1

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO PLC

1.1 Function of a PLC

A PLC is a microprocessor-based controller with multiple inputs
and outputs. It uses a programmable memory to store instructions
and carry out functions to control machines and processes.
The PLC performs the logic functions of relays, timers, counters
and sequencers. It has the following advantages:
Low cost
Reliability
Reprogram ability

Program
Outputs

Inputs

PLC

Fig 1: A programmable logic controller

2
1.2 Inputs and Outputs

The PLC inputs give it information about the machine or

process that it is controlling. These are typically switches and
sensors. The switches are connected to an input module that
provides the interface between the switches or sensors and the PLC.
Input module circuits have opto-isolators to protect the
internal PLC circuitry from damage.

LED Photo transistor

Fig 2: An Opto-Isolator
The PLC outputs are connected directly or indirectly (e.g.
through a relay) to actuator controls. Examples include solenoids on
directional control valves, motors, motor contactors, alarms and
warning lights.

There are three main types of output module:

Relay (volt-free): The signal from the PLC operates a relay within the
output module connecting the control voltage to the output port and
hence to the actuator.

Internal relay
Contact

Common
Port

Output Port

Control
Voltage (+)

Solenoid
Fig 3 PLC Relay Output
Transistor: A transistor is used to switch on the output. This is faster
than a relay output but is only suitable for low power direct current
applications.

Triac: This solid state device is used for switching alternating current
devices. It requires some form of over current protection.

1.3 History of PLC

4
The Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) was conceived by Dick
Morley on January 1, 1968. Mr. Morley's PLC, which at the time was
called a PC for Programmable Controller and later, after the
introduction of the Personal Computer (PC) changed the name to PLC,
was produced by his company called Modicon. Modicon stands for
MOdular Digital CONtroller.
The first PLC was designed to meet the specifications layed out by the
Hydramatics Division of General Motors (GM). The primary goal of the
design was to eliminate the extremely high cost involved with
electromechancial relay switching circuits and the lack of flexiblity
associated with these 'hardwired' circuits. Anyone who is old enough
to remember American cars during the 1950's and 1960's knows that
the styles and options of the cars during this era changed with every
model

year.

manufacturers

These
had

changes
to

retool

meant
their

that

every

factories

and

year

the

make

car

major

modifications to the automated assembly lines. These changes

required weeks of work by teams of engineers, technicians and
electricians to rewire the relay control logic and possibly weeks more
to troubleshoot and eliminate wiring errors; a very costly venture.
The specifications that GM layed out were:
1. The controller had to be solid-state.

5
2. The system had to have the flexibility of a computer system.
3. Controllers had to be capable of surviving an industrial
environment.
4. Programming had to be easy and be able to be maintained by
plant electricians.
5. The system had to be reusable.
6. Pricing had to be competitive with relay control systems.
7. Input and Output (I/O) interfaces had to be easily replaceable.
8. A modular design had to be used so that subassemblies could
be easily removed, replaced and repaired.
9. Manufacturing data needs to be collected and passed on to a
central computing system.
10.

The method of programming should be in the form of

relay ladder logic, a method that plant electricians, engineers

and technicians were already familiar with.

The first PLC was installed at General Motors Oldsmobile plant and
at the Lanids Company in Landis, Pennsylvania in 1970.

The initial intent of the PLC was to be a reusable, reprogrammable

relay replacer. In order for the PLC to be accepted into industry it
had to be marketed as a new form of mechanical relay, timer and

6
counter. Industry is always concerned with reliability and had the
PLC been marketed as a computer industry would have been very
reluctant to incorporate them. Presently, the PLC industry is and
has been attempting to move away from relay ladder logic
programming, but it is finding it difficult to do so as a result of this
early marketing strategy.

Since the first PLC was installed in the early '70s they have become
much more than simply a relay replacer. Applications for PLCs has
extended to a very broad range of manufacturers of all types of
products. Users are demanding more features to be added such as:

Subroutines being added to the language.

Perform complex math functions.

include data handling capabilities

Programmers should be able to program and handle interrupts.

analog I/O needs to be accepted, processed and output.

The Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) function needs to be

included for process control.

Control should be distributed.

Communications should be capable between other PLCs,

computers and devices on a network.

7
One problem with adding these new functions and features is that
PLC manufacturers have always had proprietary designs with
proprietary networks making it next to impossible to communicate
with equipment manufactured by various vendors and because the
networks were proprietary, PLCs from different vendors could not talk
to each other.

The 1980's saw a shift away from the proprietary systems and PLCs,
PCs and other equipment started to be capable of working together as
a single unit. GM was again a leader in standardization and developed
a

communications

standard

called

Manufacturing

Automation

Protocol (MAP). The industry was also reducing the size of PLCs and
today some of them are the size of a cigarette pack.
A continuation toward standardization was seen in the 1990s when
the International Electrical Commission standard IEC 1131-3 was
established to standardize the programming languages. The standard
was later changed to IEC 61131. Also during this decade subnetworks such as ControlNet, DeviceNet and Foundation Fieldbus
were introduced that further extended the distributive control features
and allowed for different vendors to coexist on the same sub-network.
It is difficult to predict the future of PLCs, but with the advent of
Programmable Automation Controllers (PACs) in the 21st century it is

8
easy to imagine that PLC/PACs will be approaching PCs in short
order. PACs can be programmed using a variety of languages from
relay ladder logic, sequential function chart, block diagram and
structured text to C++ and Java or a mixture of all. Internet is fast
becoming the network of choice and the Internet/IP protocol is already
a standard. Many of the networks are becoming wireless and selfhealing. The future is without bound and PLC/PACs development will
surely move forward at an ever increasing rate.

1.4 Todays Programmable Controllers:Many technological advances in the programmable controller industry
continue today. And these have led to many hardware (physical
components) and software (control program) upgrades.
The following list describes some recent hardware and software
enhancements: Faster scan times are being achieved using new, advanced
microprocessor and electronic technology.
Small, low-cost PLCs, which can replace four to ten relays, now have
more power than their Predecessor, the simple relay replacer.
Mechanical design improvements have included rugged input/output
enclosure and input/output systems that have made the terminal an
integral unit.

9
High-density input/output (I/O) systems provide space-efficient
interfaces at low cost.

Figure 4 PLC system with high density I/O (64 point nodules)

Intelligent, microprocessor-based I/O interfaces have expanded

distributed processing. Typical interfaces include PID (proportional integral-derivative), network, CANbus, fieldbus, ASCII communication,
positioning, host computer, and language modules (e.g., BASIC,
Pascal).
Special interfaces have allowed certain devices to be connected
directly to the controller. Typical interfaces include thermocouples,
strain gauges, and fast-response inputs.
Small PLCs have been provided with powerful instructions, which
extend the area application for these small controllers.

10
High-level languages, such as BASIC and C, have been implemented
in some controllers modules to provide greater programming flexibility
when communicating with peripheral devices and manipulating data.
Advanced functional block instructions have been implemented for
ladder diagram instruction sets to provide enhanced software
capability using simple programming commands.
Diagnostics and fault detection have been expanded from simple
system diagnostics, which diagnose controller malfunctions, to include
machine diagnostics, which diagnose failures or malfunctions of the
controlled machine or process.
Floating-point math has made it possible to perform complex
calculations in control applications that require gauging, balancing,
and statistical computation.

11

A. LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Lan-Hua Wang, Yao-Ming Chu, and Yung-Dian Wang: The

purpose of this study was to introduce an activity of using the
computerized ladder diagrams on the learning of programmable logic
controller (PLC). A PLC is a user-friendly, microcontroller-based,
specialized computational device that can carry out control functions.
The advantages of PLC make it the brain of modern industrial control
systems. For this reason, learning PLC operations is integral for
modern industrial technologists. The goal of the intermediate
representation is to help the user gain an in-depth understanding of
the problem quickly. In the case of PLCs, the intermediate
representation helps identify and classify the system elements, and
enables grouping them into sub-problems amenable to solution.
2.

