CH 3 - Formation P Well Control Lecture Note

MYP 1413 - DRILLING ENGINEERING &
WELL COMPLETION
Chapter 3 Formation Pressure

& Well Control
Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail
Petroleum Engineering Dept.
Faculty of Petroleum & Renewable Energy Eng.
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Contents
Pressure concepts, prediction & detection
of abnormal pressures
Formation fracture gradient
Causes & warning signs of kicks
Methods of killing kicks
BOP equipment & well control procedures
Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM
Definition:
Overbalanced pressure
Underbalanced pressure
Balanced pressure
Balanced, overbalanced & underbalanced pressures

Pressure Concepts
The different formation pressures encountered in
an area play a vital role both during exploration
and exploitation of potential hydrocarbon reservoir
Reservoir pressures:
a. Hydrostatic pressure, Phyd
b. Overburden pressure, Po
c. Formation pressure, Pf
a. Hydrostatic pressure (Phyd)

Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure which is
exerted by a column of water extending from a stratum to a
surface
The size & shape of this fluid column have no effect on the
magnitude of this pressure:
P = gh
where: P =
=
g =
h =
hydrostatic pressure
average density
gravity value
height of the column
In terms of drilling operations, we can write:

phyd = 0.052 m h
Phyd = 0.052 w ( SG ) h
since w = 8.33 ppg
P
0.052(8.33)
=
( SG ) h 0.433( SG ) h
P
hyd. P gradient,
=
0.433( SG )
h
Typical average of hyd. P gradient:

0.433 psi/ft fresh water
0.465 psi/ft salt water
Example:
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of 10.5 ppg mud in a

well at 5,000 ft.
Solution:
Phyd = 0.052 h
= 0.052
=
(10.5) (5, 000) 2, 730 psi
Example:
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of 40 API oil in a

well at 5,000 ft.
141.5
SG
=
Solution:
131.5 + o API
141.5
=
SG
= 0.825
131.5 + 40
Phyd = 0.433( SG ) h
0.433
=
(0.825) (5, 000) 1, 786 psi
b. Overburden pressure (Po)

Also called load, lithostatic or geostatic pressures
This P originates from the combined weight of the formation
matrix (rock) & the fluids (water, oil, gas) in the pore space
overlying the formation of Interest
weight ( fluid + rock matrix)
area
but, weight of fluid = V
fl ( Ah) + ma (1 ) ( Ah)
Po =
A
Po =
=
Po h fl + (1 ) ma
Schematic diagram of the porosity/depth relationship
c. Formation Pressure (Pf)

Pf is the pressure acting upon the fluids (water,
oil, gas) in the pore space of the formation
(= pore pressure = formation fluids pressure)
Normal formation P in any geologic setting will equal the hydrostatic

head (i.e. hydrostatic P) of water from the surface to the subsurface
formation
Any deviation from the normal trend is called abnormal P
10
Pressure Relations
If Pf > Phyd abnormally high formation P (surpressures/over
pressures)
If Pf < Phyd subnormal (subpressures)
Surpressures occuring more frequently than subpressures
Pressure
Normal mud P
High density mud (for an
abnormally high P well)
Abnormally low P
(subpressures)
Abnormally high P
(surpressures)
11
Normal pore pressure gradients in specific geographic area.
Example: Based on the above Table, determine the normal formation

pressure which is to be expected at a depth of 9,000 ft in (a) Malaysia,
and (b) Gulf of Mexico
Solution: (a) P = (0.442 psi/ft)(9,000 ft) = 3,978 psi
(b) P = (0.465 psi/ft)(9,000 ft) = 4,185 psi
12
Example: A formation is to be hydraulically fractured at the depth of

10,000 ft. The fracturing fluid has a SG of 0.85. If the formation break
down at 80% of the theoretical overburden pressure, what pump
pressure will be required for the break down?
Solution:
Expected bottom hole break-down pressure = (0.8)(1 psi/ft)(10,000 ft)
= 8,000 psi
Hydrostatic head of fluid = 0.433(SG)h
= (0.433)(0.85)(10,000 ft)
= 3,681 psi
Requires pump pressure = 8,000 psi 3,681 psi
= 4,319 psi
13
Example: During the drilling of a well, a protective string of 10 in.

casing was set and cemented at a depth of 5,000 ft. A BOP, which
provides for sealing the annular space between the drill pipe and the
protective casing, was mounted on the top of the protective casing. The
drilling mud weighs 10.4 ppg. Assuming that the well is full of mud,
and that the formation will hold 70% of the theoretical overburden
pressure, how much pressure can be held against the well by the BOP?
Solution: Since the casing may be assumed strong enough to contain
internal pressures above the 5,000 ft setting depth, the shallowest depth
subject to analysis is 5,000 ft.
Assumed bottom hole break-down P at 5,000 ft = (0.7)(1 psi/ft)(5,000 ft)
= 3,500 psi
Hydrostatic mud head = 0.052 h
= (0.052)(10.4 ppg)(5,000 ft) = 2,704 psi
Pressure held by BOP = 3,500 psi 2,704 psi = 796 psi
14
Example: A formation has a pressure of 4,000 psi at 7,500 ft.

