kWh / ton and that of reinforced concrete is 800-3200 kWh/ton,
compared with 8000 kWh/ton for structural steel.
e. Excellent resistance to water. Unlike wood and steel, concrete can
harden in water and can withstand the action of water without serious
deterioration. This makes concrete an ideal material for building
structures to control, store, and transport water. Examples include
pipelines (such as the Central Arizona Project, which provide water from
Colorado River to central Arizona. The system contains 1560 pipe
sections, each 6.7 m long and 7.5 m in outside diameter 6.4 m inside
11

diameter), dams, and submarine structures. Contrary to popular belief,

pure water is not deleterious to concrete, even to reinforced concrete: it is
the chemicals dissolved in water, such as chlorides, sulphates, and carbon
dioxide, which cause deterioration of concrete structures.
f. High temperature resistance: Concrete conducts heat slowly and is able
to store considerable quantities of heat from the environment (can stand
6-8 hours in fire) and thus can be used as protective coating for steel
structure.
g. Ability to consume waste: Many industrial wastes can be recycled as a
substitute for cement or aggregate. Examples are fly ash, ground tire and
slag.
h. Ability to work with reinforcing steel: Concrete and steel possess
similar coefficient of thermal expansion (steel 1.2 x 10-5; concrete 1.0-1.5
x 10-5).

12

2.2.4.2

LIMITATIONS:

a. Quasi-brittle failure mode: Concrete is a type of quasi-brittle material.

(Solution: Reinforced concrete)
b. Low tensile strength: About 1/10 of its compressive strength.
(Improvements: Fibre reinforced concrete; polymer concrete)
c. Low toughness: The ability to absorb energy is low. (Improvements:
Fibre reinforced concrete)
d. Low strength/BSG ratio (specific strength): Steel (300-600)/7.8.
Normal concrete (35-60)/2.3. Limited

to middle-rise buildings.

(Improvements: Lightweight concrete; high strength concrete)

e. Formwork is needed: Formwork fabrication is labour intensive and time
consuming, hence costly (Improvement: Precast concrete)
f. Long curing time: Full strength development needs a month.
(Improvements: Steam curing)
g. Working with cracks: Most reinforced concrete structures have cracks
under service load. (Improvements: Pre-stressed concrete).
2.2.5 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
The properties of concrete is grouped under

13

2.2.5.1 FRESH CONCRETE

Fresh concrete is concrete at the state when its component is fully mixed, it is
not yet hardened, and its strength has not yet developed. The properties of fresh
concrete directly influence the handling, placing and consolidation as well as
the properties of hardened concrete. Properties of fresh concrete include
a. Workability: This refers to the ease with which concrete can be
transported, placed, consolidated. Or the amount of mechanical work
required for full compaction of the concrete without segregation. The
primary characteristics of workability are consistency or fluidly and
cohesiveness. While consistency is used to measure the ease of floe of
fresh concrete, cohesiveness is used to describe the ability of fresh
concrete to hold all ingredients together without segregation and
excessive bleeding.
Measurement of workability include

Slump test (BS 1881; 102 replaced by BS EN 12350-2)

Compaction test (BS 1881: part 103)

Vebe test (BS 1881: part 104)

i.

Slump Test: Three different types of possible slumps exists, they

are true slump, shear slump, and collapse slump. Conventionally
when shear or collapse slump occur, the test is considered invalid.
14

However due to recent development, the term of collapse slump

has to be used with caution
ii.

Compaction Factor Test: This was developed in Great Britain in

1947. The upper hopper is completely filled with concrete which is
then successively dropped into the lower hopper and then into the
cylindrical mould. The excess of concrete is struck off and the
compacting factor is defined as the weight ratio of the concrete in
the cylinder, mp, to the same concrete carefully compacted in the
cylinder filled in four layers and tamper or vibrated, mf(i.e.
compacting factor =mp/mf). For the normal range of concrete the
compacting factor lies 0.8 to 0.92(values less than 0.7 or higher
than 0.92 is regarded as unsuitable. This test is good for very dry
mixes, and its limitation is
Its not suitable for field application
Not consistent
Mixes can stick to the sides of the hopper

iii.

Vebe test (BS 1881: Part 104):

The Vebe consist meter was developed in 1940 and is probably the
most suitable test for determining differences in consistency of very
dry mixes. This test method is widely used in Europe and is described
15

in BS 1881: Part 104. It is, however, only applicable to concrete with a

maximum size of aggregate of less than 40 mm. For the test, a
standard cone is cast. The mould is removed, and a transparent disk is
placed on the top of the cone. Then it is vibrated at a controlled
frequency and amplitude until the lower surface of the disk is
completely covered with grout. The time in seconds for this to occur is
the Vebe time. The test is probably most suitable for concrete with
Vebe times of 5 to 30s. The only difficulty is that mortar may not wet
the disc in a uniform manner, and it may be difficult to pick out the
end point of the test.
Factors Influencing the Workability of Concrete
The factor which can influence the workability of concrete are water content,
cement content, aggregate grading, aggregate characteristics (i.e. maximum
size, shape, and texture), amount of entrain air, chemical admixture and
cementitious material(e.g. Fly ash, GGBS and CSF)(Neville, 1995; Mehta and
Monteiro; 1993). The following are most influencing factor
Water Content: Water content of the mix expressed in kilogram or litres of water
per cubic meter of concrete is the main factor affecting workability. It is
assumed that for a given maximum size of coarse aggregate, the workability of
concrete is direct function of the water content (Falade, 1994; Hobbs, 1993;
Poporis 1962). It also has be confirmed by Figg (1992) in that a relatively small
16

increase in water content can cause a sudden increase in workability of fresh

concrete.
Cement content: Lowering the cement content of concrete with
given water content, will lower the workability. A high proportion
of cement will result in excellent cohesiveness but may be too
sticky to be finished conveniently (Mehta and Monteiro, 1993).
Temperature and time: As temperature increases workability
decreases, also workability decreases with time. These effects are
related to the progression of the chemicals.
2.2.5.2 HARDENED CONCRETE
Properties of hardened concrete include