Sheila Mahapatra, Aman Jain, and Divyanshu Singh: The

correct incentive for applying automation is to increase productivity

and quality that is possible with current human labour levels so as to
realize economies of scale and realize predictable quality levels. This is

12
possible when a PLC is used. The main aim in this process is to apply
PLC to design Automation system and all objectives in this project
were successfully done as planned. Finally, the basic control system
and logic design application can be used as a reference to design other
applications of automation system, and can also be used as a teaching
material for the Industrial Control subject. Besides using PLC as a
controller, the other controller that can be used in future work is
microcontroller. However, many factors must be considered like cost,
feasibility and others.
3.

Maha

M.

Lashin:

PLC

has

the

ability

to

arrange

the

inputs/outputs. It has low cost compared with microcontroller

systems because using PLC in different applications only required to
change the software for each application but in case of using
microcontroller the hardware components itself must be changed with
different applications. Ladder Diagram programming method used for
PLCs units which used in these two applications .Two applications
had been introduced PLC as a new application of this control system
in the sprayings robot and glass washing robot gave a good results.
PLC most easier and safe control system for industrial applications
like robot.
4. Bo LI, Hai ZHAO, and Chun-He SONG: An approach to design
and implement the control function of LD (Ladder Diagram) in the

13
hydropower simulation system based on all paths searching algorithm
is proposed in this paper. LD is widely used as a programming
language for PLC (Programmable Logic Controller), but it doesnt be
executed automatically in the hydropower simulation system which is
a software system, and there is no compiler or interpretation for LD in
it. A method to design an interface for LD is presented with typical
class diagrams and the graphical interface, then an algorithm is
proposed

to

implement

the

control

function

of

LD

through

transforming LD to an undigraph and search all the paths between

LW and NL. The application example and the analysis verify the
validity of the algorithm. The running time is shown at last, it proves
that the LD system with the algorithm can meet the real-time request
in the Hydropower simulation system.

5. Osama Mahfooz: In this research automation of water tank is

achieved by using inductive proximity sensors (type PNP) in order to
set a low level and high level inside the tank. A PLC is used to
automate the process and in order to simplify the programming
process it was programmed by Ladder Logic. The process can also be
implemented in Industries as Ladder logic is simple and user friendly.

14
From all the above review it can be stated that Ladder logic is used in
various industrial applications and it is one of the most preferable
PLC programming language as it is user friendly. In this project I had
used the Ladder logic to programme industrial applications like
Continuous bottling system, Elevators etc

Chapter 2
PLC PROGRAMMMING

As PLCs have developed and expanded, programming languages have

developed with them. Programming languages allow the user to enter
a control program into a PLC using an established syntax. Todays
advanced languages have new, more versatile instructions, which
initiate control program actions. These new instructions provide more

15
computing power for single operations performed by the instruction
itself.
In addition to new programming instructions, the development of
powerful I/O modules has also changed existing instructions. These
changes include the ability to send data to and obtain data from
modules by addressing the modules locations. For example, PLCs can
now read and write data to and from analog modules. All of these
advances, in conjunction with projected industry needs, have created
a demand for more powerful instructions that allow easier, more
compact, function-oriented PLC programs.
The three types of programming languages used in PLCs are: Ladder
Boolean
Grafcet
The ladder and Boolean languages essentially implement operations in
the same way, but they differ in the way their instructions are
represented and how they are entered into the PLC. The Grafcet
language implements control instructions in a different manner, based
on steps and actions in a graphic oriented program.

16
2.1 PLC Ladder Programming
A very commonly used method of programming PLCs is based on the
use of ladder diagrams. Writing a program is then equivalent to
drawing a switching circuit. The ladder diagram consists of two
vertical lines representing the power rails. Circuits are connected as
horizontal lines, i.e., the rungs of the ladder, between these two
verticals.
In drawing a ladder diagram, certain conventions are adopted:
1. The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails

between which circuits are connected. The power flow is taken

to be from the left-hand vertical across a rung.
2. Each rung on the ladder defines one operation in the control

process.
3. A ladder diagram is read from left to right and from top to

bottom, Figure 2.1 showing the scanning motion employed by

the PLC. The top rung is read from left to right. Then the
second rung down is read from left to right and so on.

