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GRAMÁTICA Inglés
GRAMÁTICA Inglés
GRAMÁTICA Inglés
Contenido
Active and Passive voice................................................................................ 1
Adjectives....................................................................................................... 1
Nouns............................................................................................................. 2
Adjective Order.............................................................................................. 4
Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns........................................................5
Possession...................................................................................................... 6
Adverbs.......................................................................................................... 7
Questions....................................................................................................... 9
Affirmative sentences................................................................................... 12
Definite articles............................................................................................ 12
Indefinite articles......................................................................................... 13
Partitive article:"some"................................................................................. 13
Auxiliary verbs............................................................................................. 14
Causative constructions............................................................................... 14
Comparatives............................................................................................... 15
Conditional................................................................................................... 18
Past conditional............................................................................................ 18
Conditionals.................................................................................................... 18
Countable and Uncountable Nouns....................................................................19
Defining and Non-Defining Relative Clauses........................................................20
Direct and indirect discourse........................................................................20
Do and Make.................................................................................................. 21
Near future................................................................................................... 21
Future perfect............................................................................................... 22
Future progressive........................................................................................ 22
Gerunds and Infinitives..................................................................................... 22
Habitual actions in the past..........................................................................23
The imperative............................................................................................. 24
Indirect Speech............................................................................................... 24
Present participles........................................................................................ 25
Inversion........................................................................................................ 26
Irregular preterits and past participles.................................................................26
Modal verbs.................................................................................................. 29
Negation....................................................................................................... 30
Personal pronouns........................................................................................ 32
Objects.......................................................................................................... 34
Prepositional Verbs....................................................................................... 35
Participle Clauses............................................................................................ 36
Past progressive........................................................................................... 37
Present perfect............................................................................................. 37
Phrasal Verbs................................................................................................. 38
Pluperfect..................................................................................................... 38
The preterit..................................................................................................... 39
Prepositions.................................................................................................. 40
Usage of prepositions................................................................................... 41
Verbs with prepositions................................................................................ 42
Present perfect progressive..........................................................................43
Present progressive...................................................................................... 43
Simple present (indicative)..........................................................................44
Reciprocal pronouns........................................................................................ 45
Reflexive pronouns....................................................................................... 46
Relative pronouns........................................................................................ 46
Quantifiers...................................................................................................... 49
Relative Clauses............................................................................................. 51
Reporting questions in indirect speech................................................................51
Say/tell........................................................................................................... 51
Sentence Types.............................................................................................. 52
The simple future......................................................................................... 52
So and neither with be and do.....................................................................53
Split adverbials............................................................................................. 53
The subjunctive............................................................................................... 54
Superlatives................................................................................................. 54
Tag questions................................................................................................. 56
Tag questions with do....................................................................................... 56
There is/there are............................................................................................ 56
Time Clauses / Conjunctions............................................................................. 57
Too, Very and Enough...................................................................................... 57
Transition...................................................................................................... 57
Verbs............................................................................................................ 58
One forms the passive by conjugating the verb "to be" before the past participle of the principal verb. the tense of
the verb "to be" will determine the tense of action. When an agent of the action (that is, the person or
entity performing the action) must be described, one does so by using the preposition "by":
English uses the passive voice frequently, although it is best to avoid it when possible. An option is to use an
impersonal subject, such as "one" or "someone"
Adjectives
Forms
Usage
Related topics
Forms
Adjectives are generally invariable in English and do not agree with nouns in number and gender; nor do they
take case endings:
a blue car
However, a few adjectives have a connotation which is slightly masculine or feminine. Thus, one says that a
woman is beautiful while a man would be called handsome.
Adjectives indicating religion or nationality (or a region, state or province) generally begin with a capital letter,
whether they refer to people or objects:
Usage:
In a noun cluster an adjective will be placed, with very few exceptions, in front of the noun it modifies. When two
adjectives precede a noun, they can be connected by a comma (,) or by the conjunction"and." In a series of
three or more adjectives, one usually uses "and" before the last adjective in the list.
Examples:
An adjective may follow the noun when it is in a predicate (after the verb) or in a relative clause. (In relative
clauses the relative pronoun may be implicit.)
Examples:
Nouns
Gender
Plural
Related topics
Gender
In English nouns rarely change form, even to indicate gender. As a general rule, only nouns referring to people
and some animals reflect gender in their form. By the same token, unlike many other languages, the adjectives
modifying nouns will remain unchanged.
Example:
However, certain nouns -- especially those referring to people -- may have different forms to indicate masculin or
feminine usage:
man -- woman
gentleman -- lady
actor -- actress
uncle -- aunt
father -- mother
a buck, a doe
a ram, a ewe
a bull, a cow
a stallion, a mare
In other cases, the word "male" or "female" is added, if it is considered necessary to be specific:
a female cat
a male giraffe
Note: If the gender of the person or animal is known, one will generally use the pronoun "he" or "she" to refer to
it, as appropriate. When the gender is left unstated, the pronoun "he" is generally used when speaking of people,
or "it" when speaking of animals. Some objects are also considered to be gendered in certain usages: some
people may refer to a boat or a car as "she."
Certain nouns (especially the names of professions) are traditionally associated with men or women, in which
case one signals exceptions to the tradition by adding "woman" (or "lady") or "man" to the term:
Plurals
As a general rule, the plural is formed by adding "-s" to the singular form of nouns.