The operator desires to have a safety allowance of 300 psi
opposite the formation. What is the required density of the
mud?
Solution:
P = 0.052 h
P
=
0.052 h
4, 000 psi formation pressure + 300 psi safety allowance
=
(0.052) (7,500 ft )
= 11.0 ppg
15
Abnormal Pressure
Abnormal pressure are a worldwide
phenomenon
High P is called abnormal P,
surpressure, trapped P, geopressure
or overpressure
Low P is also called abnormal P,
subpressure or subnormal pressure
Abnormal pressure in USSR

16
Drilling problems associated with abnormal pressures

When drilling through a formation, sufficient hydrostatic m must be
maintained to prevent:
the borehole collapsing
the influx of formation fluids
Mud density must be increase
If the overbalance is too great, this may lead to:
reduced penetration rates (due to chip hold down effect)
lost circulation (flow of mud into formation)
breakdown of formation (exceeding the fracture gradient)
excessive differential pressure causing stuck pipe
17
Origins for generation of abnormal fluid pressure

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Reservoir structure
Repressuring of reservoir rock
Piezometric fluid level (artesian water system)
Rate of sedimentation and depositional environment
Tectonic activities
a. Faults
b. Shale diapirism (mud volcanoes)
c. Salt diapirism
d. Sandstone dikes
e. Earthquake
Osmotic phenomena
Massive areal rock salt deposition
Thermodynamic and biochemical causes
Etc.
18
Source of data
Techniques
available to
predict, detect
and evaluate
overpressures
Pressure indicators
Time of recording
Geophysical methods
Seismic (formation velocity)

Gravity
Magnetics
Electrical prospecting methods
Prior to spudding well
Drilling parameters
Drilling rate
d-exponent and Modified d-exponent
Drilling rate equations
Drilling porosity and formation pressure logs
Logging while drilling
Torque, Drag
While drilling (no delay)
Drilling mud parameters
Mud-gas cutting
Flow-line mud weight
Pressure kicks
Flow-line temperature
Resistivity, chloride ions & other novel concepts
Pit level and total pit volume
Hole fill-up
Mud flow rate
While drilling (delayed by

the time required for mud
return)
Shale cuttings
parameters
Bulk density
Shale factor
Volume, shape and size
Novel, miscellaneous methods
While drilling (delayed by

the time required for mud
return)
Well logging
Electrical surveys (resistivity, conductivity, etc)

Interval transit time
Bulk density
Hydrogen index
Thermal neutron capture cross section
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Downhole gravity data
After drilling
Direct pressure
measuring device
Pressure bombs
Drill-stem test
Wireline formation test
When well is tested or

completed
Predict
Detect
(will
focuss
item)
Confirm/
Evaluate
19
Detection of Abnormal Formation Pressures

There are 3 categories of sources of data which will allow the detection of
abnormal pressures, namely:
A. Drilling parameters
This categories refers to the observation of drilling parameters & the application of
empirical drilling rate calculations which utilize a pore P dependent term
B. Drilling mud
This category refers to the affect that an abnormal P zone may have on the drilling fluid,
e.g. increase in T, influx of hydrocarbon, etc.
C. Drill cuttings
This section comprises methods used to investigate the nature of the detecting the
cuttings from the sealing zone cuttings, generally with specific reference to detecting the
cuttings from the sealing zone
20
A.
DRILLING PARAMETERS
The concept behind the use of drilling

parameter is that:
Upon approaching an abnormal pressured zone it
is possible that the seal zones will present itself as
a zone of greater compaction which will give
decreased penetration rates
Upon entering the abnormally pressured zone, the
rock many become more porous & less dense &
this will result in increased penetration rates
21
1. Drilling rate (penetration rate)
Drilling rate breaks have been used for many years to

distinguish sand from shale
However, the apparent relation of penetration rate to
variations in pore fluids P has been recognized
Basically, drilling rate is a function of WOB, rotary
speed (rpm), bit type & size, hydraulics, drilling fluid
& formation characteristics
Penetration rate decrease uniformly (due to
compaction) with depth (assuming all the above
parameters are constant)
22
However, in P transition zones &

overpressures penetration rate
increases (see diagram)
In the P barrier (caprock)

penetration rate decreases
However, the dull bit may give
different result (see diagram)
23
2. d-exponent (normalized rate of penetration)
Since it is not always a possible to control/maintain WOB, rpm,

etc. (as discussed previously), an improved method has been
developed which allows plotting of a normalized penetration rate
(dexp.) vs. depth
Data required to calculate the d-exp. (a dimensionless no.) are
the penetration rate , bit size (diameter), WOB & rotary speed:
log ( R / 60 N )
d=
log (12W / 106 D)
R
N
W
D
=
=
=
=
rate of penetration (ft/hr)

rotary speed (rpm)
WOB (lbs)
bit diameter (in.)
24
Basically, plots of dexponent

vs depth show an increasing
trend with depth
In transition zones &
overpressure environments, the
calculated d-value diverge from
the normal trend to lower than
normal values (see figure)
Computed d-values are affected
by any change in R, N, W & D.
Thus changes in bit size & type,
bit weight, etc. will affect the dexponent
Lithology change, mud weight
change will also affect dexponent
25
3. Modified d-exponent
Since the d-exponent is influenced by mud