Strength: This is defined as the ability of a material in this concrete to

resist stress without failure. The failure of concrete is due to cracking.
Compressive Strength: The compressive strength of concrete is the
most common performance measure used by the engineer in designing
buildings and other concrete structures. The compressive strength is
measured by breaking cubed/cylindrical concrete specimen in
universal testing machine. The Compressive strength is calculated
from the failure load divided by the cross sectional area resisting the

17

load. Concrete compressive strength requirement can vary from

17MPa to 28MPa.
A 28-day compressive strength of concrete determined by a standard uniaxial
compression test is accepted universally. Concrete may be classified based on
strength
Low-Strength Concrete

<20MPa

Moderate-Strength Concrete

20MPa-50MPa

High-Strength Concrete

50MPa-200MPa

Ultra-Strength Concrete

>200MPa

Flexural Strength: Flexural strength is one measure of the tensile

strength of concrete. It is a measure of an unreinforced concrete beam
or slab to resist failure in bending. It is measured by loading 6x6inch
(150mmX150mm) concrete beams with span length at least three
times the depth. The flexural strength is expressed as Modulus of
rupture (MR) in psi (MPa) and is determined by standard test
methods. Flexural strength is about 10 to 20 Percent of the
compressive strength depending on the type, size, and volume of
coarse aggregate used. Sometimes the compressive strength test is

18

convenient and reliable to judge the quality of concrete, therefore

some agencies dont require flexural strength test.
Tensile Strength: the development of tensile strength is similar to that
of compressive strength and is influenced by same factors
(Temperature, humidity, replacement level, compaction)
ii.Durability: Durability of concrete is the ability of concrete to resist
weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, or any process of deteriorate and
hence to retain its original shape, dimension, quality and serviceability.
2.2.6 STRUCTURE OF CONCRETE
Concrete has highly heterogeneous and complex structure, which makes it very
difficult to constitute exact models of the concrete structure. At the
microstructure level, concrete can be regarded consisting of two phases i.e.
aggregate phase and binding medium phase (usually hydrated cement paste)
(Neville, 1995a; Powers, 1958). However at microstructure level a third phase,
the transition zone or interfacial transition zone is recognized, which represents
the interfacial region between the particles of the coarse aggregate and the
hydrated cement paste (Mehta and Monteiro, 1993). Structure of concrete has a
direct influence in the strength and durability properties of concrete.

19

2.2.7 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Mix design is a process by which one arrives at the right combination of
cement, aggregate, water and admixture to produce concrete to satisfy given
specifications.
The main purpose of mix design is to obtain a product that will perform
according to predetermined requirement. They include
Quality (Strength and durability)
Workability
Economy
Information required for concrete mix design
a.

Grade of Concrete (characteristic strength)

b.

Workability requirement in terms of slump

c.

Ascertain whether condition exposure to concrete is mild, moderate,

severe, or very severe. Proper Investigation of soil should be done to
ascertain presence of sulphates or chloride in case of doubt

d.

Other Properties(If required)

i.

Retardation of initial set

ii.

Slump retention
20

e.

iii.

Pump ability

iv.

Accelerating of strength

v.

Flexural strength

Degree of control on site

i.

Batching- Weight batching or Volume batching

ii.

Types of aggregate

iii.

Testing of concrete

iv.

Source of aggregate

v.

Supervision

vi.

Site laboratory

Decision Variables in mix design

Water/cement ration
Cement content
Relative proportion of the fine and coarse aggregate
Use of admixtures
2.2.7.1

METHODS OF MIX DESIGN: The basic objective of concrete

mix design is to find the most economical proportion to achieve the desired
21

results (strength, cohesion, workability, durability). The code of practice used

for mix design is IS-10262.
Basic steps to mix design are as follows
Find the target mean strength
Determine the curve of cement based in its strength
Determine the water cement ratio
Determine the cement content
Determine fine and coarse aggregate proportion
2.2.8 CURING OF CONCRETE
Curing is maintaining of an adequate moisture content and temperature in
concrete at early ages so that it can develop properties the mixture was designed
to achieve. Curing begins immediately after placement and finishing so that the
concrete may develop the desired strength and durability.
Without an adequate supply of moisture, the cementitous material in concrete
cement react to form a quality product. Drying may remove the water needed
for the chemical reaction called hydration and the concrete will not achieve the
potential properties.
The need for adequate curing of concrete cannot be over emphasized. Curing
has a strong influence in the properties of hardened concrete. Proper curing will
22

increase durability, strength, water tightness, abrasion resistance, volume

stability and resistance to freezing and thawing.
2.2.8.1 METHODS AND MATERIAL OF CURING
Concrete can be kept moist and in some cases at a favourable temperature by
three curing methods
a. Methods that maintain the presence of mixing water in the concrete
during early hardening period. These include ponding and immersion,
spraying or fogging and saturated wet coverings. These methods afford
some cooling through evaporation which is beneficial in hot weather.
b. Methods that reduce the loss of mixing water from the surface of the
concrete. This can be done by covering the concrete with impervious
paper or plastic sheets, or by applying membrane forming curing
compounds.
c. Methods that accelerate strength gain by supplying heat and additional
moisture to the concrete. This is usually accomplished with live steam,
heating coils, or electrical heater.
Of all, the most thorough method of curing with water consists of total
immersion of the finished concrete methods. This method is commonly used in
laboratory for curing concrete test specimens.
2.2.9 COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE
23

2.2.9.1 CEMENT
A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other
materials together. Cement used in construction can be characterized as being
either hydraulic or non-hydraulic depending upon the ability of the cement to be
used in the presence of cement.
There are two major groups of cement. They are Hydraulic and non-hydraulic
cement. A hydraulic cement is capable of setting, hardening and remaining
stable under water. It consists essentially of hydraulic calcium silicate, usually
calcium sulphate e.g. Portland cement.
2.2.9.1.1

