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Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering
Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering
Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering
valves. This measure proves to be costly as treated water is thrown to waste and it also
requires careful attendance and operation of the scour valves.
(iii)The water available for fire fighting will be limited in.quantity as the discharge, from
mains is also limited. This may prove to be serious in some cases.
Use:
The dead end system of layout is adopted in localities which arc expanding irregularly. The
water pipes are laid at random.Without any planning of future roads.
(2) Grid-iron method:
This is also known at interlaced system or reticulation system. The mains, sub-mains and
branches are interconnected with each other as shown in fig 14-7.
In case of repairs, a very small portion of the distribution area will be affected.
There is free circulation of water and hence, it is not liable for pollution due to stagnation.
iii) The water is delivered at every point of distribution system with minimum loss of head.
iv)When a fire occurs, plenty of water is available for fire fighting purpose and by
manipulating the cut-off valves, whole supply of water may be concentrated for this purpose.
Disadvantages
(i)The cost of laying water pipes is more.
(ii)The grid-iron system of layout requires longer lengths of pipes
(iii)The procedure for calculating sizes of pipes, and for working out pressures at various
points in the distribution system is laborius,complicated and difficult.
(iv)The valves required in this system are more in number and in fact, four valves are to be
installed at every cross junction.
Use:
The grid-iron system of layout is more suitable for towns having well-plane, roads and
streets. However, the principle of grid-iron system can be applied. to dead-end system of
layout by removing dead-ends as shown by dotted line in fig. 14-6.
(3) Circular method:
This is also known as ring system and a ring of mains is formed around the distribution area
as shown in fig. 14-8.
This system possesses advantages and disadvantages as those of grid-iron system. The
distribution area is divided into rectangular or circular blocks and the water mains are laid on
the periphery of these blocks. The ring system of layout is most suitable for towns having
well-planned roads and streets.
Wastage of water :
A considerable amount of filtered water is wasted rather than invested mainly because of the
following two reasons:
(1)By carelessness of consumers
(2)By leakage through pipe joints.
In order to ascertain 'the amount of wastage of water, the waste water surveys are carried out.
If wastage of water is brought down to the minimum possible extent, it results is increased
supply of water to the consumers and it also helps in the reduction of cost of treated water.
Waste water surveys: .
To carry out waste water surveys, a certain area of the locality is isolated from the rest by
proper manipulation of valves.The flow of water through pipes is then recorded and the
results thus obtained are suitably analysed.If wastage of water is found to be excessive,the
area is further
Business or trade purposes
Some trades such as dairies, hotels, laundries, motor garages, restaurants, stables, etc. require
a large quantity of water. Such trades are to be maintained in hygienic conditions and
sanitation of such places should be strictly Insisted. The number of such business centres will
depend upon the population and for a moderate city, an average Value of about 15 to 25 litres
per head per day may be taken as water requirement for this purpose.
(5) Loss and waste:
The quantity of water required under this category is sometimes termed as unaccounted
requirement.It includes careless- use of water, leakage in mains, valves, other fittings,
etc.,unauthorised water connections and waste due to other miscellaneous reasons. The
quantity of water lost due to all these reasons is uncertain and cannot be effectively
predicted. However, for the purpose of calculating the average rate of demand, it may be
estimated to be about 30 to 40 per cent of per capita consumption.If the distribution of water
is entirely through metres only and if the distribution system is well-maintained, it is possible
to bring down the percentage of unaccounted water to the extent of about 10 to 15.
Problem 2.
Work out the role of demand of water for at average Indian city.Make your own
assumptions,where necessary.
.Solution:
Total requirement of water for various purposes is worked out separately as under;
Purpose
Litres/h cad/day
(I) Domestic purposes:
Drinking ...................................................................................... 2
Gooking........................................................................................ 5
Bathing.......................................................................................... 35
Washing hands, face, etc. 8
Household sanitary purposes............................................ 50
Purpose Litres/head/day
Civic or public purposes:
Road washing ...........................5
Sanitation purposes .....,.................................................................. 3
Ornamental purposes... .................................................................... 1
demand............................................................................................ 1
Industrial purposes:
Moderate factories............................................................................50
Business or trade purposes:
Dairies, hotels, etc............................................................................15
Loss and waste :
Assumed as....................................................................................... 75
Grand total... .250
For average Indian towns, per capita consumption of water per day varies from 150 to 300
litres. It is to be noted that there is a big gap between urban and rural water consumption per
capita because of obvious reasons such as absence of industrial units,lack of commercial
activities etc.It is estimated that the worlds average urban water consumption per capita is
150 litres per day or about 55 m 3 per year and that the world's average rural water
consumption per capita is only 50 litres per day or about 18m3 per year.
Factors affecting rate of demand :
There are various factors which influence the rate of demand of water. These factors art to be
analysed carefully properly before arriving at the rate of demand for particular locality.
Following are the factors affecting rate of demand:
Climatic conditions
Cost of water
Distribution pressure
Habits of population
Industries
Policy of metering
Quality of water
Sewerage
Size of city
System of supply
We will now briefly discuss each factor.
(1)Climatic conditions :
The requirement of water in summer is more than that in winter. So also is the case with
hotter and cooler places. In extreme cold, people may keep water taps open to avoid freezing
of pipes. This may result in increased rate of consumption.
(2)Distribution pressure:
The rate at which water is supplied to the consumers may also affect the rate of demand. The
higher the cost, the lower will be the rate of demand and vice versa.