17

Power flow
Right power rail

Left power rail

Rung 1
Rung 2
Rung 3
Rung 4

END

End rung

Fig 5 Scanning the ladder program

When the PLC is in its run mode, it goes through the entire
ladder program to the end, the end rung of the program being
clearly denoted, and then promptly resumes at the start. This
procedure of going through all the rungs of the program is
termed a cycle. The end rung might be indicated by a block with
the word END or RET for return, since the program promptly
returns to its beginning.
4. Each rung must start with an input or inputs and must end

with at least one output. The term input is used for a control
action, such as closing the contacts of a switch, used as an
input to the PLC. The term output is used for a device
connected to the output of a PLC, e.g., a motor.

18
5. Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition. Thus a

switch, which is normally open until some object closes it, is

shown as open on the ladder diagram. A switch that is normally
closed is shown closed.
6. A particular device can appear in more than one rung of a

ladder. For example, we might have a relay that switches on one

or more devices. The same letters and/or numbers are used to
label the device in each situation.
7. The inputs and outputs are all identified by their addresses, the

notation used depending on the PLC manufacturer. This is the

address of the input or output in the memory of the PLC.
Figure 2.2 shows standard IEC 1131-3 symbols that are used for
input and output devices. Some slight variations occur between the
symbols when used in semi-graphic form and when in full graphic.
Note that inputs are represented by different symbols representing
normally open or normally closed contacts. The action of the input is
equivalent to opening or closing a switch. Output coils are represented
by just one form of symbol.
To illustrate the drawing of the rung of a ladder diagram, consider a
situation where the energizing of an output device, such as a motor,
depends on a normally open start switch being activated by being

19
closed. The input is thus the switch and the output the motor. Figure
2.3a shows the ladder diagram.
Starting with the input, we have the normally open symbol jj for the
input contacts. There are no other input devices and the line
terminates with the output, denoted by the symbol ( ). When the
switch is closed, i.e., there is an input, the output of the motor is
activated. Only while there is an input to the contacts is there an
output. If there had been a normally closed switch j/j with the output
(Figure 2.3b), then there would have been an output until that switch
was opened. Only while there is no input to the contacts is there an
output.

Semi-graphic form
form

A horizontal link along which power can flow

Interconnection of horizontal and vertical power
flows

Left-hand power connection of a ladder rung

Right hand power connection of a ladder rung
Normally open contact
Normally closed contact

full graphic

20
Output coil: if the power flow to it is on then the
coil state is on
Fig 6 Basic symbols

Input

Output

Input
Output

(a)
Input

Output

Input
Output

(b)

Fig 7 A ladder rung

In drawing ladder diagrams the names of the associated variable or
addresses of each element are appended to its symbol. Thus Figure
11.6 shows how the ladder diagram of Figure 2.3a would appear using
(a) Mitsubishi, (b) Siemens, (c) Allen-Bradley,
(d) Telemecanique notations for the addresses. Thus, Figure 11.6a
indicates that this rung of the ladder program has an input from
address X400 and an output to address Y430. When wiring up the
inputs and outputs to the PLC, the relevant ones must be connected
to the input and output terminals with these addresses.

Input Output
X400

Y430

Input Output
I0.0

Q2.0

21
(a)
Input

(b)
Output

Inpu

Output

O0,0

I0,0
I:001/01

O:010/01

(c)

(d)

Fig 8 Notation: (a) Mitsubishi (b) Siemens (c) Allen-Bradley

(d) Telemecanique

2.2 Ladder Symbols

One method of entering the program into the programming terminal
involves using a keypad having keys with symbols depicting the
various elements of the ladder diagram and keying them in so that the
ladder diagram appears on the screen of the programming terminal.
For example, to enter a pair of contacts the key marked:

might be used, followed by its address being keyed in. To enter an

output the key marked:

22
might be used, followed by its address. To indicate the start of a
junction:

might be pressed; to indicate the end of a junction path:

To indicate horizontal circuit links, the following key might be used:

The terminal then translates the program drawn on the screen into
machine language.
Computers can be used to draw up a ladder program. These involve
loading the computer with the relevant software, e.g., RSLogix from
Rockwell Automation Inc. for Allen-Bradley PLCs, MELSOFT GX
Developer for Mitsubishi PLCs, STEP 7 Micro/WIN V4 for Siemens
PLCs. The software operates on the Windows operating system and
involves selecting items, in the usual Windows manner, from pulldown menus on the screen.