PORTLAND CEMENT

The name Portland cement comes from the fact that the colour and quality of
the resulting concrete are similar to Portland stone, a kind of limestone found in
England.
Manufacture of Portland cement
Portland cement is made by blending the appropriate mixture of limestone and
clay or together and by heating them at 1450oC in rotary kiln
The raw materials used for manufacturing Portland cement are limestone, clay
and iron ore
a. Limestone (CaCO3) is mainly providing calcium in the form of calcium
oxide (CaO)
24

CaCO3 (1000oC) === CaO + CO2

b. Clay is mainly providing silicate(sio2) together with small amounts of
Al2O3 + Fe2O3
Clay (1450oC) SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 + H2O
c. Iron ore and bauxite are providing additional aluminium and iron oxide
(Fe2O3) which help the formation of calcium silicates at low temperature.
They are incorporated into the raw mix
Limestone

3CaOSiO2

Clay

2CaOSiO2

Iron ore, Bauxite

3CaOAl2O3
4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3

d. The clinker is pulverized to small sizes (<75um), 35% gypsum (calcium

sulphate) is added to control setting and hardening.
Types of Portland cement
According to ASTM standard there are five basic types of Portland cement
Type IRegular cement, general use called OPC
Type II

Moderate sulphate resistance, moderate heat of hydration, C3A

<7%
25

Type III

With increased amount C3S3 high early strength

Type IV

Low heat

Type V

High sulphate resistance

Table 2.1

Types of Cement and their constituent

I

II

III

IV

C3S

50

45

60

25

40

C2S

25

30

15

50

40

C3A

12

10

C4AF

12

12

10

CSH2

Fineness(m2/kg)

350

350

400

300

350

Compressive

14

330

250

500

210

250

strength 1day (Mpa)

Hydration Heat

2.2.9.2 AGGREGATES
The Importance of using the right type and quality of aggregates cannot be over
emphasized. The fine and coarse aggregates generally occupy 60% to 75% of
the concrete volume, 70% to 85% by mass and strongly influence the concrete
freshly mixed and hardened properties, mixture proportions and economy. Fine
aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone with most particles
26

smaller than 5mm.Coarse aggregates consist of one or a combination of gravel,

or crushed stone particles predominately larger than 5mm and generally
between 9.5mm and 57.5mm.
Aggregates must conform to certain standards for optimum engineering use.
They must be clean, hard, strong, durable particles free of absorbed chemicals,
coatings of clay and other fine materials in amounts that could affect hydration
and bond of the cement paste.
Classification of aggregates
According to particle size and source aggregates can be divided into the
following different categories
1. In accordance with size
a. Coarse aggregate: Aggregate mainly retained in 5.0mm BS test sieve
and containing no more finer material than is permitted according to
BS 882: 1992
b. Fine aggregate(Sand): Aggregated mainly passing 5.0mm BS test
sieve and containing no more coarser material than is permitted for the
various grading according to BS 882: 1992
2. In accordance with sources
a. Natural aggregate: The material is not changed artificially during
aggregates production although the aggregate itself may be submitted
27

to manufacturing process such as crushing, washing and sieving and

so on. Some examples are sand, gravel and crushed limestone.
b. Artificial aggregate: The material of the aggregate particles is
produced often as a by-product or waste, or by certain manufacturing
processes from naturally occurring materials. A typical example for
this type is crushed blast-furnace slag and artificial lightweight
aggregate. The most commonly used artificial lightweight aggregate is
Lytag, which is produced by pyro-processing. The Lytag particles are
spherical in shape and are of brown colour with an internal black core
(Swamy and Lambert, 1984)
Properties of Aggregates
Properties of the aggregates which influence the properties of both the fresh and
the hardened concretes are mainly the particle size distribution, the maximum
size of the particles and the shape and surface texture of the particles.
Furthermore the density and porosity together with water absorption and
moisture content have to be considered when the concrete is prepared.
Properties of aggregates which are relevant to this investigation are described in
the following section.
Particle shape
The shape of aggregate can be rounded, flaky, irregular, angular, and elongated.
28

 Surface Texture
The surface texture of aggregates is classified as glassy, smooth, granular,
rough, and crystalline. Smooth aggregate need less water to achieve the same
workability as rough aggregates. Nevertheless rough surface of aggregate is
responsible for better mechanical bond in the hardened concrete, so strength is
comparatively higher that is if concrete with the same water/cement is used.
Specific gravity
The specific gravity of aggregates is determined for the saturated and surface
dry condition. This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the saturated and
surface dry aggregates to the mass of the equal volume of water.
Grading of Aggregate
The grading of an aggregate defines the proportion of particles of different
sizes. It is determined from a sieve analysis by following BS 882: Part 103.
2.2.9.3 WATER
Water plays two role in the production of concrete, which are as mixing water
and curing water (Popovics, 1992). The mixing water is the free water present
or freshly mixed concrete. It has three main functions
a. It reacts with the cement powder thus producing hydration
b. It acts as a lubricant contributing to the workability of the fresh mixture
29

c. It secures the necessary space in the paste for the development of

hydration products.
The amount of water needed for adequate workability is practically always
greater than that needed for complete hydration of the cement. Usually if the
water is portable, then its also suitable in the making of concrete.

2.3 ALUMINIUM
Aluminium occurs naturally as mineral bauxite (Primary mixture of
Al2O3.3H2O, Fe2O3 and sio4). It is one of the most plentiful element known to
man.
It was in 1808 that Sir Humphey Davy, the British electro chemist established
the existence of aluminium. The next step was its determination of specific
gravity and its characteristics was established. It was discovered that aluminium
is easy to shape, and could be melted with a blow torch.
The first aluminium to be produced commercially in New Zealand was at the
New Zealand aluminium smelter Ltd plant at tiwai point, southland in April
1971.
Constant research and product development throughout the1950s, 60s and 70s
led to endless range of consumer goods incorporating aluminium. Its basic
30

benefits of lightness, strength, durability, formability, conductivity and finish

ability made it much sought after product.
The necessity for the industry itself to pioneer the use of aluminium led to an
integrated structure in the major companies from the mining bauxite, in some
cases, the finished consumer product. As the world population soared, countries
with raw materials and especially those with cheap energy sources, began to
enter the market with primary making of aluminium, with others to further the
process.
2.3.1 PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM
Aluminium is a lightweight, durable metal. It is silvery appearance when freshly
cut, is a good conductor of heat and electricity and is easily shaped. Aluminium
has two main disadvantages when compared with other metals, firstly it has low
density about one third that of iron and copper .Secondly, although it reacts
rapidly with the oxygen in air, it forms a thin tough and impervious oxide layer
which resists further oxidation.
2.3.2 USES OF ALUMINIUM
These properties leads to a variety of specialized uses
a. LIGHTNESS: Used by aerospace and transport industries, as its
lightness enables a greater volume of metal to be used, thus giving greater
rigidity. Also used in pistons, connecting rods etc. to give better balance,
31

reduced friction and lower bearing loads, meaning that less energy is
required to overcome inertia.
b. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: used in cooking utensils.
c. CORROSION RESISTANCE: This is made use of in chemical plant,
food industry packaging, building and marine application. Aluminium
paint is widely used. The oxide film can be thickened by anodising and
the film can be dyed in a wide range of colours.
d. AFFINITY FOR OXYGEN: This allow it to be used as a de oxidation
in steels, in thermic reactions for welding and for the manufacture of
hardener alloys such a Ferro-titanium
e. DURABILITY: Aluminium is tough enough to withstand both effect of
space flight and challenging climatic conditions.
f. RECYCLABILITY: Once manufactured, aluminium can be recycled
repeatedly using only 5% of energy and generating 5% of the emissions
associated with primary production.
2.3.3 PRODUCTION PROCESS OF ALUMINIUM
Aluminium can be produced from either of the following method
2.3.3.1 PRIMARY ALUMINIUM PROCESS OR SMELTING

32

In 1886, Charles Martin Hall of Oberlin, and Paul Heroult of France, who were
both 22years old at the time, independently discovered and patented the process
in which aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten Cryolite and decomposed
electrolytic. The Hall-Heroult process remain the only method by which
aluminium metal is produced commercially.
The first step in the commercial production of aluminium is the separation of
aluminium oxide from iron oxide in bauxite. This is accomplished by dissolving
the aluminium oxide in concentrated sodium hydroxide solution. Aluminium
ions forms soluble complex ion with hydroxide ions while iron ions dont.
Al2O3.xH2O(s)+2OH-(aq) 2Al(OH)4(aq) +(x-3)H2O(l)
After the soluble iron oxide is filtered from the solution Al(OH) 3 is precipated
from the solution by adding acid to lower the pH to about 6. Then precipate is
heated to produce dry Al2O3 (Alumina)
2Al(OH)3(s) - Al2O3(s) + 3H2O(g)
In the Hall-Heroult process, aluminium metal is obtained by electrolytic
reduction of alumina. Pure aluminium melts at 2000oC. To produce electrolyte
at lower temperature alumina is dissolved in molten Cryolite 1000oC. The
electrolyte is placed in an inn vat lined with graphite. The vat serves as the
cathode. Carbon anodes are inserted into the electrolyte from the top. The
oxygen produced at the anodes react with them, forming carbon dioxide and
33

carbon monoxide. Molten aluminium metals is produced at the cathode and it

sinks to the bottom of the vat.
At interval, a plug is removed from the vat and the molten aluminium is
drained. The heat required to keep the mixture molten is provided by resistive
heating of the electrolyte by the current passing through the cell.
Solid waste from the aluminium smelting process include dross, unused carbon,
non-dissolved alumina, and spent pot liners.
2.3.3.2 SECONDARY ALUMINIUM PRODUCTION
This form of aluminium production used scrap as a raw material. After the scrap
is collected, it is sorted and cleaned before it is used in metal production. Scrap
sorting involves separating aluminium from other materials and by the different
alloys forms. Scrap cleaning involves the removal of oil, grease, and other
contaminant.
The core of secondary aluminium production is the melting and casting process.
The scrap is feed into melting furnaces to liquefy the metal. It is then purified,
adjusted to the desired alloy into a form suitable for subsequent
processing/fabrication. The kind of furnace involved in scrap melting include
rotary and electric furnaces.
Solid waste from secondary aluminium production facilities is mainly in the
form of salt cake used in flux.
34

2.4 ALUMINIUM DROSS

Aluminium dross is a by-product of aluminium production. It represents a
residue from primary and secondary aluminium production. Today much energy
is consumed to recover the aluminium from dross, energy could be saved if the
dross was diverted and utilized as an engineering material. There are two forms
of aluminium white dross and black dross. White dross is formed during the
primary aluminium process while black dross is formed during the secondary
refining process, which uses relatively large amounts of chloride salt fixes.
Subsequently the dross is processed in rotary to recover the aluminium and the
resultant salt cake is sent to landfill.
There is much merit if the aluminium dross that is formed could be used as an
engineering product for specific applications. The driving force to use an
industrial waste such as aluminium dross and to use it as an engineering
material is not only an issue environmental, but also an economic one.
2.4.1 FORMATION OF ALUMINIUM DROSS
The products generated from aluminium melting furnaces fall into three
categories
Molten aluminium
Off gases i.e. CO2, SO2 and fluorides
Semi-solid mixture or aluminium dross
35

Aluminium dross can be divided into two types. Typically white dross which
has high metal content and Al2O3, produced from aluminium smelter process,
and black dross containing high oxides and salts, produced from secondary
aluminium production.
2.4.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Table 2.2 Physical and chemical properties
Properties

Black Dross

White Dross

Metal

2.44-11.77

1.34-10.03

Recovered Metal

1.03-5.51

0.33-6.80

Distribution (q)(mm-1)

0.08coarse-0.492fine

----

Density(t/m3)

0.828-1.118(bulk)

2.396-2.528(apparent)

Metal Content (%)

46.9-69.1

71-93

Lixinate (pH)

9.52-10.14

9.03-9.48

Salt Content (%)

0.18-6.25

0.01-0.03

Alloy Content (%)

Gas

Evolution(/Kg 0.25-1.17

No evolution

Dross)
JDD/SMG/AJC/EPSR/DTI The physical and chemical reclamation and
recycling elements from black and white aluminium furnace residual, progress
report NO 12, June 2002.

36

2.4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF ALUMINIUM DROSS

There are potentially very serious environmental and health risks associated
with disposal of aluminium in disposing. Waste dumped in the past has leached
into the groundwater and eventually into drinking water, reserves, posing threat
to future generations. There is a link between the ingestion of certain heavy
metals (held most prominently within white dross) and serious deleterious
effects to health.
Once a pollutant reaches the soil a number of events may occur. The soil may
break down or be neutralized, pollutants may be washed out by rain (causing
water pollution) or evaporate (causing air pollution) in form of gas, or may
remain in the soil building up to high concentration successive additions.

37

CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
3.1.

DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH

In this chapter, all the methods used in data collection and experiment, which
are useful for the research work Effects of Partial Replacement of Cement with
Aluminium Dross in Concrete Production, are dealt with.
3.2

MATERIAL PREPARATION

1.The Fine aggregate is sourced locally, passing 5mm sieve according to BS 882
(1992).
2.Aluminium dross collected from Aluminium Extrusion Industries (ALEX)
PLC, KM 4 Atta Amaimo, Inyshi, Imo State .Aluminium dross is black in
colour, irregular in shape.
3.Coarse aggregate of 20mm nominal size according to BS 882 (1992).
4.Ordinary Portland cement conforming to BS 12-EN 196 1996 (42.5R Class)
was used. The cement is well protected from dampness to avoid lumps.
5.Drinkable tap water supplied by Federal Polytechnic Nekede Owerri borehole
water supply, is used throughout the research experiments.
The tests is carried out at the Concrete Technology Laboratory of Federal
Polytechnic Nekede Owerri Imo state.

38

The materials is air dried. The coarse aggregate (granite chippings) passes
through sets of sieves, the portion passing retained on sieve (20mm) was used.
All tests is conducted according to the relevant British Standard (BS).
This study, Effects of Partial Replacement of Cement with Aluminium Dross in
Concrete Production is done to fulfil the objectives of this research which is to
determine the suitability and optimum replacement ratio.
3.3

APPARATUS AND INSTRUMENT USED

1. 150mm x 150mm Mould (Conforming to BS EN 12390-1)

2. Weighing Balance
3. Spade
4. Trowel
5. Spanner
6. Pinches
7. Set of Sieve
8. Weighing pan
9. Head pan
10. Bucket
11. Compacting rod (Conforming to Mould BS EN 12390-2)
12. Rule
13. Slump cone (Conforming to BS EN 12350-2)
14. Curing Tank
39

15. Universal Compressive Machine.

16. 150um Sieve

Figure 3.1:Universal crushing machine.

Figure 3.2: Weighing balance. Figure 3.3: Concrete mould.

3.4

SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

The batching quantity used is batching by weight (i.e. in Kg). The mix ratio
used to carry out the experiment is 1:2:4. Also, specifically, aluminium dross is
used to partially replace Ordinary Portland cement at 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%,
40%, 50% by weight and below details the calculation of the mixed proportion.

40

3.4.1 CALCULATION OF QUANTITY OF MATERIALS

Volume of mould, V = L x W x H

3.1

3.2

3.3

Total Mass of concrete per batch, TMb = % x (Mb) + Mb -

3.4

Cement content =

Where; L = length of mould (m)

W = width of mould (m)
H = height of mould (m)
Mass of concrete, M = D x V

Where; D = density of concrete (kg/ m3)

V = volume of concrete (m3)
Mass per batch, Mb = M x n

Where; M = mass of concrete (kg)

n = no of cubes per batch
Applying % waste,

Fine aggregate =

x TMb-

x TMb-

41

3.5

3.6

Coarse aggregate =

x TMb-

3.7

Mass of water = (w/c) x cement content-

3.8

Where; (w/c) = water / cement ratio

3.5

SPECIMEN PREPERATION (PROCEDURE)

The batching of concrete wis done by weighing the different constituent

materials based on 1:2:4.
The Aluminium dross used is passing through 150m sieve.
The materials is then mixed thoroughly before adding the prescribed quantity of
water and then mixed further to produce fresh concrete.
The freshly mixed concrete is then filled into a cone in three layers and rammed
as well and the slump obtained.
The fresh concrete is remixed properly and then filled into 9 moulds in
approximately 50mm layers with each layer given 25 strokes of the tamping rod
(each mix ratio gave nine (9) moulds of concretes per batch). The concretes is
towelled off level with the top of the moulds and the specimen stored under
damp sacking for 24hours in the laboratory before de-moulding and storing in
water for the required curing age.
The same exercise is also done for other concrete samples using different
replacement ratios of Ordinary Portland Cement to Aluminium Dross with the
two different mix ratios and 54 cubes of concrete is produced.
42

Two control concretes is also produced in the same procedures using only
Ordinary Portland cement and the same mix ratios.
A total of 54 cubes is produced.

Figure 3.4 Aggregate Mix

3.6

EXPERIMENT CARRIED OUT

1.

Slump test (For concrete mix with different replacement ratios)

2.

Compressive strength test (For all the concrete cubes casted).