weight variations, a modification has been
introduced to normalize the d-exponent for the
effective mud weight such as:
d c = d ( n / e )
where:
dc = modified (corrected) d-exponent
n = mud equal to a normal formation pore p gradient
e = Equilibrium mud at the bit while circulating
26
Example:
The following table is obtained from a well drilled at Alpha field.
Assuming the normal formation pressure of 9.0 ppg:
a. Make a plot of d-exponent vs. depth using Cartesian
coordinates
b. Make a plot of d-exponent vs. depth using semi-log
c. Make a plot of modified d-exponent vs. depth using Cartesian
coordinates
d. Make a plot of modified d-exponent vs. depth using semi-log
e. Determine the depth of upper zone of abnormal pressure
f. Can the d-exponent be used to determine the abnormal pressure
in this case? Give your reasons
27
Depth
Bit size
Drlling time
WOB
Mud density
(ft)
(in.)
(hrs)
(lb)
(rpm)
(ppg)
6,000
8.500
4.72
35,000
120
9.0
6,500
8.500
4.85
35,000
120
9.0
7,000
8.500
6.50
35,000
110
9.0
7,500
8.500
7.58
35,000
110
9.0
8,000
8.500
11.21
30,000
110
9.4
8,500
7.875
10.87
30,000
110
9.4
9,000
7.875
12.69
30,000
110
9.4
9,500
7.875
14.28
30,000
110
9.8
10,000
7.875
6.49
30,000
110
10.1
10,200
7.875
7.61
30,000
100
10.1
10,400
7.875
8.10
30,000
100
10.1
10,600
7.875
8.62
30,000
100
10.5
10,800
7.875
9.17
30,000
90
11.1
11,000
7.875
10.47
30,000
90
11.1
11,200
7.875
11.17
30,000
90
11.3
11,400
7.875
11.91
30,000
90
11.6
11,600
7.875
9.13
35,000
90
11.6
11,800
7.875
9.71
35,000
90
11.8
12,000
7.875
9.71
35,000
90
13.1
12,200
7.875
10.00
35,000
90
13.4
12,400
7.875
11.11
35,000
90
13.6
12,600
7.875
11.11
35,000
90
14.2
12,800
7.875
11.77
35,000
90
14.5
28
h
(ft)
6,000
6,500
7,000
7,500
8,000
8,500
9,000
9,500
10,000
10,200
10,400
10,600
10,800
11,000
11,200
11,400
11,600
11,800
12,000
12,200
12,400
12,600
12,800
h
(ft)
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
R = h/t
t
(hr)
(ft/hr)
4.72
4.85 103.1
6.50
76.9
7.58
66.0
11.21 44.6
10.87 46.0
12.69 39.4
14.28 35.0
6.49
77.0
7.61
26.3
8.10
24.7
8.62
23.2
9.17
21.8
10.47 19.1
11.17 17.9
11.91 16.8
9.13
21.9
9.71
20.6
9.71
20.6
10.00 20.0
11.11 18.0
11.11 18.0
11.77 17.0
Dh
(in.)
8.500
8.500
8.500
8.500
8.500
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
7.875
W
N
e
log (R / 60 N )
d=
log (12W / 106 D )
(lb) (rpm) (ppg)
35,000 120 9.0
35,000 120 9.0
1.4118
35,000 110 9.0
1.4803
35,000 110 9.0
1.5314
30,000 110 9.4
1.5805
30,000 110 9.4
1.6096
30,000 110 9.4
1.6598
30,000 110 9.8
1.6981
30,000 110 10.1
1.4425
30,000 100 10.1
1.7601
30,000 100 10.1
1.7804
30,000 100 10.5
1.8005
30,000 90 11.1
1.7864
30,000 90 11.1
1.8294
30,000 90 11.3
1.8504
30,000 90 11.6
1.8712
35,000 90 11.6
1.8789
35,000 90 11.8
1.8999
35,000 90 13.1
1.8999
35,000 90 13.4
1.9099
35,000 90 13.6
1.9459
35,000 90 14.2
1.9459
35,000 90 14.5
1.9655
dc = d ( n / e )
1.4118
1.4803
1.5314
1.5132
1.5411
1.5892
1.5594
1.2854
1.5684
1.5865
1.5433
1.4485
1.4833
1.4738
1.4518
1.4578
1.4491
1.3053
1.2828
1.2877
1.2333
1.2200
29
d exponent
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
d exponent
1.8
1.9
2.0
1.0
6,000
6,000
7,000
7,000
8,000
8,000
9,000
9,000
10,000
11,000
12,000
13,000
14,000
Depth (ft)
Depth (ft)
1.2
10.0
10,000
11,000
12,000
13,000
14,000
30
dc exponent
dc exponent
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.0
2.0
7,000
8,000
8,000
9,000
9,000
11,000
Depth (ft)
Depth (ft)
7,000
10,000
10.0
6,000
6,000
10,000
11,000
12,000
12,000
13,000
13,000
14,000
14,000
31
Relation between dc exponent, resistivity & sonic log

Resistivity
Sonic
1000
1000
1500
1500
1500
2000
2000
2000
2500
TVD (m)
1000
TVD (m)
TVD (m)
dc exponent
2500
response
in casing
Cycle
Skipping
Top of
Overpressure
2500
Top
Overpressure
Top
Overpressure
3000
3000
3000
NCT
NCT
NCT
3500
3500
3500
0.1
0.1
10
RILD (ohm.m)
10
100
Sonic (usec/m)
1000
Dc Exponent
Formation pressure can be derived from the dc, using Eatons equation
1.2
P
S S P dc
=
D D D D n d cn
P
=
D
S
=
D
P
=
D n
formation pressure gradient (psi/ft)

overburden stress gradient (psi/ft)
"normal" water gradient in area (psi/ft), e.g. 0.433 or 0.465 psi/ft
dc
actual d c -exponent from plot at given depth
d cn
d c -exponent from normal trend (i.e. extrapolated) at given depth

Example
Whilst drilling the 8.5 hole section, the mudloggers recorded the data as shown below.
Plot the d and dc exponents and determine whether there are any indications of an
overpressured zone. If an overpressured zone exists, what is the depth of the top of the
transition zone. Use the Eaton equation to estimate the formation pressure at 10,160 ft.
Assume a normal water gradient of 0.465 psi/ft, an overburden gradient of 1.0 psi/ft,
and a normal mud weight for this area of 10 ppg.
Depth (ft)
ROP (ft/hr)
N (rpm)
WOB (lbs)
MW (ppg)
10,000
10,020
10,040
10,060
10,080
10,100
10,120
10,140
10,160
10,180
35
25
12
28
25
6
3
8
10
8
60
60
40
85
90
60
60
60
90
90
40000
40000
30000
55000
60000
50000
20000
20000
20000
20000
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.10
10.10
10.30
10.30
10.40
11.00
11.25
34
Solution
(1)
( 2)
Depth (ft)
ROP (ft/hr)
N (rpm)
WOB (lbs)
MW (ppg)
d-exponent
dc-exponent
10,000
10,020
10,040
10,060
10,080
10,100
10,120
10,140
10,160
10,180
35
25
12
28
25
6
3
8
10
8
60
60
40
85
90
60
60
60
90
90
40000
40000
30000
55000
60000
50000
20000
20000
20000
20000
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.10
10.10
10.30
10.30
10.40
11.00
11.25
1.61
1.73
1.68
2.04
2.18
2.41
1.99
1.71
1.76
1.83
1.61
1.73
1.68
2.02
2.16
2.34
1.93
1.65
1.60
1.62
R
log
60N
(1) d =
12W
log 6
10 B
MWn
(2) d c = d
MW
a
35
d-exponent / dc-exponent
1.50
9980
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
From Eaton Eqn.
10000
1.2
P S S P dc
=
D D D D n d cn
10020
10040
10060
Depth (ft)
10080
dc
Therefore, at 10,160 ft:

1.2
10100
Top Overpressured Zone
10120
10140
dc
10160
10180
10200
From the plot:

d c @ 10,160 ft = 1.60
d cn @ 10,160 ft = 2.75
dc
dcn
P
1.60
=
1
1
0.465
(
)

D
2.75
= 0.721 psi/ft
P = 0.721 10,160 = 7,325 psi
7, 325
EMW =
0.052 10,160
= 13.86 ppg
36
B. DRILLING MUD PARAMETERS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mud-gas cuttings
Flowline mud weight
Flowline temperature
Pit level & total pit volume
Mud flowrate
37
1. Mud-gas cuttings
Gas can be evolved in 2 ways:
a. From shale cuttings
Gas is commonly associated with
shale & especially overpressured
shales which have a high . Drilled
shale cuttings can
release gas
as it expands as they move up the
annulus in the drilling fluid
b. Direct influx
The influx of gas can occur as the
result of directly removing the
overbalance p or during the making
of connections when pulling
Numerous mechanism for the production of gas
back the drill string, produces a
can make the determination of abnormal pressures
tendency to swab
quite difficult
38
2. Flowline mud weight
The mud weight as measured at the flowline

will be influenced by any foreign fluid influx
Gas is more readily noticeable because of the
difference, but water is more difficult to
isolate
Continuous measurement of mud weight is a
most useful technique, e.g. using a radioactive
densometer
39
3. Flowline temperature
Heat rising through the
earth toward the surface
will normally establish an
even T gradient
However, when the water
content is higher as in
under compacted shale, the
T tend to be higher &
decrease rapidly through
the transition zone before
establishing a steady
gradient through the
normal P interval (see
figure)
40
4. Pit level and total pit volume

Variations in the total mud volume can be monitored by pit level
indicators
The increase or decrease in the pit volume may be related to lost
circulation, fluid influx, gas influx, etc.
5. Mud flow rate

Any abnormal rise in pit level caused by mud flow from the
annulus will also be reflected in an increasing flow rate, which
can be measured by a standard flowmeter
41
C. DRILL CUTTINGS PARAMETERS

There are a number of analytical techniques
involving the use of drill cuttings mostly associated
with the identification of under-compacted shales:
1. Density of shale cuttings
2. Shale factor
3. Volume, shape and size of shale cuttings
42
1. Density of shale cuttings

The density will vary with the degree of compaction
and is given by the following relationship:
sh = w + (1 ) g
or: sh
2w
=
2w
where : sh =
shale density
w =
water density
g =grain density
=mixture density
=shale porosity
Bulk in normally compacted shale increases with

depth in normally pressured reservoirs, a plot of bulk
with depth should be a straight line as it will show
increased compaction with depth for a constant
lithology
43
If under-compaction occurs
as is normally associated
with overpressures, the plot
will show shift
It is possible to relate this
shift in bulk directly to a
required increase in mud
weight (see figures)
44
Example:
Whilst drilling the 12 hole section
of the well ABC1, the mudloggers
measured the densities of the shale
cuttings. At each depth, 5 samples have
been taken and the results averaged.
The results are shown in the table.
From the information provided,
determine the top of any overpressured
zones. Assume w = 8.3 ppg.
Depth (ft)
7500
7600
7700
7800
7900
8000
8100
8200
8300
8400
8500
8600
8700
(ppg)
12.85
12.87
12.90
12.92
12.93
12.94
12.91
12.92
12.92
12.93
12.94
12.95
12.96
45
Solution
sh
2w
=
2w
Where
=
w water
=
density 8.3 ppg (given)
=density of mixture
Shale Density vs Depth

shale density, sh
(ppg)
7500
7600
7700
7800
7900
8000
8100
8200
8300
8400
8500
8600
8700
12.85
12.87
12.90
12.92
12.93
12.94
12.91
12.92
12.92
12.93
12.94
12.95
12.96
18.37
18.47
18.62
18.72
18.77
18.82
18.67
18.72
18.72
18.77
18.82
18.87
18.93
Shale Density (ppg)

18.20
7400
18.40
18.60
18.80
19.00
7600
7800
Depth (ft)
Depth (ft)
mean density,
(ppg)
8000
Top Overpressured Zone
8200
8400
8600
8800
Top overpressured zone = 8,000 ft

46
2. Shale factor
The shale factor is the determination of the reactive clay content using the
methylene blue dye test (MBT) which measures the cation exchange capacity
(CEC) of the system
The test is a direct measurement of the quantity of montmorillonite content,
and thus, the water-holding capacity of cuttings (see figure below):
47
3. Volume, shape and size of shale cuttings
An increased in penetration rate will results in

an increased volume of cuttings
Additionally, the shape and size of the cuttings
will change
In transition zone the cuttings shape will show
an angular and sharp edges and large cutting
size
Formation Fracture Gradient

Definition: Fracture gradient is a measure of how the strength of the
rock (i.e. its resistance to break down) varies with depth.
In planning the mud program, it is

useful to know the maximum MW
which can be used at any particular
depth
This maximum MW is defined by

the fracture gradient
The MW used in the well must lie

between the formation pressure
gradient and the fracture gradient
Knowledge of the fracture gradient is

vital when drilling through an
overpressured zone
Determination of fracture gradient

