SYLLABUS NOTES

1. What is a healthy organism?

SYLLABUS
1.discuss the
difficulties of defining
the terms health and
disease

2.outline how the

function of genes,
mitosis, cell
differentiation and
specialisation assist in
the maintenance of
health

a.use available
evidence to analyse
the links between
gene expression and
maintenance and
repair of body tissues

STUDY NOTES
Disease: Any condition that interferes with normal bodily
functions e.g Cancer, chicken pox, cut finger.
Health: A state of physical, social and mental wellbeing. This is
not just the absence of disease. It can vary with age,
expectations, culture and susceptibility. Is a subjective
judgement.
Difficulties:
Terms have different social and scientific meanings.
It is possible for a person to be healthy and to have a disease
at the same time e.g a cancer patient in remission.
Genes control protein synthesis, making the correct proteins
for growth and repair. Genes also produce the correct
enzymes, which control all living processes.
Mitosis: New genetically correct cells allow for growth and
repair. Genetically incorrect can lead to cancers and death.
Cell differentiation = cell specialisation. Undifferentiated cells
can form tumours. Many cells specialize to maintain health e.g
blood cells produce antibodies.
Cystic Fibrosis is due to a faulty gene causing the wrong
protein to be made.
Gene expression is the switching on of a segment of DNA to
produce a polypeptide. Many genes are switched on at
various times during life and then switched off at other times
resulting in maintenance of health e.g those genes responsible
for menstruation and menopause.

2. Over 3000 years ago the Chinese and Hebrews were advocating cleanliness in
food, water and personal hygiene
SYLLABUS
STUDY NOTES
1.distinguish between infectious and non-infectious disease
Infectious diseases are caused by a pathogen(bacteria, virus, fungi) eg
pneumonia, TB, Ebola, Chicken pox(Infectious AND Contagious)
Malaria( Infectious, not contagious).
Non infectious diseases do not involve a pathogen and may be genetic,
environmental or nutritional. Scurvey, Downs Syndrome and Skin cancer.
2.explain why cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene practices assist in
control of disease
Most pathogens (disease causing organism) enter through body openings.
Intake of food and water provides easy access to these organisms. Measures

Treatment
Filtering
Chlorine and Ammonia
Boiling
Fluoride

Result
Removes large particles
Kills pathogens
Kills pathogens
Reduce tooth decay

such as
personal hygiene, Govt legislation, proper waste disposal can minimise these
risks.
3.identify the conditions under which an organism is described as a pathogen
Pathogen = disease causing organism. Can be microscopic( bacteria, viruses
and fungi) or macroscopic( tapeworms). They can live inside the body(virus) or
outside ( fungus causing ringworm).
They require the right conditions to multiply. Usually, warm, dark and moist.
a.identify data sources, plan and choose equipment or resources to perform a firsthand investigation to identify microbes in food or in water
AGAR PLATES
The purpose of this prac is to highlight the huge amount of pathogens
surrounding us.
b. gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe ways
in which drinking water can be treated and use available evidence to explain how
these methods reduce the risk of infection from pathogens

3. During the second half of the nineteenth century, the work of Pasteur
and Koch and other scientists stimulated the search for microbes as
causes of disease
SYLLABUS
STUDY NOTES
1.describe the contribution of
Pasteur:
Pasteur and Koch to our
Disproved Spontaneous Generation theory with
understanding of infectious
famous swan necked flask experiment.
diseases
Proposed The Germ Theory of Disease stating
that most infectious diseases are caused by
micro-organisms.
He showed the French wine industry that
heating wine to 55oc destroys the microorganisms causing it to rot.
This process(Pasteurisation) is now applied to
milk and beer.
Founded the process of vaccination :
Inoculated 25 sheep with a weakened version of
Anthrax bacteria
Then injected this group and another 25( the
control group) with anthrax
The 25 inoculated sheep survived