23

Chapter 3

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF LADDER LOGIC

3.1. Continuous bottle filling system

This is one of the important application of PLC in the

bottle filling industry where we want our bottles, which are moving
on the conveyor belt, to be automatically detected at the

24
appropriate position and get it filled by any desired liquid and also
after getting filled the queued bottle gets chance to be filled. If this
whole process is carried out manually it will really take a long time
and also the quantities will be quite lesser. So PLC becomes
requisite controller for these types of industry.
Here also just a small demonstration of the process was
performed with the help of PLC where a ladder diagram was
created to control the process and the ladder diagram was run the
PLC trainer kit to see its justification.
Objective
We will implement a control program that detects the position of a
bottle via a limit switch then waits for 0.5 secs, and then fills the
bottle until a photodetector detects the filled condition of the bottle.
After the bottle is filled ,the buzzer sounds and
program

the control

will again wait for 0.7 secs. before moving to the next

bottle .Until the limit switch signals ,the feed motor,M1 runs while
there are fixed rollers which carries the filled bottles. Motor,M2
keeps running after the process has been started.

25

Fig 9 Bottle filling system

Inputs

address

Outputs

address

Start

I0:15

Feed motor(M1)

O0:15

Stop

I1:15

Outfeed motor(M2)

O1:15

Limit

I2:15

Solenoid valve(S1)

O2:15

Light(L1)

O3:15

Buzzer(B1)

O4:15

switch(LS)
Photo

I3:15

detector(PE)

TABLE: Inputs and outputs employed

Ladder diagram

26

Fig 10 ladder diagram for bottle filling system

Observation
Once the start button is pressed the green light (L1) turns ON
and remains ON until stop button is pressed. As light turns ON
out feed motor(M2) starts running. After M2 runs and if either
limit switch (LS) has not signaled or filled bottle condition is
fulfilled motor(M1) starts. After limit switch has signalled
timer,T1 gets activated. After T1 gives done (DN) signal and
photo eye detector (PE) is disabled, solenoid valve gets in
operation. As PE signals solenoid stops and buzzer (B1) sounds
after which timer,T2 gets enabled which stops the process for

27
0.7 seconds. Once the filled bottle condition is activated the
cycle starts again.
The ladder diagram was successfully checked in the PLC
simulator and all the prescribed conditions were observed
completely.

28
3.2. Batch mixing system

This is another commonly applied application of PLC where

two liquids are mixed in required proportion to form a batch .Rate
of the flow is already fixed. We only control the time of the flow.
Level of the liquids in the tank are sensed by the level sensor
switches
Objective
We try a simple blending of water and acid in a container where we
only have three level sensors(L1,L2, and L3) and two liquids flowing
in through two solenoid valves, solenoid a(water control) and
solenoid b(acid control)and draining out through solenoid c(blend
outflow).The batch is to be controlled by timer. After required level
of blend is sensed (by L1)the mixer runs for 3 mins. by the motor.
They are mixed in ratio of 3:2. The process initiates with the drain
valve open, water and acid valves closed, mixer motor is off, and the
tank is empty.

29

Fig 11 Batch mixing system

Ladder diagram

30

31
Fig 12 Ladder diagram for batch mixing system
Observation
When start button is pressed water is filled up to L2 and it ends as
L2 is closed. First of all as start is pressed output O: 0/15 turns
ON and remains ON until tank is emptied. Rung 2 closes normally
open drain valve, before timer T: 4 activates. Rung 3 energises
solenoid a until L2 doesnt signal, once it signals solenoid a gets deenergised. Then motor is turned ON and mix it for 3 mins.
Similarly acid is filled upto L3 by solenoid b.as level gets detected by
L3 solenoid b de-energises .And then mixer gets started and it runs
for 3 minutes. After time delay of 3 mins solenoid c opens and the
blend gets drained out .Once the blend gets out completely, the
process cycle restarts.
The ladder diagram was successfully checked in the PLC simulator
and all the prescribed conditions were observed completely.

32

3.3. 3 -stage air conditioning system

A simple air conditioner consists of a single air

compressor motor which gets switched off when temperature of the
space being controlled falls below the setting on the thermostat.
Thermostats are provided with a differential setting to avoid on and
off of the compressor motor. The three stage air conditioning
system helps in conservation of electrical power.

33
Objective
There are two motors compressors in the system. One is of low
horsepower and other one is of high horsepower rating. These
motors are designated as C1 and C2 in the case. The system is
installed in a hall to maintain the temperature between 20 0C-240C
depending on the number of viewers in the hall and the
atmospheric temperature.
The motors of C1 and C2 are run on three conditions of the
thermostats. The three conditions described below are also the
control requirements of the air conditioning system:1. Compressor 1 and compressor 2 should turn on when the
temp of the hall is above 280C.
2. Only compressor 2 should turned on when the temp of the
hall is above 240C and below 280C.
3. Only compressor 1 is turned on when the temp. is above 20 0C
and below 240C.
A pre- condition for running any compressor is that chilling water flow
switch FS1 should be closed. Chilling water flow necessary to take
away heat from the compressed cooling water.

34
Three thermostat with different settings are used for the control of
compressor motor running in three different stages described
above. The three thermostats T1, T2, T3, are set at temp 20 0C, 240C
and 280C respectively.
The control of three stages with three the thermostats and Flow
switch (FS1) of air conditioning system can be understood from the
control circuit shown in fig.4.5.
The start push button, stop push button and overload contacts for
compressor motor have not been shown in the circuit for sake of
simplicity.

Working of the control circuit:(1) When chilled water flow is maintained, flow switch FS1 will
actuate and close its contacts. Closing of contact FS1 causes
application of high logic signal to terminal 2 of all gates.

35

Fig 13 logic control circuit for 3 stage air conditioning system

(2) When the temperature in the cinema hall will be above 28 0C

the contacts of all the thermostat will be closed. Closed

contact of T1 will give a high input to terminal 1 of AND1 but
closed contact of T2 will give low logic to terminal 3 of AND1
as there is a not gate in series. The output of AND1, therefore
becomes low.
(3) Closed contact of T3 will give a high input to terminal 1 of

AND2 while the other terminal 2

is already high due to

closure of FS1 AND2 thus gives a high output which is

applied

to

both

OR1

and

OR2,as

each

terminal

of

OR1andOR2 is now high, their output is also high. Output

from OR1 leads to energisation of contactor C1 and output
from OR2 leads to energisation of contactor C2 through their

36
respective amplifiers. Thus compressor 1 and 2 will run when
temp in the hall will above 280C.
(4) When the hall temp. is below 28 0C and above 240C, contact

of thermostat T3 will open, While contacts of T 1andT 2 are

closed.

Due to open contact of T3 there is low signal at

terminal 1 of AND2 and therefore its output is low. Output of

AND1 is also low as closed Contact of T2 gives a low signal at
terminal 3 due to a not gate in series, in this case AND3 Will
have a high output as its input terminal1 has high signal
from the closed contact of Thermostat T2,it is to be noted
that supply to terminal1 of AND3 is taken prior to the NOT
Gate. High output from AND3 goes to terminal 2 of OR2
which then gives a high output.

This output energises

contactor C2 through the amplifier. Thus compressor 2 will

run only when the temperature is above 24 0C but below
280C.
(5) When the temp. falls below 240C contact of thermostat T2

opens and output of AND3 will Go low due to a low signal in

its input terminal the open contact of T2 will however give a
high signal to terminal 3 of AND 1 (due to not gate in series),
It will get switched on as its terminal 1 and2 are already
high. The high output from and1 then goes to terminal 1 of

37
or1 which then gives a high output to energise contactor
C1.thus one compressor will run when temp. Is below 24 0C
but above 200C. When temp. Falls below 200C, contact of
thermostat T1 also opens and terminal 1 of AND1 goes low
and it is switched off .Thus Compressor 1 also stops when
temp. Falls below 200C.
(6) Compressor 1 continues to run if temp. In the hall remains

200C -240C, if due to more viewers in the hall, compressor 1

is unable to maintain, temp. Below 240C. Compressor 1 will
be switched off. If the load is still more and compressor 2
alone cannot cope up and temp. Goes above 280C then
compressor 1 will also start to bring down the temperature.