In order to avoid lost circulation while drilling it is important to
know the variation of fracture gradient with depth.
Fracture gradient can be determine using the following approach:
1. Tri-axial test (lab experiment)
2. Leak-off test (field testing)
3. Prediction using correlations:
a. Hubbert and Willis
b. Matthews and Kelly
c. Ben Eaton
d. Pennebaker
e. Christman, etc.
1. Tri-axial Test
Fracture pressure can be tested in the
laboratory:
Use Tri-axial machine
Use core sample taken at pre-determined
depth
Formation breakdown/fracture gradients are determined

by leak-off tests quantitative
Procedure:
Run and cement casing
Drill about 5 - 10 ft below the casing shoe
Close the BOPs
Pump slowly and monitor the pressure
At the point where pressure begins to bleed off stop
pumping
2. Leak-off Test
Example
A leak-off test was
carried out just below
the 13 3/8 casing shoe
at 7000 ft TVD using
9.0 ppg mud. The results
are shown in the table.
What is the maximum
allowable mud weight
for the 12 hole
section?
Bbls Pumped
Surface Pressure
(psi)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
400
670
880
1100
1350
1600
1800
1900
1920
1880
1860
53
Solution
Maximum allowable MW =
Leak-off Test : Bbls Pumped vs Surface Pressure
MW TVD ) + SP
0.052 TVD
( 0.052 9 7000 ) + 1800
0.052 7000
= 13.95 ppg
2500
Leak-off pressure = 1800 psi

@ 4 bbls pumped
Formation strength gradient

= 0.052 Max. allowable MW
= 0.052 13.95
= 0.73 psi/ft
2000
Surface Pressure (psi)
( 0.052
1500
1000
Allowing safety factor 0.5 ppg,

Maximum allowable MW
= 13.95 0.5
= 13.45 ppg
500
0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Volume of barrels pumped
6.0
7.0
Formation strength gradient =

0.052 13.45
= 0.70 psi/ft
3. Fracture gradient determination using correlations

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Hubbert and Willis

Matthews and Kelly
Ben Eaton
Pennebaker
Christman, etc.
Only Hubbert and Willis, Matthews and Kelly and

Ben Eaton will be discuss to calculate the fracture
gradient
a. Hubbert and Willis

Hubbert & Willis were the first to try to predict fracture pressure as a
function of formation pressure.
They calculate a maximum and minimum fracture gradient, based
totally on formation pressure:
1
2P
F=
min
1 +
3
D
1
P
F=
max
1 +
2
D
F = fracture gradient (psi/ft)

P = formation pressure (psi)
D = depth of interest (ft)
P
= formation pressure gradient (psi/ft)
D
Predicts higher fracture gradient in abnormal pressured formation

and lower fracture gradient in subnormal pressured formation
Not suitable for soft rock formation like in the Gulf of Mexico and
northern part of North Sea area
b. Matthews and Kelly

Proposed the method for use in sedimentary rocks
They assumed an overburden gradient of 1 psi/ft
They realize that fracture pressure is not only a function of
formation pressure, but also the matrix stress (Ki relates
the actual matrix stress to the normal matrix stress and can
be obtained from charts):
F
=
K i
P
+
D
D
F = fracture gradient (psi/ft)

K i = matrix stress coefficient
= vertical matrix stress (psi)
P = formation pressure (psi)
D = depth of interest (ft)
P
D
c. Ben Eaton
The most widely used in petroleum industries
He did assumed a variable overburden gradient to
determine matrix stress, and instead of utilizing a matrix
stress coefficient, he uses a variable Poissons ratio
S - P P
+
D 1 D
= fracture gradient (psi/ft)

= overburden stress (psi)
= formation pressure (psi)
= depth of interest (ft)
= Poisson's ratio
P
D
F
S
P
D
Poisson's ratio varies with depth and degree of compaction
Variation of Poisson's ratio with depth. Above = 0.5 the rocks become plastic.
Basically the three gradients must be estimated to assist in the selection

of mud weights and in the casing design
Example of how pore pressure and fracture gradients can be used to select casing seats
Example:
A Texas Gulf Coast well has a pore pressure gradient
of 0.735 psi/ft. Well depth = 11,000 ft.
a. Calculate the fracture gradient in units of lb/gal
using each of the above three methods.
b. Summarize the results in tabular form, showing
answers, in units of lb/gal and also in psi/ft.
Solution:
a. Hubbert & Willis
1
2P
F=
min
1 +
3
D
1
P
F=
max
1 +
2
D
P
psi
= 0.735
The formation P gradient,
D
ft
1
Fmin =
0.823 psi/ft
[1 + 2 (0.735)] =
3
0.823 psi / ft
= 15.83 lb / gal
=
psi / ft
0.052
lb
/
gal
1
Fmax =[1 + 0.735] =
0.8675 psi/ft
2
0.8675 psi / ft
=
= 16.68 lb / gal
psi / ft
0.052
lb
/
gal
F
=
b. Matthews & Kelly
K i
P
+
D
D
In this case P & D are known (given: P/D = 0.735), may be

calculated & K i is determine grapkically.
P +
=
S
= S P = 1.0 (D) 0.735 (D) = 0.265 (D)

(D) 0.265 =
(11, 000)
= 0.265
=
2, 915 psi
Deter min e the depth, Di , where, under normally pressured conditions,

the rock matrix stress, would be 2,915 psi:
=
Sn
Pn + n
n = "normal"
(1.0 Di )= (0.465 Di ) + 2, 915

Di (1.0 0.465) =
2, 915
2, 915
D=
= 5, 449 ft
i
0.535
Find K i from the plot for

Di = 5,449 ft. For a south
Texas Gulf Coast well:
0.685
Ki =
F
=
K i
P
+
D
D
0.685 2, 915
F
+ 0.735
11, 000
= 0.9165 psi / ft
0.9165
= 17.63 ppg
0.052
64
Depth, Di
5,449
Fracture Gradients
0.685
Ki
1.11- 64
S - P P
=
F
+
D 1 D
b. Ben Eaton
S
= ?=
?
D
From the graph,
at 11,000 ft
S/D = 0.96 psi/ft
1,000
0.96
66
From the graph,