2. distinguish between:

prions

viruses

bacteria

protozoans

fungi

macro-parasites
and name one example of a
disease caused by each type of
pathogen

Robert Koch
Also worked with anthrax. Isolated and identified the
anthrax bacilli
Ultimately developed Kochs
Postulates which are four
criteria designed to establish a
causal relationship between a
causative microbe and a
disease:
The microorganism must
be found in abundance in
all organisms suffering
from the disease, but
should not be found in
healthy organisms
The microorganism must
be isolated from a
diseased organism and
grown in pure culture.
The cultured
microorganism should cause disease when
introduced into a healthy organism.
The microorganism must be re-isolated from the
inoculated, diseased experimental host and
identified as being identical to the original
specific causative agent.
Koch also developed methods for fixing and
staining specimens onto slides.
They paved the way for the study of
microorganisms
PATHOGEN
DESCRIPTION
DISEASE
PRION
Defective form of
Mad cow
protein, infectious CJD:Creutzfeldand inherited.
Jacob Disease
VIRUS
Technically not
Herpes, Hepatitis,
living.
AIDS, Plant
DNA and RNA
Mosaic virus
surrounded by a
protein coat. Can
only reproduce
inside the host
cell.
BACTERIA
Prokaryotic single Tuberculosis,
cells. Secrete
Syphilis, ear
toxins.
infections
PROTOZOAN
Eukaryotic single
Malaria, Diarrhoea
cells.
FUNGI
Eukaryotic,
Tinea,
heterotrophic.
Candida(Thrush)

3.identify the role of antibiotics

in the management of
infectious disease

Some are single

Ringworm
cells others are
long branching
threads.
MACRO
Multicellular
Ticks, fleas, lice,
PARASITE
Eukaryotic.
worms, aphids.
Discovered by Alexander Flemming in 1928. However,
he didnt see the applications. An Australian, Florey,
could see the applications and began the production
of antibiotics( Penicillin from mould) to fight bacterial
infections. This had a massive impact on world health,
but only addressed bacterial infections.

a. perform an investigation to
model Pasteurs experiment
to identify the role of microbes
in decay

b. gather and process

information to trace the
historical development of our
understanding of the cause and
prevention of malaria

c. identify data sources, gather

process and analyse
information from secondary
sources to describe one
named infectious disease in
terms of its:
cause
transmission
host response
major symptoms
treatment
prevention(personal)
control(government)

Originally thought to be caused by the foul gases that

arise from marshes and swamps. In the early 1800s it
was suggested that it was caused by a microorganism. Quinine was then introduced as a
preventative. The protozoan, Plasmodium was first
identified in 1884. In 1897 the mosquito was identified
as the vector.
Cause: A single cell protozoan(eukaryotic) named
Plasmodium
Transmission: The female Anopheles mosquito
Host response: Large quantities of the Plasmodium
trigger a huge immune response resulting in
macrophages and other immune cells destroying
parasites by phagocytosis and by the production of
toxins. The high levels of these toxins however, are
responsible for the intense fever associated with
malaria which in itself is harmful.
Major Symptoms: Fever, sweating, convulsions, coma
and death.
Treatment: Antimalarial drugs such as Quinine
Prevention: Neck to ankle clothing, Aero guard,
mosquito netting at night and preventative medicines.
Control: Draining of swamps, spraying of insecticides
and oil over swamp areas(ecologically unsound).
Biological control with the introduction of larvae

d. process information from

secondary sources to discuss
problems relating to antibiotic
resistance

eating fish to these swampy areas.

Cause: Overuse of antibiotics and failure to complete
the full course of tablets has led to the selection of
more virulent bacteria resistant to antibiotics.
Antibiotics had a dramatic effect on world wide health
when first introduced but their effectiveness has
decreased over time.
Each time an antibiotic is used, individual bacteria
with a natural resistance are selected for,
subsequently parenting the next generation of
resistant bacteria.
Superbugs such as Golden Staph have been the
result.
We are rapidly facing a time where very common
infections will cause death again.
To minimise these effects, antibiotics must only be
taken to treat bacterial infections AND the full course
of tablets MUST be completed.