38
Ladder diagram:-

Fig 14 Ladder diagram for 3 stage air conditioning system

Observation:The ladder diagram was satisfactorily realized in the lab and all the
conditions were tested .The outputs are same as expected

39

Chapter 4
CONCLUSION

The implementation of the PLC was carried out effectively for various
industrial applications. It proves to be one of the important controller
in industries for its simplicity and robustness and is used all over the
world. For any control design approach understandings of the desired
control system and how to use the ladder diagram to translate the
machine sequence of operation are the most important parts, because
it has direct effect on the system performance.
PLCs are very good for controlling outputs based on the inputs. They
are amazingly robust and are able to withstand all sorts of difficult
conditions such as extreme temperature or dust in the air. They even
last for a very long period. They dont have contacts that wear out, like
relays do. They also can switch fairly quickly without much heating in

40
direct contrast to relays. For any application we need not to change
the whole structure only different program has to be embedded as like
any other programmable devices. Compared to relays PLCs are almost
always a better choice.
On the downside it could be observed that PLCs are not very good at
handling large amount of data, or complex data. Computers are better
for those tasks.PLCs are also not very good with databases or
displaying data. Lack of standardization is also one of the major
disadvantage of the PLC. This causes much confusion if the PLC used
for an application is replaced by one from a different manufacturer, or
if a PLC programmer is replaced by a person with a different
understanding of PLC programming.
In the bottle filling system, only one limit switch was used to detect
the position of the bottle. This process has become quite obsolete,
instead IR sensor can be used. It is better to add more sensors in this
system like a flow sensor to detect water flow or use level sensor to
detect water level. Thus, the system will be more sensitive as there will
be more sensing points Besides using PLC as controller, the other
controller can be used in this future work is like Microcontroller.
However, many factors must be considered like cost, practically and
others. Talking about the control of dc motor, it is important for the
machine designer to be very familiar with various methods of

41
controlling ac and dc motor. These range from the simple motor
starter to the sophisticated pulse width modulated (PWM) dc motor
controls. The pulse width modulator (PWM) system is capable of
efficiently controlling the speed of a dc motor by controlling the
average armature voltage of the motor.

REFERENCES

[1] Ho JM, Juang FC, A practical PWM inverter control circuitry for
induction heating and studying of the performances under load
variations, Industrial Electronics Proceedings, IEEE International
Symposium on ,-10 Jul 1998.

42
[2] Kwon Y, Yoo S, Hyun D, Half-bridge series resonant inverter for
induction

heating

applications

with

load-adaptive

PFM

control

strategy, Applied Power Electronics Conference And Exposition, 14-18

Mar 1999; 1:575 -581.
[3.]L. A. Bryan, E. A. Bryan, Programmable controllers: theory and
Implementation, 2nd ed., ISBN 0-944107-32-X, Industrial Text
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[4.]"Programmable

Logic

Controllers

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2002

Keyence

Corporation.
http://world.keyence.com/products/programmable_logic_controllers/
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[5]S. K. Bhattacharya and Brijinder Singh,Control of electrical
machines
[6.]M. H. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications.
2"" Ed, Prentice-Halllnc., 1993.
[7.]W. Bolton, Programmable Logic Controllers, Fourth Edition,
ISBN-10: 0-7506-8112-8, Elsevier Newnes, 2006.

43
[8.]Espi JM, Navarro AE, Maicas J, Ejea J, Casans S, Control circuit
design of the L-LC resonant inverter for induction heating, IEEE
Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 2000, 3: 1430-5
[9].Programmable

Logic

applications-Prentice Hall

Controllers

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and