Nouns ending in "s" or "s" will generally take the ending "-es" :
Words ending in "y" will generally take the ending "-ies" in place of the "y":
Words of Greek or Latin origin which have retained their original endings will generally take the plural form
associated with the language they are drawn from:
Capital letters
Certain nouns are generally capitalized, including: days of the week and months; names of holidays, cities (or
states, etc.) and religions; nouns of nationality:
Minneapolis
Jewish
Monday
April
Adjective Order
When two or more adjectives are used to describe something they are put in a certain order. For example,
opinions come before facts.
Nice, beautiful and handsome are opinions. Young, new, long and black are facts. Opinions come first. Size
comes before age. Age comes before color. The following chart show the basic order of adjectives, but you
should know that sometimes this order is not followed.
[NOTE IN THE ABOVE CHART shape (round, square) should be put between age and color, and the noun
column should be separated from the other columns, with a + inserted.]
Example:
We rented a nice little brown log cabin by a lake.
Note: We usually limit the number of adjectives preceding a noun to three.
Demonstrative adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives have two singular forms (this, that) and two plural forms (these, those). These
adjectives are used to designate proximity to an object, or to distinguish between an object that is close (in time
or space) and one that is more remote. Usually "this" and "these" signal proximity, while "that" and "those"
suggest distance:
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns have the same form as the demonstrative adjectives, but are used without the nouns to
which they refer. In the singular, when designating a specific object, the pronoun "one" is often added:
This pen is the one with which the President signed the new law.
Possession
Possessive adjectives
Possessive pronouns
"To belong"
"Whose"
I --> my
we --> our
Note: In English the possessive adjective is used to refer to parts of the body:
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns, like the adjectives, agree with the person to whom they refer. Singular and plural share the
same form:
I --> mine
we --> ours
That's mine!
Note: Do not confuse the "s" of possession with the contraction of the verb "is":
The man whose dog bit me said he was sorry. (The dog belongs to the man.)
Here is the woman whose daughter I intend to marry.(The woman is the mother of the daughter.)
Adverbs
Formation
Position
Related topics
Formation
1. Most adverbs are formed from the adjective. One adds the ending "--ly" to the adjectival form:
A. If the adjective ends with "--le," simply replace the "e" with "y":
high
low
hard
better
fast
D. In general, adverbs of time and space have no corresponding adjective; the same can be said of adverbs of
quantity:
yesterday
today
tomorrow
early
soon
late
here
there
less
more
as
very
much
a lot of
little of
Position
When an adverb modifies a verb, it generally comes at the end of the clause (but before any prepositional
phrases or subordinated clauses):
He writes poorly.
Adverbs of time and space generally come at the end of the sentence; however, they may be placed at the
beginning of the sentence if the predicate clause is long and complicated:
Adverbs modifying adjectives or an other adverb are placed before the adjective or adverb they modify:
Questions
Simple questions
o
"Do"
Inversion
Simple questions
Simple questions (that is, questions to which one can respond by a simple "yes" or "no") may be formed in three
different ways:
1. "Do": one precedes an assertion with "do" or "does" (or "don't" or "doesn't" for a negative expression, or
"did", "didn't" for the past):
2. Inversion: with certain verbs (especially the verbs "to be", "to do", "to have", and modal verbs) questions are
formed by inverting the subject and object. (In the case of the verb "to have," which is usually combined with
"do" in interrogatives, inversion signals a literary style.)
Is Jack home?
3. Modal phrases: If a modal verb is used in a sentence, or if it is strongly implied, a modal phrase can be used
to make an interrogative form. The modal phrase is typically an inversion of the subject and verb, in
the negative, repeated at the end of the sentence:
Interrogative adverbs
Simple questions solicit a "yes" or "no" answer. More precise questions may be formed by using the interrogative
adverbs: when, why, how, how much, where. Generally, the interrogative adverb precedes the rest of the
question; then the order of the sentence follows the rules indicated for inversion or for questions formed with
"do / does".
Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask who has done what, to whom, why, with what, etc. Normally these
pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence; hen the order of the sentence follows the rules indicated
for inversion or for questions formed with "do / does".
One chooses the pronoun based on its function, according to the following table:
There are many different Burgundy wines. Which ones do you like?
Affirmative sentences
If the same is true for you...?/td>
So + auxiliary + subject
I'm very sociable.
So am I.
Definite articles
General principles
Related topics
General principles
The definite article "the" (invariable in form) designates a person, place, or event which has been specified or
defined by the speaker:
Time flies.
2. Generally, the article is omitted before days of the week and dates:
3. Generally, the article is omitted before names of countries, states, cities, and regions:
The use of the definite article does not change in interrogatives and negatives.
Indefinite articles
The indefinite article has two forms: before singular nouns one uses "a" (or "an" before most vowels); before
plural nouns one uses "some":
a cat
an accident
some dogs
But: before vowels producing a "y" sound (as in "you"), "a" is used, rather than "an":
a unit
not a one
a unicorn
As a general rule, the indefinite article signals a person, thing or event that has not been clearly defined by the
speaker. It does not indicate a specific objection (which is the role of the definite article); rather, it indicates any
one object out of many possible ones (in the singular), or any assortment or quantity from many possible
assortments or quantities (in the plural). It is often used after verbs of possession or consumption:
In the negative, the plural indefinite article changes: "some" is generally replaced by "any" (this change also
occurs in negative questions) :
Partitive article:"some"
When the article "some" appears before a plural noun it functions like an indefinite article:
However, when "some" appears before a singular noun, it is being used as a partitive. This is to say that a part of
something is indicated, or a partial (or indeterminate) quantity is referred to. It is often used after verbs of
possession or consumption:
In negative expressions, the partitive article "some" generally becomes "any" (this change will also occur in
negative interrogatives):
The word "any" is not strictly necessary in the negative,and it may often be omitted:
Auxiliary verbs
An auxiliary verb ("helping" verb) is combined with the principal verb to form
certain tenses or moods. (See also the modal verbs, which nuance the meaning
of the verbs they accompany.) The only true auxiliary verbs in English are "to
be," "to have," and "to do."