4. Often we recognise an infection by the symptoms it causes. The

immune response is not so obvious, until we recover
1. identify defence
barriers to prevent entry
of pathogens in
humans:
skin
mucous membranes
cilia
chemical barriers
other body
secretions

We have 3 lines of defence against disease:

1st line is non specific, attempts to block entry
2nd line is non specific, Inflammation response and
Phagocytosis and the Lymph System
3rd line is the specific immune response.
The First Line of Defense
Its main purpose is to prevent entry of pathogens into the
body. This includes:
Skin Provides a physical barrier
Mucous Membranes These membranes line the
respiratory and urino-genital openings. Sticky
mucous traps the pathogens and flushes them out.
Cilia Hair like structures lining air passages( nose,
trachea and bronchial tubes
Chemical barriers Stomach acid, Lysozyme in tears
and saliva which breaks down cell walls of bacteria
Other body secretions Chemicals in sweat glands
also attack pathogens

2. identify antigens as
molecules that trigger
the immune response

An antigen is a molecule of protein embedded in the cell

membrane of all cells. These proteins are unique to each
and every organism. When a pathogen enters our body, our
immune system recognises the antigen(antibody generator)
as not self. This causes the immune system to begin
production of antibodies to fight the invader.

3. explain why organ

transplants should
trigger an immune
response

Any donated organ will be carrying antigens which the

immune system will recognise as not self and begin to
attack. This causes the production of antibodies leading to
organ rejection.
2nd Line of Defence = Inflammation Response, Non Specific
1. Inflammation Response - Large amounts of blood are
sent to this area causing the red colour.Mast cells
play a key role in the inflammatory process releasing
Histamines which dilate blood vessels, causing many
of the symptoms of allergies such as sneezing and
runny noses.
Antihistamines work by preventing the release of
histamine from mast cells thereby blocking the
allergic reaction.

4.4 identify defence

adaptations, including:
inflammation
response
phagocytosis
lymph system
cell death to seal off
pathogen

2. Phagocytosis
Phagocyte detects chemicals released by a foreign
intruder (e.g. bacteria)
Phagocyte moves up the concentration gradient
towards the intruder
The phagocyte adheres to the foreign cell and
engulfs it in a vacuole by an infolding of the cell
membrane.
Lysosomes (organelles which are rich in digestive
enzymes & found in the phagocytes
cytoplasm) fuse with the vacuole &
release
their contents into it
During infection, hundreds of
phagocytes are needed.
Pus is dead bacteria and
phagocytes!
3. Lymph System
Houses many lymphocytes responsible for producing

B and T cells.
Lymph fluid passively flows around the body.
A lot of phagocytosis occurs here which is why the
lymph nodes become swollen.
The lymph nodes filter foreign particles, trapping
them.
4. Cell Death
Lymphocytes or macrophages completely surround
pathogens forming a granuloma.
The surrounding cells die which leads to death of the
pathogen as it can no longer access a food source.
This process forms pus.
5. Fever
The body raises its temperature in an attempt to kill
pathogens. If overdone, it can have very serious
effects re enzymes.
a. gather, process and
present information from
secondary sources to
show how a named
disease results from an
imbalance of microflora
in humans

Microflora are microscopic organisms such as bacteria,

fungi and viruses. Our bodies are covered in them both
internally and externally. Most of these are good/ helpful
and their presence stops any bad microflora from taking
hold. Diet, antibiotics and stress can upset the balance of
these microflora giving the undesirable pathogens room to
grow e.g Thrush. Thrush lives naturally all through the body
but is kept in check by good bacteria.

5. MacFarlane Burnets work in the middle of the twentieth century

contributed to a better understanding of the immune response and the
effectiveness of immunisation programs
SYLLABUS
STUDY NOTES
This
is
the
THIRD
line
of
Defence.
1. identify the
components of the
NAME
What is it
What it does
immune response:
antibodies
Antibodies Proteins
Antibodies bind onto
T cells
produced by the
antigens. The binding
B cells
immune system
may stop the biological
when an antigen
processes of the
is detected.
pathogen stopping the
Each antibody is
disease or may recruit
specific.
more macrophages to
destroy the foreign
substance
B cell
Lymphocyte
Upon antigen
formed in the
recognition, divides and
Bone marrow.
multiplies rapidly to
Ineffective against produce:
pathogens hiding
Plasma cells which
inside cells such
produce

as viruses.

T cell

Antibodies. The
role of antibodies
B cells control the
is to bind with
Humoral
antigens and
response
inactivate them so
that other bodily
processes can
take over, destroy,
and remove the
foreign substances
from the body.
Memory cells so
that next time the
response can be
quicker.
Lymphocyte
T cells control the cell
differentiates in
mediated response ;
the Thymus
ultimate destruction of
gland.
pathogens. There are 4
types:
T helper
T memory
T Killer
T suppressor

2. describe and
explain the immune
response in the
human body in terms
of:

interaction
between B and T
lymphocytes

the
mechanisms that
allow interaction
between B and T
lymphocytes
-the range of T
lymphocyte types and
the difference in their
roles

3. outline the way in

which vaccinations
prevent infection

BOTH B AND T CELLS ARE ATTACKING THE SAME ANTIGEN

!!!!
T Helper cells use cytokines to stimulate B cells into rapid
multiplication.
T Helper = Activate B and T cells to multiply rapidly and call
in phagocytes.
T Killer = kill pathogens using cytoxins.
T Suppressor = Turn off the immune response.
T Memory = Circulate in lymph ready for reinfection.

Inoculation is the introduction of an antigen into the body

usually through an injectionto stimulate the production of
antibodies. It usually uses either dead pathogen cells(still
with their antigen on the surface) or pathogens that have
been weakened enough that they cant make you sick. The
immune system responds to the foreign antigen resulting in
both T and B memory cells being created so that when the
pathogen is met again in the real world, the body already has
the knowledge to fight it, meaning you wont get sick.
4. outline the reasons
The cells in a donated organ will all be carrying an antigen
for the suppression of
which will stimulate the recipients immune response,
the immune response in causing the donor organ to be rejected because it is not
organ transplant
self. Immuno-suppressant drugs must be taken for the rest
patients
of the patients life, leaving them susceptible to all other
diseases.
a. process, analyse and Smallpox is caused by the virus causing a rash of blisters on
present information from the skin, which leave permanent scars. Smallpox was once a
secondary sources to
feared viral disease. The World Health Organization (WHO)

evaluate the
effectiveness of
vaccination programs in
preventing the spread
and occurrence of once
common diseases,
including smallpox,
diphtheria and polio

mounted an aggressive worldwide campaign of immunisation

and by 1977, the last naturally occurring case was detected
in Somalia, but small stocks of the virus remain in
laboratories.
Polio is a serious infectious disease caused by a virus.
Symptoms vary from mild, flu-like symptoms to lifethreatening paralysis. Between two and five per cent of
people who develop paralytic polio will die. The Global Polio
Eradication Initiative aims to eliminate all cases of polio
around the world. The entire western Pacific region,
including Australia, has been declared polio-free since 2000.
Diphtheria is a serious contagious bacterial disease that
causes severe inflammation of the nose, throat and windpipe
(trachea) which can lead to suffocation, paralysis and heart
failure if the toxins spread throughout the body. Around 10
per cent of people exposed to diphtheria die from the
disease.
It is extremely rare in most developed countries, including
Australia, because of the widespread use of the diphtheria
vaccine. However, there is a risk that the infection can be
brought in by people who have travelled to developing
nations.