at 11,000 ft
= 0.46 psi/ft
F
S - P P
+
D 1 D
0.46
F=
(0.96 0.735)
+ 0.735
1 0.46
= 0.9267 psi/ft
= 17.82 ppg
1,000
0.46
67
Summary of results
Fracture gradient
psi/ft
ppg
Hubbert & Willis (min.)
0.823
15.83
Hubbert & Willis (max.)
0.868
16.68
Mathews & Kelly
0.917
17.63
Ben Eaton
0.927
17.82
68
The driller/operator must be in the full control over the well and at all
time be able to prevent the formation fluids from flowing up the well
At best, the loss of well control results in both rig time and additional
chemicals required to kill the well
At worst, the loss of control can
result in the loss of both crew lives
and the well and additionally can
require vast amounts of expenditure
to control the well and to
compensate for the undesirable
effects the blow out may have had
on the environmental around the
well
69
In offshore environment, the effects can be even more

catastrophic since:
The safe evacuation of the crew is critical (weather, etc.)
Offshore rig is very expensive
Logistic problem and delay of the supply of the necessary
materials and equipment
If the control of the well is unsuccessful, pollution will
occur due to oil spill
The loss of rig or platform could result in delay of FDP
programs
70
Kick vs Blowout
Kick - An unscheduled entry of
formation fluid(s) into the
wellbore
Blow out - Any uncontrolled
pressure or formation fluids that
enter into the well during
drilling operation and starts to
explode
If the flow is successfully
controlled the kick has been
killed, if not BLOWOUT !!!
71
What turns a kick into a blowout?

Lack of proper control !!
The key objectives in blowout prevention are:
To detect the kick as soon as possible
To take steps to control the circulation of the kick out of the well
To take steps to increase the density of the fluid in the well to
prevent further fluids from entering the well
All kicks in some way are related to drilling fluid

72
73
Relief wells are special directional wells planned to drill to hit the blow out well. When
the blowout well is drilled into, a special well control procedure will be conducted to
control the blowout well. There are several examples as in Macondo well (blow out
incident on 20 April 2010).
A BP graphic shows how relief

wells have been drilled to intercept
the Macondo well that had been
leaking millions of gallons of oil
74
See video clips:

1. Soehanah blowout - Balikpapan 2007 (14 sec.)
2. Shallow gas blowout - Nigeria 2009 (3:45 min.)
75
Why a kick occur?

The pressure inside the wellbore is
lower than the formation pore
pressure (in a permeable
formation):
Pw < Pf
How a kick occur?

Mud density is too low
Fluid level is too low - trips or lost
circulation
Swabbing on trips
Circulation stopped - ECD too low
76
The severity of the kick depends upon

several factors:
The ability of the rock (porosity, permeability) to allow
fluid flow to occur
A rock with high porosity and permeability has a greater
potential for severe kick (e.g. sandstone is considered to have a
greater kick potential than shale)
The amount of pressure differential involved
77
Warning signs of kicks

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Flow rate increase

Pit volume increase
Flowing well with pumps off
Pump pressure decrease and pump stroke increase
Improper hole fill-up on trips
String weight change
Drilling break
Cut mud weight
78
How do we prevent kicks?

Ensure the Pw > Pf
Do not allow the Pw to exceed the fracture pressure
This is done by controlling the Phyd of the drilling fluid,
and isolating weak formations with casing
79
Procedures in the event of a kick

At the first indication of a kick
Stop drilling
Raise the bit off the bottom of the well (to shut in the well)
Stop the pumps and check to see if there is a flow from the well
If the well does flow, close the BOP and shut in the well
Readings are taken to stabilize shut in drill pipe and casing

pressures
Calculation are made to determine the density of the mud
that will be used to kill the well
Calculations are also made to determine the kick out, and
to fill the hole with new mud
80
Causes of kick & blowout

Improper hole fill-up during trips
Cut mud
Underbalance or insufficient mud weight
Reduce formation damage
Save money but the risk of occur blowout increased
Overbalance
Safety but has its limitation
If overbalance pressure is too high may break the formation and cause lost
circulation lead to a blowout
Swabbing (tripping out)

Pulling the drill string too fast out of the hole will cause suction
Going too fast in the hole (tripping in)

Break the formation can cause lost circulation
Falling object hitting and ruining the BOP

Equipment, such as plugs, BOP, DHSV fails in a critical moment
81
Why well control and blow out

prevention is important?
Higher drilling costs
Injuries and possible loss of life
Lost of revenue
Waste of natural resources when blow out occur
Environmental effects
Government regulation and restriction
82
Typical Fluid Gradient
Depth
Pressure
Gas 0.075 0.150 psi/ft
Oil
0.3 0.4 psi/ft
Water 0.433 0.520 psi/ft
83
Example:
A well was cased at 4,500 ft. using 9 in. casing and then cemented. The drilling
was continued using 8 in. bit. Drill collars are 6 in. O.D., 2 in. I.D. and 500 ft.
long and the drillpipe is 4 in. OD, 3 in. ID, 16.6 lb/ft. The mud density used in
drilling this well is 9.5 ppg. When the drilling approaches 5,500 ft., a gas kick
occured and the influx is 6 bbl of gas having a pressure gradient of 0.075 psi/ft. were
recorded. The well is shut-in and the surface shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP)
builds up to 250 psi.
Based on the above information, calculate:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
The bottomhole formation pressure.

The height of gas column.
The annular surface pressure/casing shut-in pressure (CSIP).
The pressure on the formation at the casing shoe.
The mud density required to just balance the formation pressure.
The mud density required to give 400 psi overbalance pressure.
84
Solution:
(a)
Pf = Phyd + SIDPP
= 0.052 (9.5) (5,500) + 250
= 2,967 psi
(b)
A d/c open hole = A hole - A d/c

8.75
6.25
2
=
=
0.2045
ft

4 12
4 12
= (A d/c open hole ) (h gas kick )
2
Vgas kick
h gas kick =
Vgas kick
A d/c open hole
ft 3
6 bbl 5.615
bbl
=
0.2045 ft 2
= 165 ft.
85
(c)
Pf = CSIP + Phyd. gas + Phyd. orig. mud