"To be" is an auxiliary verb for the progressive teneses (See the present
progressive, the past progressive, the future progressive):
I am going home.
"To have" is an auxiliary verb for the perfect tenses, including the present
perfect, the present perfect progressive, the pluperfect, the future perfect, the
past conditional:
We have finished.
"To do" is an auxiliary verb for making questions and negations in both
the present simple and the preterit :
Causative constructions
When one does not carry out an action oneself but rather has the action done by someone else, this is
expressed by a causative construction. In English it is the verb "to have" that introduces the causative. The
model will generally be: "to have" (conjugated) + direct object (noun or pronoun) + principal verb (in its past
participle form):
When one wishes to designate the agent of the action (the person who has carried out the described action),
there are two possibilities:
1. -- "to have" (conjugated) + direct object (noun or pronoun) + principal verb (in its past participle form) + "by"
+ agent (usually not as a pronoun):
2. -- "to have" (conjugated) + agent (as a direct object noun or pronoun) + principal verb (in its infinitive form)
+ the object (also in the form of a direct object noun or pronoun)
Note: Especially in spoken English, the verb "to get" often replaces "to have," in which case "to" is added to the
infinitive (but not before past participles). This construction also suggests that it may be (or have been) difficult to
produce a certain reaction on the part of the agent:
When one wishes to express a change in temperament or in general conditions, it is the construction "to make +
adjective" which is used:
He makes me furious!
Comparatives
General principles
Adjectives
Adverbs
Nouns
Verbs
Related topics
General principles
Comparatives are used to compare two things and to highlight the superiority, inferiority, or equality of one term
compared to another. The comparative can apply to adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or even verbs. Whatever the
part of speech concerned, the structure of the comparison remains the same:
Adjectives
Adjectival comparisons follow these models:
Note: Monosyllabic adjectives, and several common two-syllable adjectives, take the ending "--er" and do not
include the adverb "more":
If the adjective ends with "single vowel + consonant" the consonant is doubled and one adds "--er" :
Adverbs
Adverbial comparisons follow these models:
Note: In comparisons indicating superiority, adverbs ending in "--ly" do not take the adverb "more," but only the
ending "--er". (However, these adverbs will function normally in comparisons using "less" or "as.")
Nouns
Noun comparisons follow these patterns:
Verbs
"More," "less," and "as" can be used as adverbs to modify verbs:
Conditional
The conditional is formed using the modal "would" in front of an infinitive (dropping the word "to"). The
conditional is used especially in three contexts:
1) Politeness
3) In hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the preterit or the subjunctive, the conditional is
expected in the second clause:
Past conditional
The past conditional is expressed using the modal "would" before a past infinitive (= "have" + past participle).
This construction serves to express missed opportunities and past hypotheses:
She told me that she would have liked to come and see us.
One finds it often in hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the pluperfect, the conditional
past is expected in the second clause:
Note: In certain regions (principally in the United States) one hears the conditional past in both clauses of
hypothetical expressions:
If you would have told me he was going to win, I wouldn't have believed you.
Conditionals
There are four common conditional forms. The zero and first conditionals are also called real conditionals.
The second and third conditionals are also called unreal conditionals.
Zero Conditional
The zero conditional is an if/then statement that is used to express a scientific fact or something that is
generally true.
Form: If + subject +present simple verb, subject + present simple verb.
Or
Subject + present simple verb + if + subject + present simple verb.
Examples:
If you put sugar in your tea, it becomes sweet.
The trip takes 35 minutes if you take the express train.
First Conditional
The first conditional is an if/then statement that expresses the consequence of a probable or possible
situation in the future.
Form: If + subject + present simple verb, subject + will + verb
Or
Subject + will + verb + if + subject + present simple verb
Examples:
If you call before 11 p.m., I will pick you up from the station.
Ill burst if I eat any more food!
Second Conditional
The second conditional is an if/then statement that expresses the consequence of a hypothetical, imaginary,
impossible, or improbable situation in the future.
(some) coffee
(some) fruit
A non-defining relative clause gives us additional but non-essential information about the noun it modifies. The
sentence would still make sense if the non-defining clause were removed. In writing, non-defining relative
clauses are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by commas before and after the clause.
Isabel Allende, who wrote Daughter of Fortune, lives in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Watership Down, which is my favorite novel, is a story about rabbits.
When one paraphrases the words of others, writing them so as to avoid direct quotation, this is called "indirect
discourse." Indirect discourse entails certain changes:
A. Quotation marks are not used:
direct discourse: He told me, "You're stupid"
indirect discourse: He told me that I was stupid.
B. When the verb in the reported discourse is conjugated, is it generally preceded by "that"; however, the
inclusion of "that" is optional
C. Imperative forms, when recounted in indirect discourse, generally become infinitive constructions:
direct discourse: He told me, "Write to me."
indirect discourse: He told me to write him.
direct discourse: I told them, "Get out of here!"
indirect discourse: I told them to get out of here.
D. When a quotation is put in indirect discourse, care must be taken to verify that verb tenses reflect the change
in temporal context:
direct discourse: She said, "I will be on time."
indirect discourse: She said she would be on time.
direct discourse: When he called he said, "I am at the airport"
indirect discourse: When he called he said he was at the airport.
Do and Make
We often use do followed by words for work or indefinite activities.
Do your homework.
Can you do the dishes tonight?
Stan did the grocery shopping every Saturday morning.
You must do something about the mice in the basement!
We often use make with the meaning of .
Lets make some travel plans.
Mom made a cake for Zacharys birthday.
Do you want me to make breakfast for you?
There are also many idiomatic expressions that use the verbs do or make.
To do ones best, to make progress, to do ones duty, to make a fortune
Near future
Especially in spoken English one finds the near future used as a way of describing imminent events. Strictly
speaking, the near future is not a future tense, for it is formed by combining the present tense of the verb "to go,"
conjugated in the present progressive, with the infinitive of the principal verb.
Also used to express imminent actions is the construction "to be about to do something," also conjugated in the
present.
One can also conjugate these forms in the past progressive in order to express a "future within the past":
She was going to buy a new car, but she never did.
Future perfect
Relatively rare in English, the future perfect serves to express one future action which precedes a future moment
or another future action. Moreover, it asserts that these actions will be completed before the principal action. It is
formed by adding the modal "will" to the auxiliary "have," preceding the past participle:
They will already have finished eating by the time we get there.
One can often use the simple future instead of the future perfect, but a nuance is lost: the simple future does not
emphasize the completion of the first action:
Tomorrow morning they will all leave. (The future perfect would emphasize that they will already have
departed before tomorrow morning.)
They will finish eating by the time we get there. (They may finish just as we arrive; the future perfect
would emphasize that they will have finished before we arrive.)
Future progressive
The future progressive serves to express an action which will be in the process of occurring. It is formed by
putting the present progressive into the future: will be + present participle.
Hint for usage: How to choose between the future progressive and the simple future? If it is possible to use the
expression "will be in the process of," it is the future progressive that best expresses the action. The future
progressive indicates that an action will be continuing at a given moment; the simple future suggests that the
action will be complete. Thus the verb tense can nuance meaning. Consider these sentences, both of which are
grammatically correct:
I will be finishing my homework at 10:00. (This suggests that I may finish my homework at 10:05 or
10:15; I will be nearing completion, in the process of completion.)
I will finish my homework at 10:00. (This suggests that I will finish at 10:00 sharp.)
feel like
give up
put off
practice
finish
What would you recommend trying?
I dislike watching violence on television.
Here are some verbs that can be followed directly by an infinitive but not a gerund.
hope
expect
intend
agree
refuse
appear
manage
promise
afford
decide
choose
fail
wait
volunteer
Susan refuses to try new food.
We intend to ask for a raise.
Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive. Be careful! In some cases the meaning changes.
try
remember
like
forget
love
prefer
start
begin
continue
cant stand
I like eating in fancy restaurants.
Annie likes to eat fast food.
When my father was in school, they used to slap children who didn't behave.
In spoken English, one often uses the common construction with the modal "would," followed by the main verb:
When my father was in school, they would slap children who didn't behave.
The imperative
Imperatives are used to issue commands. They use the infinitive of verbs (dropping the word "to"); in the first
person plural ("we"), the infinitive is preceded by "let's" (or: "let us"):
Speak!
Let's eat!
The negative imperative is formed by placing "don't" (or "do not") before the imperative form; in the first person
plural one uses "let's not" (or "let us not") :
The imperative has no effect on the word order of the rest of the sentence.
Indirect Speech
Direct and Indirect Speech
Direct speech can also be called "quoted" speech. We use direct speech when we want to reproduce someone's
words exactly. We always use quotation marks.
Elizabeth said, "I'm tired. Jessie said, "I want a new job."
Indirect speech can also be called "reported" speech. We use indirect speech when we want to reproduce the
idea of someone's words without using their exact words. The verb forms and pronouns may change, and
quotation marks are not used.
Elizabeth said that she was tired. Jessie said that she wanted a new job.
Notice that the verbs in the examples changed to the past in the indirect speech statements to coordinate with
the past tense verb "said". Look at these verb changes:
Present participles
Formation
The present participle is formed by adding the ending"--ing" to the infinitive (dropping any silent "e"at the end of
the infinitive):
to be --> being
Use
A. The present participle may often function as an adjective:
B. The present participle can be used as a noun denoting an activity (this form is also called a gerund):
Traveling is fun.
C. The present participle can indicate an action that is taking place, although it cannot stand by itself as a verb. In
these cases it generally modifies a noun (or pronoun), an adverb, or a past participle:
D. The present participle is used in progressive verb tenses, which indicate continuing actions or actions in
progress (the present progressive, the future progressive, the present perfect progressive) :
I am eating my dinner.
E. The present participle may be used with "while"or "by" to express an idea of simultaneity ("while") or
causality ("by") :
F. The present participle of the auxiliary "have"may be used with the past participle to describe a past condition
resulting in another action:
Having told herself that she would be too late, she accelerated.
Inversion
Inversion occurs when we change the order of the subject and the verb in a declarative sentence after an
adverbial in initial position. It is used for emphasis, in more formal or poetic discourse, and in some day-to-day
fixed expressions. Inversion only occurs if the sentence contains an auxiliary verb, modal verb, or the verb be.
The following are some common adverbials that can be used with inversion.
at no time, little, never, not until, nowhere, only after, only then, only later, rarely, seldom, scarcely, under no
circumstances
Modal verbs
General principles
Contractions
Related topics
General principles
The auxiliary modals "would," may," "might," "should," "must," "ought to," "can," "could," "will," "shall" are
invariable. They exist only in the present, and unlike most verbs in the simple present, their form does not
change in the third person singular.