3.6.1 SLUMP TEST

Workability of a concrete can be measured by the concrete slump test, a
simplistic measure of the plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the
BS EN 12350-2 test standards. A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as
much as eight inches.
APPARATUS

43

Truncated steel cone of 300mm high, 200mm diameter at the base and

100mm diameter on the top

-

16mm diameter Compacting rod

Trowel

Scale for measurement

PROCEDURE
1. The mold for the slump test is a frustum of a cone, 300 mm (12 in) of
height. The base is 200 mm (8in) in diameter and it has a smaller opening
at the top of 100 mm (4 in).
2. The base is placed on a smooth surface and the container is filled with
concrete in three layers, whose workability is to be tested .
3. Each layer is temped 25 times with a standard 16 mm (5/8 in) diameter
steel rod, rounded at the end.
4. When the mold is completely filled with concrete, the top surface is
struck off (leveled with mould top opening) by means of screening and
rolling motion of the temping rod.
5. The mould must be firmly held against its base during the entire
operation so that it could not move due to the pouring of concrete and this
can be done by means of handles or foot - rests brazed to the mould.

44

6. Immediately after filling is completed and the concrete is leveled, the

cone is slowly and carefully lifted vertically, an unsupported concrete will
now slump.
7. The decrease in the height of the center of the slumped concrete is called
slump.
8. The slump is measured by placing the cone just besides the slump
concrete and the temping rod is placed over the cone so that it should also
come over the area of slumped concrete.
9.

The decrease in height of concrete to that of mould is noted with scale.

Figure 3.5: Concrete Slump

3.6.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
The compressive strength test is the test most commonly performed on
hardened concrete. Compressive strength is one of the main structural design
requirements to ensure that the structure will be able to carry the intended load.
45

Compressive strength increases as the water-cementitious materials ratio

decrease.
The strength of the compressed concrete cube is test with destructive test which
is the cube compression test. This test is based on the specification in BS EN
12350-3 and BS EN 12350-4.
The compressive strength of the specimen is affected by the specimen size.
Increasing the specimen size will reduce the strength, because there is a greater
probability of weak elements where failure starts in large specimens than in
small specimens. The interface between the hardened cement paste and
aggregate particles is typically the weakest location within the concrete
material. When concrete is stressed beyond the elastic range, micro cracks
develop at the interface and continuously grow until failure. The compressive
strength of the specimen is determined by dividing the maximum load carried
by the specimen during the test by the average cross sectional area.

Compressive strength =

PROCEDURE
A total of 54 cubes is produced for 1:2:4 mix ratio.
The procedure taken is:
1) The sand is prepared which have been sieve in sieve size 5 mm.
2) The material is weighed based on the specific mix ratio 1:2:4.
46

3.9

3) The materials is mixed manually using

the different replacement

ratio(0%,10%,20%,30%,40%,50%) of aluminium dross with cement.

4) The moulds is thoroughly cleaned and the inner of it were all oiled.
5) The mixture is filled up into the mould until it was totally filled, after that
tapping rod is used to compact it at least 25 strokes per layer.
6)The mixed ratio and the date of performing the experiment is written on the
sample, after which the sample is taken to the curing bath for curing.
7) At the day of determining the Compressive strength of the material, it is
taken out of the curing bay for crushing. It is endeavoured that all the cubes that
is crushed is placed at the centre of the compressive plate to ensure the load is
uniformly distributed at the cube surface.
8) The ultimate load or cube failure load is displayed on the compressive
machine screen. All the testing data is recorded.
3.7 CURING OF CONCRETE
Curing is a process taken to retain the moisture content of sample which could
help the hydration process of cement. According to D.E Shirley (2000), curing
is an important process as it will minimize drying and heat in concrete, besides
allowing the concrete to build it strength to resist stress. Curing of sample is
held along the age of concrete, until the sample is going to be tested. Curing can
be done by air dry, using wet gunny sack or submerge in water.

47

In this research work, the concretes produced is cured by Immersion method

whereby it lasted for 28 days, after which they were brought out from the curing
bay.

Figure 3.6: Curing bay

Figure 3.7: Concrete before Curing

Figure 3.8 Concrete after Curing

48

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULT PRESENTATION
4.1

INTRODUCTION

Tests is carried out successfully, below are the result data.

4.2

CALCULATION OF QUANTITY OF MATERIALS USED

Volume of mould = 150mm x 150mm x 150mm

=

0.15m x 0.15m x 0.15m

= 3.375 X 10-3 m3
Unit weight of concrete = 2400kg/m3
Mass of concrete = Density x Volume
= 2400 X 3.375 X 10-3
= 8.1kg
TOTAL RATIO VALUE = 1+2+4 = 7
No of cubes per batch = 9 (i.e. 3 cubes each for 7, 14 and 28 days respectively
in order to get the average strength), therefore batch implies for control mix (0%
replacement) and test mix of 10%, 20%, 30%,40% and 50% replacement of
cement with aluminium dross. For these nine cubes
49

= 8.1 X 9 = 72.9kg
Add 5% waste = 72.9 X 5/100 = 3.65kg
= 72.9 + 3.65 = 76.55kg per batch

Mass of cement =

= 10.94kg

Mass of fine =

= 21.87kg

Mass of Coarse =

= 43.74kg

The water / cement ratio adopted in this concrete mix is 0.5. To calculate the
mass of water used,
Mass of water = 0.5 x Mass of cement
= 0.5 x 10.94 = 5.47kg
TABLE 4.1 - QUANTITY OF MATERIALS USED
S/

% of

% of

cement

Dross

(%)

(%)

100

90

80

Cement

Aluminium

Coarse

Fine

Dross

aggregate

aggregate

(Kg)

(Kg)

10.94

0.00

43.74

21.87

5.47

10

9.85

1.09

43.74

21.87

5.47

20

8.75

2.19

43.74

21.87

5.47

(Kg/m3)

50

Water
(Kg)

70

30

7.66

3.28

43.74

21.87

5.47

60

40

6.56

4.38

43.74

21.87

5.47

50

50

5.47

5.47

43.74

21.87

5.47

Slump
Value
(mm)

4.2

SLUMP TEST VALUES

Table 4.2 Slump Values for Mix ratio of 1:2:4

S/N

Date of
Execution

Replacement
ratio
%

Water /
Cement
ratio

Height
of cone
(mm)

1
2

22/07/15
22/07/15

0
10

0.5
0.5

300
300

Final
Height of
Concrete
(mm)
270
285

22/07/15

20

0.5

300

290

10

4
5
6

24/07/15
24/07/15
24/07/15

30
40
50

0.5
0.5
0.5

300
300
300

297
299
300

3
1
0

4.3

30
15

COMPRESSIVE STREGHT TEST RESULTS

TABLE 4.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RESULT FOR 7 DAYS

CUBE
NO

DATE
OF
CAST

DATE
OF
TEST

WEIGHT

A7 - 1

22/07/15

29/07/15

A7 - 2

22/07/15

A7 - 3

22/07/15

(Kg)

CRUSHING COMPRESSIVE
LOAD
STRENGHT
(KN)

(N/mm2)

9.00

510.98

22.70

29/07/15

9.00

439.06

19.51

29/07/15

9.00

326.89

14.53

B7 - 1

22/07/15 29/07/15

8.70

391.28

17.39

B7 - 2

22/07/15 29/07/15

9.00

522.25

23.21

51

B7 - 3

22/07/15 29/07/15

9.00

502.52

22.33

C7 - 1

22/07/15 29/07/15

8.90

477.94

21.24

C7 - 2

22/07/15 29/07/15

9.00

363.74

16.17

C7 - 3

22/07/15 29/07/15

8.90

491.23

21.83

D7 - 1

24/07/15

31/07/15

9.00

439.35

19.53

D7 - 2

24/07/15 31/07/15

8.80

290.09

12.89

D7 - 3

24/07/15 31/07/15

8.95

289.08

12.85

E7 - 1

24/07/15 31/07/15

8.50

316.08

14.05

E7 - 2

24/07/15 31/07/15

8.80

286.42

12.73

E7 - 3

24/07/15 31/07/15

8.50

213.51

9.49

F7 - 1

24/07/15 31/07/15

8.80

215.78

9.59

F7 - 2

24/07/15 31/07/15

8.40

208.96

9.29

F7 - 3

24/07/15 31/07/15

8.30

216.26

9.61

TABLE 4.4 - COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RESULT FOR 14 DAYS

CUBE
NO

DATE
OF
CAST

DATE
OF
TEST

WEIGHT

A14 - 1

22/07/15

07/08/15

A14 - 2
A14 - 3

(Kg)

CRUSHING COMPRESSIVE
LOAD
STRENGHT
(KN)

(N/mm2)

8.80

655.83

29.15

22/07/15 07/08/15

8.60

501.16

22.27

22/07/15 07/08/15

8.30

597.67

26.56

52

B14 - 1

22/07/15 07/08/15

8.90

514.65

22.87

B14 - 2

22/07/15 07/08/15

8.80

374.07

16.63

B14 - 3

22/07/15 07/08/15

8.50

528.72

23.50

C14 - 1

22/07/15 07/08/15

8.60

509.71

22.65

C14 - 2

22/07/15 07/08/15

8.90

480.77

21.37

C14 - 3

22/07/15 07/08/15

8.70

501.88

22.31

D14 - 1

24/07/15

10/08/15

8.60

443.81

19.72

D14 - 2

24/07/15 10/08/15

8.60

256.41

11.40

D14 - 3

24/07/15 10/08/15

8.60

376.12

16.72

E14 - 1

24/07/15 10/08/15

8.20

232.65

10.34

E14 - 2

24/07/15 10/08/15

8.40

322.64

14.32

E14 - 3

24/07/15 10/08/15

8.40

280.33

12.46

F14 - 1

24/07/15 10/08/15

8.10

98.58

4.38

F14 - 2

24/07/15 10/08/15

8.20

96.09

4.27

F14 - 3

24/07/15 10/08/15

8.10

119.22

5.30

TABLE 4.5 - COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RESULT FOR 28 DAYS

CUBE
NO

DATE
OF
CAST

DATE
OF
TEST

WEIGHT

A28 - 1

22/07/15

20/08/15

A28 - 2
A28 - 3

(Kg)

CRUSHING COMPRESSIVE
LOAD
STRENGHT
(KN)

(N/mm2)

8.80

700.00

31.11

22/07/15 20/08/15

8.70

900.00

40.00

22/07/15 20/08/15

8.40

860.00

38.22

53

B28 - 1

22/07/15 20/08/15

8.40

670.00

29.78

B28 - 2

22/07/15 20/08/15

8.80

820.00

36.78

B28 - 3

22/07/15 20/08/15

8.70

710.00

31.56

C28 - 1

22/07/15 20/08/15

8.60

720.00

32.00

C28 - 2

22/07/15 20/08/15

8.50

550.00

24.44

C28 - 3

22/07/15 20/08/15

8.40

640.00

28.44

D28 - 1

24/07/15

21/08/15

8.70

430.00

19.11

D28 - 2

24/07/15 21/08/15

8.50

455.00

20.22

D28 - 3

24/07/15 21/08/15

8.50

570.00

25.33

E28 - 1

24/07/15 21/08/15

8.10

430.00

19.11

E28 - 2

24/07/15 21/08/15

7.90

380.00

16.89

E28 - 3

24/07/15 21/08/15

8.60

440.00

19.56

F28 - 1

24/07/15 21/08/15

7.70

190.00

8.40

F28 - 2

24/07/15 21/08/15

8.20

280.00

12.44

F28 - 3

24/07/15 21/08/15

8.20

220.00

9.78

Note: the cube strength in N/mm2 is derived from dividing the force by 150mm
x 150mm.
4.4

AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RESULT OF

CONCRETE(7DAYS AGE)

AVRG.A7 =

= 18.91
54

AVRG.B7 =

= 20.97

AVRG.C7 =

= 19.75

AVRG.D7 =

= 15.09

AVRG.E7 =

AVRG.F7 =

= 12.09

= 9.50

TABLE 4.6 AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AT 7 DAYS AGE

S/No

Replacement
Ratio

Mix Ratio

(%)

Average
Compressive
strength
(N/mm2)

A7

1:2:4

18.91

B7

10

1:2:4

20.98

C7

20

1:2:4

19.75

D7

30

1:2:4

15.09

E7

40

1:2:4

12.09

F7

50

1:2:4

9.50

55

4.5

AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RESULT OF

CONCRETE(14DAYS AGE)

AVRG.A14 =

AVRG.B14 =

AVRG.C14 =

= 22.11

AVRG.D14 =

= 15.96

AVRG.E14 =

= 12.37

AVRG.F14 =

= 25.99

= 21.00

= 4.65

TABLE 4.7 AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AT 14 DAYS AGE

S/No

Replacement
Ratio

Mix Ratio

(%)

Average
Compressive
strength
(N/mm2)

A14

1:2:4

25.99

B14

10

1:2:4

21.00

C14

20

1:2:4

22.11

56

4.6

D14

30

1:2:4

15.96

E14

40

1:2:4

12.37

F14

50

1:2:4

4.65

AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RESULT OF

CONCRETE(7DAYS AGE)

AVRG.A28 =

AVRG.B28 =

= 32.59

AVRG.C28 =

= 28.29

AVRG.D28 =

= 21.55

AVRG.E28 =

= 18.52

AVRG.F28 =

= 36.44

= 10.21

TABLE 4.8 AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AT 28 DAYS

57

S/No

Replacement
Ratio

Mix Ratio

(%)

Average
Compressive
strength
(N/mm2)

A28

1:2:4

36.44

B28

10

1:2:4

32.59

C28

20

1:2:4

28.29

D28

30

1:2:4

21.55

E28

40

1:2:4

18.52

F28

50

1:2:4

10.21

TABLE 4.9 AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FOR ALL THE

AGES
Replacement

Average Compressive Strength

Ratio

(N/mm2)

Cube

7 Days

14 Days

28 Days

18.91

25.99

36.44

10

20.98

21.00

32.59

20

19.75

22.11

28.29

30

15.09

15.96

21.55

40

12.09

12.37

18.32

50

9.50

4.65

10.21

4.5.0 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

58

Figure 4.1 - Bar chart of Slump value against % replacement ratio

Figure 4.2 - Bar chart of Average compressive strength against % replacement

ratio at 7 days

59

Figure 4.3 - Bar chart of Average compressive strength against % replacement

ratio at 14 days

Figure 4.4 - Bar chart of Average compressive strength against % replacement

ratio at 28 days

60

Figure 4.5 - Graph of Slump Value against Replacement ratio

Figure 4.6 - Graph of Average compressive strength against Replacement ratio

at 7 days

61

Figure 4.7 - Graph of Average compressive strength against Replacement ratio

at 14 days

Figure 4.8 - Graph of Average compressive strength against Replacement ratio

for 28 Days

62

Figure 4.9 - Graph of Average compressive strength against Replacement ratio

for all samples

Figure 4.10 Graph of average compressive strength against age for the various
replacement ratios
4.8.0 DISCUSSION
4.8.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
63

The compressive strength obtained at age 7,14 and 28 days is shown in table
4.3,4.4 and 4.5 respectively.
The mean compressive strength of the concrete cube specimens at 7,14 and 28
days is presented in Table 4.6,4.7and 4.8, Figure 4.9.
From the examination of the mean compressive strength test results on mix ratio
1:2:4 by varying the percentage replacement ratio of cement with aluminium
dross (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%), the following observation are made
1. From Table 4.6 and Figure 4.2, the compressive strength at age 7 days
increases from 0% replacement to 10% replacement ratio followed by
decrease. the highest compressive strength is gained at 10% replacement
ratio
2. From Table 4.7and Figure 4.3, the compressive strength at age 28 days,
the highest value is at 0% replacement ratio with decrease in the 10%
replacement ratio
3. From Table 4.8 and Figure 4.4 the compressive strength at age 28 days,
the highest value is at 0% replacement ratio with considerable decrease as
the replacement ratio increases.

4.8.2 CONCRETE WORKABILITY

64

The workability for specified replacement levels of Portland cement by

aluminium dross, maintaining a constant water-cement ratio was measured by
slump test.
As evident from the results of Table 4.2 and Figure 4.1 , there is an appreciable
decrease in the workability of concrete with increasing percent replacement of
cement by aluminium dross.50% replacement ratio having a slump value of 0,
indicating that the concrete is not workable.
Therefore it is said that the aluminium dross absorbs water since the increase in
percentage ratio of aluminium dross, results decrease in slump value at a
constant water-cement ratio

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
65

5.1

CONCLUSION

The effects of partial replacement of aluminium dross with cement in concrete

production have been studied. As there was a appreciable decrease in the
workability of concrete with increasing percentage replacement of cement with
aluminium dross at constant water-cement ratio, it is said that aluminium dross
absorbs water more.
Significant increase is noted at 10% replacement ratio concrete of 7days age
compared to 0% replacement ratio( conventional concrete), at 14 and 28 days
0% replacement ratio supersedes other replacement ratio in strength, this
indicates that aluminium dross is no suitable for use of concrete where strength
is demanded. Aluminium dross can be used in production of blocks, building
sub-floor and panels.
Aluminium dross decreases the workability and strength of concrete.
5.2

RECOMMENDATION

This study concentrates on the compressive strength and workability. Further

work should be done on various mixes, also various tests should be done such
as flexural strength, tensile strength, shear strength, water absorption, resistance
to impact, creep, etc. The knowledge of the above properties will greatly assist
engineers, builders and designers when using the materials for construction
works.

66

Also the how aluminium dross affects concrete and how it combines with
cement chemically should be further researched.

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70