CSIP = Pf - Phyd. gas - Phyd.orig. mud
psi
= 2,967 - 0.075
165 ft - 0.052 (9.5) (5,500 -165)
ft
= 319 psi
before adding a new mud
(d)
P@ shoe i.e. 4,500' = Phyd. + CSIP

= 0.052 (9.5) (4, 500) + 319
= 2,542 psi
before adding a new mud
(e)
P = 0.052 h
Pf
2, 967
=
=
0.052 h
0.052 (5,500)
= 10.4 ppg
86
(f)
Pob = Pf + P
= 2,967 + 400 = 3,367 psi
P = 0.052 h
P
3, 367
=
0.052 h
0.052 (5,500)
= 11.8 ppg
87
Methods of killing kicks

There are many kick-killing methods
Commonly used methods:
1. One circulation method
2. Two circulation method
3. Concurrent method
88
After the kick is shut in, weight the mud to kill density, then pump out the
kick fluid in one circulation using the kill mud
Other names: wait and weight method, engineers method, graphical
method, constant drill pipe pressure method
After the kick is shut in, the kick fluid is pump out of the hole before the
mud density is increased
Other names: drillers method
Pumping begins immediately after the kick is shut in and the pressures are
recorded
The mud density is increased as rapidly as possible while pumping the kick
fluid out of the well
89

At point 1, the SIDPP is used to calculate the kill mud weight, after which the mud
weight is increased to kill density in the suction pit
As the kill mud is pumped down the drill pipe, the static DPP is controlled to
decrease linearly, until at point 2 the DPP would be zero
This results from heavy mud having killed the DPP
Point 3 illustrate that the initial pumping pressure on the drill pipe would be the
total of the SIDPP plus the kill rate pressure, or 1,500 psi:
Initial pumping P = SIDPP + kill rate P

= 500 + 1,000
= 1,500 psi
While pumping kill mud down the pipe, the circulating pressure should reduce
until at point 4, only the pumping pressure remains
From the time that the kill mud reaches the bit until the kill mud reaches the flow
line, the choke controls the DPP at the circulating pressure while the driller insures
that the pump remains at the kill speed
90
Drill pipe pressure graph of the one circulation method of well control
91

Kill mud is not added in the first circulation, i.e. DPP will
not decrease during this period
The purpose of this circulation is to remove the kick fluid
from the annulus
In the second circulation, the mud weight is increased and
causes a decrease from the initial pumping pressure at 1 to
the final circulating pressure at 2
The final circulating pressure is held constant thereafter
while the annulus is displaced with the kill mud
92
Drill pipe pressure graph of the two circulation method of well control
93
As soon as the kick is shut-in, pumping begins immediately after
reading the pressures and the mud density is pumped as rapidly as
possible
However, it is difficult to determine mud density being circulated
and its relative position in the drill pipe
Since this position determines the DPP, it will give irregular
pressure drops
As a new density arrives at the bit or some predetermined depth, the
DPP is decreased by an amount equal to the hydrostatic pressure of
the new mud density increment
When the drill pipe is completely displaced with kill mud, the
pumping pressure is maintained constant until kill mud reaches the
flow line
94
Drill pipe pressure graph of the concurrent method of well control

95
Example: Whilst drilling the 10 hole section of a vertical well the mud pit level
indicators indicate that the well is flowing. When the well is made safe, the following
information were gathered:
Surface readings: SIDPP = 200 psi, SICP = 400 psi, Mud wt. = 10 ppg
Pit gain = 20 bbls, Tsurface = 75oF, T gradient = 1.2 oF/100 ft
Pre-recorded data: Kill rate/circulation P = 14 spm @ 350 psi
Pump output = 0.1428 bbls/stroke
Hole/drill string: Hole size = 10 , Depth of kick = 10,500, Previous casing
shoe = 4,500, 13 3/8, 68 lb/ft, d/c = 500 of 3.5, d/p = 4.5
Capacities:
Drillpipe = 0.01422 bbl/ft, drillcollar = 0.01190 bbl/ft,
Collar/Hole = 0.04493 bbl/ft, Drillpipe/Hole = 0.08743 bbl/ft,
Drillpipe/Casing = 0.13006 bbl/ft
Fracture gradient at 4,500 = 0.7 psi/ft
By using Wait and Weight method to circulate the influx out of the hole,
a. Determine what type of formation fluid has entered the wellbore.
b. What is the pressure at casing seat when the influx is still at the bottom?
c. What is the pressure at the surface when the influx is still at the bottom?
96
(a)
Vol. of influx
20
Height of kick, h i
445.1 ft.
V3
0.04493
(CSIP DPSIP)
Fluid influx gradient, G i G OM
hi
(400 200)
(10)(0.052)
445.1
0.071 psi/ft
Types of influx fluid is a gas, which will be expanded

when reach at the surface
97
(b) Bottomhole pressure, BHP
P10,500' POM POB

psi
(0.052
)(10)(10,500 ft) 200 ft
ft
5,660 psi
Hydrostatic pressure across kick fluid,
PK_10,500'
P10,500' CSIP POM Pk_10,500'

5,660 400 (0.052)(10)(10, 500 445.1) Pk_10,500'
Pk_10,500' 31.5 psi
Pressure at casing seat (4,500) when bubble at bottom, P4,500
BHP P4,500' POM (above bubble, below casing seat) PK_10,500'

5, 660 P4,500' (0.052)(10)(6000 445.1) 31.5
P4,500' 2740 psi
98
(c) Pressure at surface (0) when bubble at bottom, P0
BHP P0' POM (above bubble) PK_10,500'

5, 660 P0' (0.052)(10)(10, 500 445.1) 31.5
P0' 400 psi
or,
P0' CSIP 400 psi (as recorded at the

surface i.e. given)
99
Types of well control

The control of a well refers to the ability to prevent
formation fluids flowing up the well bore and being released
at the surface
Firstly, well control can refer to the prevention of formation
fluids entering the well bore referred to as primary
control
Secondly, should primary control fail and fluids enter the
well bore, there is the requirement to be able to allow the
influx to be discharged at surface in a controlled manner and
concurrently to prevent additional influx of fluid into the
well bore referred to as secondary control
100
Cooling down wellhead with high

pressure water jets/monitors
Placement of blow out preventer

stack, complete with remotely
operated accumulator hook up;
followed by installation of mud
kill line.
101
Kuwait blowout, 1991
102
BP's Deepwater Horizon Blowout 20 April 2010 (11 crewmen killed)
103
See video clips

(Deepwater Horizon disaster, 20 April 2010)
The rig that blew up - 1st 36 hrs (44 min.)
104
What is BOP (Blow Out Preventer)?