Modal verbs are auxiliaries, or "helping" verbs: they are used in conjunction with another verb (in infinitive form)
as a way to modify its meaning. Modals can nuance the meaning of the principal verb in a number of ways:
-- Possibility or ability, by "can" or "could"
-- Possibility or permission by "may" or "might" (often translated in other languages by a different mood, such
as the subjonctif).
Contractions
After a pronoun subject, "would" is often contracted into "--'d" ("I'd", "we'd", "she'd", etc.), while "will" is
contracted into "--'ll" ("I'll", "you'll", "they'll", etc.). After all modal verbs, the word"not" of the negative can be
contracted into "--n't" ("wouldn't", "shouldn't", etc.).
Exceptions : "will not" becomes "won't". "Can not" can also be written "cannot"; in its contracted form, the "n"
is not doubled: "can't".
Note: The contraction of the modal verbs "shall," "ought," and "may," is considered slightly archaic or literary.
examples of contractions:
The modal verb used in the interrogative tag is generally the same as the modal found in the main clause; the
subject pronoun is also repeated.
After a negative sentence, the modal tag phrase is in the affirmative:
You wouldn't want to try it, would you? (Je suppose que tu ne voudrais pas l'essayer.)
Negation
"Not"
Negative questions
"Not"
The most common way to put a phrase in the negative is by using "not." Generally, "not" must follow
an auxiliary verb ("to be", "to do") or a modal ("shall", "must", "might", "will", etc.), even if this verb adds no
meaning to the sentence. When no other modal is present or appropriate, the verb "to do" is used.
Here are some sample phrases in both affirmative and negative form:
Note: Most often, the adverb "not" will be contracted to "--n't" after an auxiliary or modal verb:
o
Questions
The same structure (placing "not" after the verb) will hold for questions:
Using "not" instead of the contraction can produce certain stylistic effects:
To stress the negative meaning of the sentence:
"He will not come to your house" is stronger than "He won't come to your house"
Negative constructions
Other negative constructions are possible. Because English does not allow double or triple negatives, it is
important to avoid using "not" with other negative constructions. When "not" is included, use the affirmative
forms of other adverbs:
No more / not... any more
Neither... nor...
Personal pronouns
Forms
Subject pronouns
Predicate pronouns
Order of pronouns
Related topics
Indirect objects will generally come after the proposition "to," except if the pronoun precedes the direct object, in
which cas the proposition "to" disappears:
Order of pronouns
When a verb is followed by two or more pronouns, the following sequence is observed:
Examples :
Exception: As noted above, one may omit the preposition "to" in front of an indirect object, in which cas the
indirect object pronoun precedes the direct object:
Objects
Direct Object: A direct object will most often be a noun (thing or idea) that receives the action of the transitive
(action) verb. I threw the ball.
Indirect Object: An indirect object will most often be the person or persons expressed as the recipient of the
direct object and will be found immediately after the transitive verb and before the direct object. I threw him the
ball.
Phrase: A phrase adds to the meaning of a sentence but does not contain a subject or a verb.
The yellow house is at the bottom of the driveway.
Clause: A clause will contain a subject and a verb and function as either a dependent or an independent clause.
See Dependent Clause
Adjective Clause: An adjective clause will begin with a relative pronoun and give us more information about a
noun or pronoun within a sentence. See Dependent Clause.
Adverb Clause: An adverb clause will begin with a subordinating conjunction and offer readers more information
about the verb (usually giving us information about time, place, or why something happened). See Dependent
Clause.
Noun Clause: A noun clause also begins with a relative pronoun but functions differently from an adjective
clause. The noun clause operates in the subject position of a sentence, in the object position of a sentence, or in
the subject complement position of a sentence.
That I studied the assignment was evident to the teacher. (Noun Clause as Subject)
I forgot that I needed my passport. (Noun Clause as Direct Object)
Pedro was looking for whatever he needed for the baseball game. (Noun Clause as Object of the Preposition)
Prepositional Phrase: A prepositional phrase always begins with a preposition and ends with a noun (the object
of the preposition). In some cases, the object of the preposition will be a noun clause. The prepositional phrase
functions either as an adjective, telling us more about a noun or pronoun, or an adverb, providing us more
information about the verb. (May be as short as two words or as many as several words)
The student in the purple dress walked down the hallway. (Adjective and Adverb Prepositional Phrases,
respectively)
Participial Phrase: A participial phrase joins together a participle and its corresponding words, functioning,
always, as an adjective. The participle may be present (ending in -ing) or past (ending in -ed or its irregular form).
The school, aged and bent from years of harsh weather, fell from its state of grace. (Past Participial Phrase)
Swimming in a sea of grammar, the students splashed each other with verbs and nouns. (Present Participial
Phrase)
The singing bird trilled high notes in the early morning. (Participle)
Prepositional Verbs
Sentence structure
Sentence structure
Related topics
to put on -- to wear
to turn -- to twist
Sentence structure
When the sentence includes a noun object, the object will follow the preposition; if the object is replaced by a
pronoun, the pronoun precedes the preposition:
He turned it on.
Sentence structure
When the verb is followed by two prepositions, the object follows the two prepositions, whether the object is a
noun or a pronoun:
Participle Clauses
Participle clauses use a present participle (-ing) to join together sentences, whether in the present or the past,
that have the same subject.
Troy stars Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom.
It is a very exciting film.
Both of these sentences have the same subject (Troy).
Starring Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom, Troy is a very exciting film.
Another example:
Johnny Depp appeared in Pirates of the Caribbean, Chocolat, and many other films.
He's one of the most talented actors of his generation.
Appearing in Pirates of the Caribbean, Chocolat, and many other films, Johnny Depp is one of the most talented
actors of his generation.
Participle clauses use a past participle if the main verb is passive.
Troy was filmed in North Africa.
It stars Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom.
Filmed in North Africa, Troy stars Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom.
Past progressive
The past progressive is a past tense which emphasizes the ongoing nature of the action described. It is formed
by using the auxiliary "to be" with the present participle:
I was working.
Normally, if an idea could be expressed with the expression "was in the process of doing" or with "was in the
midst of doing," the past progressive will be more appropriate than the simple past. Consequently, verbs
indicating belief, emotion, possession, etc., are rarely conjugated in the past progressive:
I thought that was right. ["I was in the process of thinking..." would be awkward.]
Cheryl owned her own house. ["Cheryl was in the midst of owning..." would be awkward.]
Note: Do not use the past progressive in order to describe habitual actions in the past.
Present perfect
General principles
Recent past
General principles
The present perfect describes an action or emotion which began in the past and which continues in the present.
It is formed by using the auxilary "to have" with the past participle:
Money has always been the problem and not the solution.
After such expressions as "since," "for," "how long," etc., one generally uses the present perfect or even
the present perfect progressive:
In the negative, the present perfect expresses and action which has not yet occurred:
Recent past
In conjunction with the word "just", the present perfect or the preterit can be used to express the recent past:
The film has just come out [or: The film just came out].
Note: do not confuse this use of "just" (which indicates the recent past) with "just about," which indicates, to the
contrary, something which will happen in the near future:
I have just about finished. (= I have almost finished; I will finish soon.)
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are made up of two parts, a verb plus a particle. A particle is a preposition that has become linked
to a verb. Together the verb and particle have a fixed meaning. Phrasal verbs can take objects or not. Phrasal
verbs that take objects can be inseparable or separable. Don't forget: phrasal verbs have tenses too!
Inseparable phrasal verbs always remain together. Examples:
The brothers set off to seek their fortunes.
The girls get up early every morning.
The burglar almost got away.
Alice is looking after her baby sister.
In separable phrasal verbs, the object can often go between the verb and its particle:
He took off his jacket or He took his jacket off
But if the object has been replaced by a pronoun, the pronoun must go between the verb and particle:
He took it off
If the object is particularly long, don't use it to separate the verb and particle:
He took off the jacket he'd bought last week at Harrods.
Pluperfect
The pluperfect is formed with the preterit of the auxiliary "to have," followed by the past participle of the principle
verb:
Usage
The pluperfect expresses the precedence of one action compared to another. The earlier action will be described
by the pluperfect; the later will generally be described by the preterit. When one action precedes another, the
pluperfect is not absolutely necessary. Witness this sentence, which provides a list of actions in chronological
order (all expressed by the preterit):
It is usually only when one seeks to emphasize the precedence of one action that the pluperfect will be used.
Often one finds such adverbs as "already," which reinforces the impression of precedence.
She learned to love the dog that had bitten her the week before.
The children ate all the cookies that their father had bought.
The pluperfect is often used in in hypothetical expressions with "if," in conjunction with the past conditional:
Withe the adverb "just" the pluperfect indicates the immediate past in a past context:
The preterit
As a general rule, the preterit is formed by adding the ending "--ed" to the infinitive (dropping any unpronounced
"e" in final position, and changing any final "y" to "i"):
to do --> did
to go --> went
(For a complete list of this irregular forms, see Irregular preterits and past participles).
Usage
The preterit expresses actions which were completed in the past. Unlike those described by the present perfect,
these actions do not continue in the present. Unlike the past progressive, the preterit does not describe the
process or duration of actions: it states them only as completed actions:
The duration of the action is of no importance: the preterit may describe an action lasting an instant or many
years. Thus verbs indicating belief, emotion, possession, location, etc. will often be expressed in the preterit:
In the negative and interrogative, the auxiliary verb "to do" -- conjugated in the preterit -- will be used with the
infinitive to express the past:
Related topics
Prepositions
Space
Geography
Means of transportation
Time
Related topics
Space
In their simplest form, prepositions are used to indicate position (in time or space) of one thing with respect to
another:
facing -- She sat down on the other side of the table, facing him.
in the midst of -- I don't know where to find any free time in the midst of these emergencies.
Usage of prepositions
The use of prepositions is one of the most complex aspects of English, and it is impossible to cover all cases.
Some general guidelines, however, may be helpful.
Geography
Movement toward a town, country, state, or continent is generally expressed by the preposition "to";
presence in a city, state, etc. is expressed by "in"; movement away from a city, state, etc., is expressed by "from"
(if the verb requires a pronoun):
Transportation
As a general rule, the preposition "by" is used to describe how one has traveled. The prepositions "in" and "on"
describe one's presence inside a vehicle. In the case of small vehicles (a car, a helicopter...), the preposition "in"
is required:
I came by bike.
Time
To designate an hour the preposition "at" is used:
My birthday is in September.
To express duration, the preposition "for" is used; "in" can be used to express the time it will take to complete a
task:
Indirect objects
The preposition "to", which generally precedes an indirect object, will disappear before a noun (or pronoun) when
the indirect object precedes a direct object. ("To" will be retained when the indirect objectfollows a direct object.)
Examples :
Ou : He sent it to her.
or:
This can also be seen in certain phrases in which the direct object is implicit.
Related topics
Prepositional verbs
to wait for
to look for
to look at
to listen to
to pay for
to ask for
to depend on
to be interested in
to thank for
to be busy with
Sample sentences:
Present progressive
General principles
Near future
In negative constructions
Related topics
General principles
The present progressive is a version of the present which emphasizes the fact that an action is still unfolding (or
is continuing) at the time one speaks. It is formed by using the auxilary "to be" with thepresent participle:
I am working.
Usually, the present progressive indicates that one is "in the process of" or "in the midst of" doing something. If
this is the idea one wishes to communicate, the present progressive will be preferable to the simple present. If
you cannot replace the verb by a form of "to be in the process of," the present progressive should probably not
be used. Indications of emotion, belief, and possession are rarely conjugated in the present progressive:
Cheryl owns her own house. ["Cheryl is in the process of owning" would be awkward.]
In certain situations the present progressive can indicate an action which will take place in the immediate future:
Near future: To emphasize the idea of future action while using the present tense, one may use the verb "to go";
it indicates what one is going to do. In this case the principle verb remains in the infinitive:
I work at home.
In the interrogative, the present is generally introduced by a form of the verb "to do" ("do / does"):
The appropriate form of the verb "to do" will also be used for the negative:
After the conjunctions "when," "as soon as," etc., the present is used, even though actions expressed may refer
to the future:
I work
you work
he / she / it works
we work
they work
I go
you go
he / she / it goes
we go
they go
To go
However: verbs ending with "consonant + y" (for example, "to try," "to cry," "to bury," etc.) will end in "-ies" in
the third person singular:
To bury
I bury
you bury
he / she buries
we bury
they bury
I have
you have
he / she has
we have
they have
I am
you are
he / she is
we are
they are
To be
Reciprocal pronouns
To show that two people, represented by a single grammatical subject, are acting on each other, one uses the
reciprocal pronouns: "each other" or "one another".
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used to show that the actions described by a verb act upon the subject of the verb: the
subject and the object are thus the same. The forms of reflexive pronouns correspond to the forms of the subject
pronouns:
I --> myself
he --> himself
it --> itself
we --> ourselves
To use a verb reflexively, the reflexive pronoun must follow the verb (and, in the case of an intransitive verb, it will
follow any preposition used with the verb). If there are multiple verbs in the sentence, the reflexive pronoun
follows the verb to which it applies:
At the end of a sentence, one can add reflexive pronouns as a way of accentuating the subject in the sentence.
In this case, the verb does not have reflexive power:
Relative pronouns
General information
Subject pronouns
Object pronouns
Possession ("whose")
As prepositional objects
Time
Space
Related topics
General information
Relative pronouns are used to join two sentences. For example, the following two sentences,
Relative pronouns have many different forms: who, whom, whose, that, which, that which, what. The pronoun
is selected based on the following criteria:
1) What is the grammatical function of the pronoun? Is it a subject, a direct object, or a prepositional object?
2) Does the pronoun refer to a person or a thing (or a situation)?
3) Does the pronoun have an antecedent, or does it represent an unknown entity?
4) Does it represent a special case (possession, time, or space)?
According to the role it plays, the pronoun will take one of the following forms:
Subjects
The pronoun "who" expresses a grammatical subject when this subject is a person; "that" or "which" are used
(indifferently by most speakers) to represent subjects which are things, events, situations, etc.
When the antecedent is vague or totally absent, one uses "what" or (less commonly) "that which" :
Objects
The pronoun "whom" (in spoken language one often hears "who") expresses a grammatical object when this
object is a person; "that" or "which" are used (indifferently by most speakers) to represent objects which are
things, events, situations, etc.
Note: Use of the relative pronoun is optional (except in the case of "what" or "that which" when referring to
specific antecedents); the same sentences as above may be written correctly without the pronoun:
When the antecedent is vague or absent, on uses "what" or (less often) "that which" :
That was a good article, the point of which was to make us think.
Prepositional objects
The preposition generally precedes the appropriate pronoun:
They went out for dinner, after which they went home.
In spoken English, one often places the preposition at the end of the clause. Moreover, with the
pronoun "what" this structure is required, even in written English:
Time
The pronoun "when" is used with nouns indicating time. However, it is rarely necessary to include this pronoun,
and it is often omitted:
Space
When more specific prepositions (such as "on," "under,", etc.) are not necessary, the general pronoun "where"
will suffice:
Quantifiers
Using Some, Any, and No
We use both some and any with plural countable nouns and with uncountable nouns.
Relative Clauses
Relative clauses give you information about something or someone. We start relative clauses with which if we
are referring to a thing or an idea, and with who if we are referring to a person.
A diary is a book which you write in every day.
Hes the person who lives next door.
In these examples, both which and who can be replaced by that.
We can also form relative clauses with where and when. We start clauses with when if we are referring to a time,
and with where if we are referring to a place.
July is a month when many people go on vacation.
A registry office is a place where a couple can get married.
Say/tell
The verbs say and tell are used in both direct and indirect speech. We use say to refer to any kind of speech. It
can be used interchangeably with tell in indirect speech, but not in direct speech. We use tell to refer to situations
where instructions or information are given.
Mary said that the restaurant was closed.
Mary told us that the restaurant was closed.
Caleb said Good morning.
It is incorrect to use tell in this sentence.
Sentence Types
Simple Sentence: A sentence that contains one and only one independent clauses and no dependent clauses.
The young boy smiled at the big dog.
Compound Sentence: A sentence that contains at least two independent clauses and no dependent clauses.
Essential to the compound sentence is its punctuation, as it must contain either a comma and a coordinating
conjunction (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So) or a semi-colon that conjoins the two independent clauses. Joseph
taught the students about delivering speeches, and Sarah taught them composition skills.
Complex Sentence: A sentence that contains one and only one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause.
Because the weather forecaster announced the threat of an impending hurricane, the students canceled their
luxurious boat cruise to the Azores.
Compound-Complex Sentence: A sentence that contains at least two independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause. Because the weather forecaster announced the threat of an impending hurricane, the
students canceled their luxurious boat cruise to the Azores, but the cruise line would not refund the students
money.
Independent/dependent clauses
Independent Clause: Typically thought of as a sentence, offering its readers a complete thought and containing a
subject, verb, and its complement (Prepositional Phrase, Direct Object, Adjectival, or Adverbial). The grammar
book was thick.
Dependent Clause: A clause that cannot stand alone and does not offer its reader a complete thought. A
dependent clause will typically be an Adjective, Adverb, or Noun clause.
When the frost is on the pumpkin, farmers often know that the harvest season is almost over. (Adverb Clause
and Noun Clause, respectively)
The book that was on the table was thick. (Adjective Clause)
One sometimes find the modal "shall" in place of "will." This usage, generally reserved for the first person, is
considered archaic:
What shall I do ?
Note: this usage of "shall" to indicate the future is different from the commonplace usage of "shall" to indicate
desire or wishes. See modal verbs.
Response form:
So + verb + subject (agreement with positive sentence)
Neither + verb + subject (agreement with negative sentence)
Examples, if the same is true for the respondent :
She doesnt like snakes. Neither does he. (Or: He doesnt, either.)
We use the verb be or the auxiliary verb do without so or neither when we want to say that what is true for some
person is not true for us.
Examples, if the same is not true for the respondent:
Split adverbials
hardly... when, barely...when, no sooner...than, not only...but also, so...that, such...that
Form:
Adverbial + auxiliary or modal verb + subject + main verb
Or
Adverbial + be + subject
Examples:
No sooner had I wished to see my lost dog than she appeared before me.
Note that, in this last example, the second part (than) of the two-part adverbial is positioned at the start of a new
subject-verb clause.
The subjunctive
The subjunctive is used only in select phrases or situations in English. One finds vestiges of it in certain
hypothetical expressions (using "if + to be") and in certain set phrases. (In many cases the subjunctive -considered archaic or literary -- is replaced by the modal "would," used to express the conditional.) Other
meanings often communicated by the subjunctive in other languages will be expressed by modalverbs in English.
In constructions using "if + to be" the subjunctive will amount to using the form "were" (instead of "was") with the
first and third persons singular ("I" and "he," "she," or "it"). (In spoken English, and in much informal writing,
"was" will still be used.)
Superlatives
General principles
Irregular forms
Adjectives
Adverbs
Related topics
General principles
When comparing two things one uses the comparative; however, for comparisons in larger groups, it is the
superlative which must be used. The superlative designates extremes: the best, the first, the worst, the last, etc.
The superlative operates like the comparative, with these exceptions:
A. While the word "more" or the ending "--er" signals the comparative, it is the word "most" or the ending "--est"
that designates the superlative. (See irregular forms, below):
B. The compared term (adjective or adverb) will be preceded by the definite article:
B. Unlike the comparative, the superlative is not followed by "than": instead, one uses "of," followed by the
context of the comparison (although this context is sometimes implicit):
Irregular forms
Adjectives
Monosyllabic adjectives (and several common two-syllable adjectives) take the ending "--est" in superlatives of
superiority, and thus will not use the adverb "most." However, these same adjectives will use "less," like other
adjectives, in superlatives of inferiority:
first
last
Adverbs
Adverbs not ending in "--ly" do not use the adverb "--most" in the formation of superlatives of superiority, but use
instead the ending "--est." However, these same adverbs will use "less," like other adverbs, in superlatives of
inferiority:
Tag questions
We often use tag questions in spoken English to check information and to ask for confirmation. We form tag
questions with auxiliary or modal verbs or the main verb be, followed by a pronoun.
Youre Tom Cruise, arent you? She speaks Russian, doesnt she? Thats not Julia Roberts, is it? This doesnt
cost much, does it?
A falling intonation on a tag question means you feel certain about what you are saying. A rising intonation means
you are not sure and need confirmation.
If the first part of the sentence is affirmative, the tag question is generally negative. If the first part of the sentence
is negative, the tag question is generally affirmative.
You are French, arent you? You arent French, are you? Carly can swim, cant she? Carly cant swim, can she?
Transition
A transition is a word or phrase that allows for fluid movement between ideas, sentences, or paragraphs. A
transition expression helps the speaker or writer to construct coherent sentences. In writing, a transition
expression is typically set off with punctuation. Transitions include but are not limited to the following kinds:
comparison, contrast, summary, and order of importance. Many common transitions are listed in the chart below.
Examples:
Were too tired to go jogging tonight. Besides, its very cold outside.
Brittany doesnt dance very well. On the other hand, she sings beautifully.
Sally just got a job in San Francisco. Therefore, she wont be moving to London.
Verbs
Verb conjugations reflect three elements: the subject, the tense, and the mood. The subject may be singular or
plural and may be in the first person ("I" or "we"), in the second person ("you"), or in the third person "he," she,"
"it," or "they"). Verb tenses include different forms of the past, present and future. The term "mood" refers,
generally, to the attitude of the speaker toward his subject. The different moods include the indicative, the
subjunctive (rare in English), the conditional, and the imperative.
Irregular participles