(3) Distribution pressure:
The consumption of water increases with the increase in the distribution pressure. This is due
to increase in loss and waste of water at high pressure. For instance, an increase of pressure
from 2 to 3 kg/cm2 may lead to an increase in consumption to the extent of about 25 to 30 per
cent. .The designer therefore should only provide for distribution pressure which is necessary
for rendering satisfactory service.
(4)Habits of population:
For high-value premises, the consumption rate of water will be more due to better standard of
living of persons. For middle-class premises, the consumption rate will be average while in
case of slum areas, it will be much lower. A single water tap may be serving several families
in low-value areas.
[5) Industries:
The presence or absence of industries in a city may also affect its rate of demand. As there is
no direct relation between the water requirement for industries and popular tion, it is
necessary to calculate carefully present and future requirements of industries.
(6) Policy of metering:
The quantity of water supplied to a building is recorded by a water meter and the consumer is
then charged accordingly. The installation of meters reduces the rate of consumption. But the
fact of adopting policy of metering is a disputable one
as seen from the following arguments which are advanced for and against it.
Arguments for policy of metering;
(i) It becomes very easy to locate the points of leakage when meters are installed.
(ii) The consumer is charged in proportion to the quantity of water which he uses.
(iii) The reduction in consumption of water results in decrease in loads oh purification plants,
pumps, sewers, etc
(iv) Wastage of water is decreased.
(v) The careful consumer pays less and the careless consumer pays more.
(3)lt should be free from any inside projections which are likely to obstruct the passage of
flow of sewage.
(4) It should be of simple construction.
(5) It should possess adequate water seal to fulfill the purposes of its installation.
(6) It should possess self-cleansing property.
(7) The internal and external surfaces should be of smooth finish.
Types:
The traps are classified in the following two ways:
I. According to shape .
II. According to use.
Classification according to shape:
According to shape, the traps are of three types:
(1) P-trap
(2) Q-trap
(3) S-trap
1) P-trap:
This trap has the shape of letter P as shown in fig. 8-1.
The leg of trap are at right angles to each other
(2) Q-trap:
This trap has the shape of letter Q as shown in fig. 8-2. The legs of trap meet at_an_angle
other than-a right angle.
(3) S-trap:
This trap has the shape of letter S as shown in fig. 8-3.
The legs of trap are parallel.
Thus, the two legs of traps are at right angles, at an angles other than a right angle and
parallel to each other in traps P, Q and S respectively.
Classification according to use:
According to use, the traps arc of three types:
(1) Floor trap
(2) Gully trap
(3) Intercepting trap.
Floor trap:
A floor trap is made of cast-iron and it is provided at the points of entry of waste water in the
house. It will thus be placed in bath rooms, kitchen, sinks,etc. A floor trap forms the starting
point of waste water flow.A cover with grating is provided at its top as shown in fig. 8-4 so as
prevent the entry of solid matter. The cover can be removed for the cleaning of the trap. This
trap is also referred to as nahni trap.
Gully trap:
A gully trap is usually made of stoneware and a cast-iron grating is provided at its top. The
gully trap is fitted inside a masonry chamber as shown in fig. 8-5. A water seal of about 60
mm to 70 mm ir provided in the gully trap.
The gully trap forms the starting point of horizontal flow sewage. It is usually situated near
the external face of wall and it is kept slightly higher or even in line with pavement or ground
level. The gully trap leads the sewage either to sewer or to inspection chamber or to manhole.
A well designed gully trap may serve two or three connections from the nahni traps. But it is
advisable to provide separate gully traps for sullage and soil wastes. The top of gully trap
chamber is provided with a cover, usually of cast-iron, which may be taken out easily to clean
the trap.
Longitudinal Section
Horizontal Scale: lent = 4 m vertical Scale: lcm2m
Longitudinal section of house drain
Testing of drains and pipes:
After the house drains are laid and the pipes are fitted in position,it is necessary to ascertain
their water tightness. For this purpose,various tests are applied. The drains are usually tested
in sections between successive chambers and the vertical pipes are tested in groups,each
group having one common inspection chamber. Following are the tests which are commonly
employed:
(1) Air test
(2) Coloured-water test
(3) Hydraulic test:
(4) Smell test.
(5) Smoke test
(fj Air test:
Air test can be applied for_underground and vertical pipes. The particular section is selected
and plugs are provided at the upper and lower ends. Air is forced in the pipe by suitable
equipment such as a pump. Leaky joint are found out by applying soap solution. The escape
of air from leaky joints will form bubbles which are visible. These joints are then repaired.
Coloured water test:
When coloured-water is allowed to flow from one point to the other point of the drain, it will
come out through the leaky joints. Thus, leakage can be detected suitable remedies may be
applied to remove it from the joints.
Hydraulic test:
This is the most common test which applied for the water tightness of the underground
drains. The lower end is provided with a plug and at upper manhole,water is filled to a height
of about 60 cm to 90cm in case of house drains.Sweated joints are detected and repaired.
Smell test
This test is similar to air test. But in this case ,the air is mixed with some smelling gas which
can be easily recognized. Such air is allowed to pass through the drain. Escape of air from
leaky joints is detected by smell and such joints are then repaired.
Smoke test:
This test is similar to air test expect that smoke is introduced in the drains instead of air. The
test is generally applied for detecting leakage in existing drains.