The BOPs are a series of powerful sealing elements designed to
closed off the annular space between the drill pipe and the hole
through which the mud normally returns to the surface
Valves are installed on the pipe or wellhead to prevent the escape of
pressure either in the annular space between the casing and drill pipe
or in open hole during drilling, completion and work over operations
By closing this valve, the drilling crew usually regains control of the
reservoir with increase the mud density until it is possible to open
the BOP and retain pressure control the formation
They can be hydraulically, manual or air operated and in some cases
a combination of all three
105
106
107
Types of BOP
BOPs come in a variety of styles, size and pressure ratings
Some BOPs can effectively close over an open wellbore,
some are designed to sealed around tubular components in
the well (drill pipe, casing and tubing) and others are fitted
with hardened steel shearing surface that can actually cut
through drill pipe
Two basic types
1. Annular type or
2. Ram type
A combination of both types are commonly used to make
up a 'BOP stack' alias X-mas Tree
108
BOP
Surface BOP
Downhole BOP
Annular Surface Blowout Prenventor Ram-Type Surface Blowout Preventor
Pipe Ram
Blind Ram Shear Ram
109
1. Annular preventers
A large valve used to control wellbore fluids
Design to shut off around any size of equipment run through the hole
Most blowout preventer (BOP) stack contains at least one annular BOP at the top of
the BOP stack, and one more ram-type preventers below
It can close around drill pipe, drill collars and casing, and also pack off an open
hole
Is a wells master valve and normally closed first in the event of a well kick, owing
to flexibility of the closing rubbers
It can only be closed hydraulically by directing fluid under pressure to the
operating cylinder through the closing chamber
110
2. Ram-type preventer
Three types:
a. Pipe rams - which seal off
around a pipe and annulus
b. Blind rams - which completely
close off the wellbore when
there is no pipe in the hole
c. Shear rams - which are the same
as blind rams except that they
can cut through drillpipe for
emergency release as a last
resort
A set of pipe rams may be installed below the shear rams to suspend the severed drillstring
111
2a. Pipe rams

Design to close around a particular size of drill pipe, tubing or casing
The pack off is provided by two steel ram blocks containing semicircular openings with each ram being fitted with a two-piece rubber
seal
The semi-circular openings can seal around the outside diameter of the
drill pipe, tubing, drill collar, kelly or casing, depending on the size of
the rams chosen
It can be close manually or hydraulically to seal off the annular
112
2b. Blind rams

Quiet similar to pipe rams
Except that packer are replaced by ones that have no cutouts in the rubber
Has no space for pipe and is instead blanked off in order to be able to close
over a well that does not contain a drill string
Designed to seal off the bore when no drill string or casing is present
113
See video clips:

1. Pipe Ram - how it works (40 sec.)
2. Variable Bore Rams - how it works (30 sec.)
114
2c. Shear rams

A BOP closing element fitted with hardened tool steel
blades
Designed to cut the drill pipe when the BOP is closed
Normally used as a last resort to regain pressure control of
a well that is flowing
Once the drill pipe is cut, it is usually left hanging in the
BOP stack and kill operations become more difficult
The joint of drill pipe is destroyed in the process, but the
rest of the drill sting is unharmed by the operation of shear
rams
115
See video clip:

Shear rams - how it works (11 sec.)
116
Bottom pipe ram, shear rams & annular
13-58 BOP stack 10,000 psi rating

117
See video clip:

Subsea BOP (1:10 min.)

CH 3 - Formation P Well Control Lecture Note

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

CH 3 - Formation P Well Control Lecture Note

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CH 3 - Formation P Well Control Lecture Note

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MYP 1413 - DRILLING ENGINEERING &

Chapter 3 Formation Pressure

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Balanced, overbalanced & underbalanced pressures

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

a. Hydrostatic pressure (Phyd)

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

In terms of drilling operations, we can write:

Typical average of hyd. P gradient:

Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of 10.5 ppg mud in a

Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of 40 API oil in a

b. Overburden pressure (Po)

c. Formation Pressure (Pf)

Normal formation P in any geologic setting will equal the hydrostatic

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Normal pore pressure gradients in specific geographic area.

Example: Based on the above Table, determine the normal formation

Example: A formation is to be hydraulically fractured at the depth of

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Example: During the drilling of a well, a protective string of 10 in.

Example: A formation has a pressure of 4,000 psi at 7,500 ft.

Abnormal pressure in USSR

Drilling problems associated with abnormal pressures

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Origins for generation of abnormal fluid pressure

Seismic (formation velocity)

Prior to spudding well

While drilling (no delay)

Drilling mud parameters

While drilling (delayed by

While drilling (delayed by

Electrical surveys (resistivity, conductivity, etc)

When well is tested or

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Detection of Abnormal Formation Pressures

The concept behind the use of drilling

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

1. Drilling rate (penetration rate)

Drilling rate breaks have been used for many years to

However, in P transition zones &

In the P barrier (caprock)

2. d-exponent (normalized rate of penetration)

Since it is not always a possible to control/maintain WOB, rpm,

rate of penetration (ft/hr)

Basically, plots of dexponent

Since the d-exponent is influenced by mud

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Relation between dc exponent, resistivity & sonic log

formation pressure gradient (psi/ft)

actual d c -exponent from plot at given depth

d c -exponent from normal trend (i.e. extrapolated) at given depth

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

Assoc. Prof. Abdul Razak Ismail, UTM

From Eaton Eqn.

Therefore, at 10,160 ft: