2.2.

3 Induction transducers

The induction transducers operates on the electromagnetic induction principle, which are in
the form of embodiment of electrical generators or alternating with rotation or linear
movement. The induction transducers whose input size is the rotation angle are called
Tahogenerators.
( 2.1)
Fig. 2.2. DCt tahogenerator, operating scheme.

Electromotive force [V]

7,0
6,0

The output value of the transducer

electromotive force collected from the
brushes has a pulsating character, figure
2.3. Pulse amplitude is reduced by
increasing the number of parts of the rotor
winding and the number of pole pairs.

5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
0

1,57

3,14

4,71

6,28

The tahogenerators are built for nominal

speeds between
750 r / min and 2000 rev / min, have a
rated power of 75-1000 mW and a
linearity better than 1%. Emf is usually 530 V.

Rotation angle [rad]

The main drawback of the dc

tahogenerator is the collector, which
restricts operation at low speeds and is
the main element of the transducer
wear. For this reason the scope of use
of this type of sensor is limited.
Another alternative of the induction dc
current sensor is linear speed sensor,
Figure 2.4. At this,the idle running emf
is proportional to the speed of
movement to the mobile solenoid 2,
that is driven and moved through the connecting
rod 3 in the magnetic field of the permanent
magnet 1, the graph in Figure 2.5. Mechanically
coupling the connecting rod by a mechanical
system which is the subject of the measurement,it
is measured the linear velocity at the coupling
point.
AC tahogenerators, figure2.6, presents the
advantage that windings are fixed and the
Fig. 2.4. Linear speed transducer,
moving part consists of the permanent
functioning scheme.
magnets,where brushes and collectors are not
needed.
Fig. 2.3. DC tahogenerators, caracteristica de
tensiune le mersul n gol.

Tensiunea electromotoare [V]

For this reason the reliabilityis improved,we can

rise the measurement speed and reduce the
power required to drive. The impeller is made as
a permanent magnet with several pairs of poles,
and the stator is made of sheets provided with
notches in which the winding is inserted.
Increasing the number of poles reduces the
minimum speed when the output voltage
measurement is made with a moving coil
device. The minimum frequency value must be
4 to 10 Hz, depending on the degree of
damping of the measuring device.

Viteza [m/s]

Fig. 2.5. Traductorul de vitez liniar,

caracterstic de funciune n gol.

The linearity of the transducers drive speed and the value of the output signal is
obtained only sitting idle and gets worse with
decreasing load resistance Figure 2.7. The
phenomenon is explained by emphasizing the
voltage drop across the inductive component
and the internal impedance transducer current
with increasing frequency (speed). The three
curves correspond to the following values of
load resistance 10 k curve RA1, 2 k Ra2
curve;
0.5 k RA3 curve.
Another constructive way is the alternating
current
tahogenerator with separate arousel,
schematically shown in Figure 2.8, the (working schedule), and 2.8, b
equivalent circuit. In the case of this embodiment stator 1 has two windings
Fig. 2.6.Alternating current
tahogenerator

70
60
Tensiunea la bornele traductorului

A coil of excitation, supplied by an

audiofrequency oscillator with excitation
voltage Uex and a secondary winding at the
terminals from which is obtained the output
signal UO, in proportion to the angular
speed measured on the shaft 3 and a
core 5. The rotor 4, in the form of a glass
moves in electromagnetic field winding
excitation. Induced electromotive voltage
UO will have secondary frequency equal to
that of the excitation voltage Uex and
amplitude proportional to the angular speed
of the drive shaft . Tahogenerators which
operate after this principle have the
advantage of the expension of the
measuring zone in the low rotation zone.

50
40
30
20
10
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Viteza unghiular [rad/s]

Ra1

Ra2

Ra3

Fig. 2.7. Variation of emf on AC tachometer.

Fig. 2.8. AC tachogenerator, with separate excitation: a operating scheme; b

Equivalent circuit.

The calibration of the tachogenerators is done by measuring the angular velocity and
electromotive Uo in parallel . It thus determines the calibration curve of the transducer and
its transformations constant . Transducer is shown as generally the angular velocity in
particular be calibrated measuring chain.
To measure the angular velocity it must be selected the method and the equipment that
ensures the accuracy required for calibration . A precise and relatively simple method of
calibration is to use a strobe. It drives shaft angular rate sensor with a facility that allows
you to change the drive speed throughout the range of use of the transducer . Maintaining
a constant drive speed , will illuminate with stroboscopic lamp the tachogenerator shaft, or
another piece that rotates with the same angular velocity and changes the frequency of
the strobe lamp until the image appears linear. Between the frequency of the strobe lamp
and driving angular velocity of the transducer is the following dependency :
( 2.2)
= 2
str

where: is the angular velocity of the driving transducer ; vstr is the lighting stroboscope
frequency.
Simultaneously measures the output quantity value Uo of the transducer and it will be
determined the transducers constant calibrarion.
In the case of the induction transducers for the linear speed the calibration will be made
with the help of a vibration excitator who moves after a sinusoidal known law.The velocity
determined after an analitical way v , will be compared with with the output voltage Uo and
will determine de transducers constant calibration.

2.2.4 Inductive transducers

The inductive transducers are based on their functioning on their own inductive
variation of an iron core coil or on their mutual inductive variation,under the action of the
size to measure.On the constructive point of view, the following inductive transducers
are known: Inductive transducers with variable air gap,transformer type inductive
transducers, mobile core inductive transducers
Inductive transducers with variable air gap, schematically presented in figure 2.9,a,have a
fix core 1 in their componence on which we find a coil 2 and a mobile core 3 which it
moves in fron if the fix core under the action of the non-electrical measuring size.

Fig. 2.9. Inductive transducer with simple core: a) Operating scheme; b) Conversion
characteristic

The inductance L of the coil changes depending on the value of the air gap ,
giving a hyperbolic-shaped conversion characteristic as in Figure 2.9; b In this
case the value of inductance is given by:
N2
L=
[H],
( 2.3)
Rm
Where: N is the no.of turns; Rm reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
Reluctance can be expressed by the relationship:
R =
1
m

2
+=

f
9
4 10 f A f
Aa
l

[1/H] ,

( 2.4)

in which: lf is the length of the iron

circuit, in cm; -is the value of the air
gap, in cm; Af- sectional area of the iron
2
core, in cm ; Aa- area of the air gap,
2
in
cm ;
fthe iron cores relative permeability.
For small displacement of the air gap
=(0,1.....0,2)0 the transducers
characteristic is sufficient, deviation
from linearity being between
1%
and 5%.

Fig. 2.10. Traductorul inductiv, diferenial.

To improve the linearity and to improve the measuring domain it is used transducers
realized from the differential scheme, figure 2.10, which can be achieved by connecting
in bridge of two inductances.
The differential assembly coils have equal number of turns N1 = N2 = N,

they are placed in a deck loaded with an alternating voltage Ua

frequency f, typically 5 kHz. Ud voltage imbalance is obtained by the relationship:

U d k p U a R 2 L

( 2.5)

where: kp proportionality factor which depends on the measuring deck; Ua vaoltage

amplitude; R the resistance of the two arms of the
bridge; L inductance variation L, which is due to
changes in air gap ; is the angular frequency
of the supply voltage of the deck.
From the relation analisys (2.5) shows that
in the case of the differential inductive
transducers the sensivity doubles and the
linearity domain increases. n figure 2.11 it is
presented graphically the simple active
transducers characteristics along with the
static characteristic of the air gap inductive
transducer in the differential mount..
For obtaining an optimum between good
sensibility an linearity,the variation domain of
the air gap has to be limited on the domain
Fig. 2.11. The differential transducers
[o +/-(0,3.........0,4) o].
characteristics

Transformer type inductive transducer,have as sensible elements two wrappings

mounted on an iron core,which have a variable inductance under the action of a non
electrical force to be measured. The principle scheme of a such transducer is presented
in figure 2.12. Wrapping N1 is driven by an alternative voltage source Ua, and by the
displacement of the mobile armature of the transducer modifies the air gap ,
determining the apearance of a tension U e due to the magnetic induction phenomenon:
U e = kx n U a
( 2.6)
where: n=N1/N2 is the ratio of the no. of turns
of the 2 windings kx
coupling coefficient
whose value depends on the coeficientul
magnetic circuit construction of
the
systemand
the
size
of
measure
The main advantage of the transformer type
induction transducers relies in the fact that it
supplies directly on the output an alternative
voltage,without being necessary to introduce
the transducers in a measuring circuit
separately.
Fig. 2.12. Transformer

type
inductive transducer.

Mobile core inductive transducers: in a simple way, figure 2.13, it is made from a
coil 1 in which interior is moving a ferromagnetic core 2 under the measuring size
action. Variation of the inductance L displacement x is represented by the graph in Figure
2.14. It appears that it is nonlinear. Also at this type of transducer an attraction force is exerted
on the core..

Fig. 2.13. Mobile core inductive

transducers

Fig. 2.14. mobile core inductive transducers

characteristics

The differential inductive mobile cell core variant, Figure 2.15, significantly improves the
performance with respect to sensitivity and linearity and eliminates the parasitic magnetic
forces drawback.

Fig. 2.15. Traductorul inductiv cu miez mobil i bobine difereniale.

The sensitive element of the transducer is composed of two coils L1 and L2, with
different winding directions and are connected to a bridge supply high frequency current.
As a result of the input size variation it produces x displacementof x-input of the mobile
core 1, resulting in changes of the two inductors in the opposite direction, in accordance
with the curves L1 and L2 in the diagram of figure 2.15. The transducers inductance L
results as the algebraic sum of the two inductances. It notes that the linearity is
considerably increased, occupying a central symmetric position with respect to the
mobile core. Depending on the characteristics of the inductive transducers and the
mobile core coil may be used for measuring the differential displacement between tenths
of a mm up to hundreds of mm. The inductive transducer with mobile core differential
transformer type, Figure 2.16, to be used as linear or angular displacement transducer.
By changing the mobile core position changes the coupling factor of the transformer
primary and
its secondary. Supplying the mayor AC pulsation in
will be induced secondary voltages U01 and U02, which can be represented by
rotating vectors as shown in Figure 2.16, b Electomotive voltage across the secondary
U0 is calculated

Fig. 2.16. Differential transformer.

sum voltages U01 and U02 in both the secondarys windings. At their turn this
will depend on factors coupler M1 and M2,
corresponding to a certain position of the
mobile core, and is expressed by a relationship
of the form:
di p
U 02 = M 2 di p
( 2.7)
U 01 = M 1
;
.
dt
dt
The
output voltage of the transducer
depends on the mobile cores position, due to coupling
factor changing, the middle position corresponding a
zero voltage.
U = (M M 2 di p
1
U 0 = U 01 02
( 2.8)
) .
dt
Fig.2.17.Differential transformer feature.According to the conversion characteristic of the
differential transformer, Figure 2.17, the linearity of this is included between xmin and
xmax values of the measured quantity being symmetrically in relation to the median
position. For the race transducers, the usual values of the measuring range with an error

Maximum non-linearityof 5% is (from 0.10 to 80 mm) and for the angular displacement
of 60 . Excitation winding of the transducer is supplied with voltages 3-15 V at
frequencies from 50-20000 Hz. Low frequencies are used for measuring linear and angular
displacements with slow variation in time, and the highest for those with rapid variation in
time because with increasing power frequency
improves the frequency response of the transducer.

Fig. 2.18. The chain measuring with differential transformer scheme

The differential transformer 1 , works on the principle of the carrier wave modulating
equipment and it connects in the measuring scheme similar with that in Figure 2.18,
which include: AC amplifier 2.demodulator 3; filter 4 and voltmeter 5.The output size
form the filter is the wrapping of the modulated carrier wave In Table 2.5 are presented
the main characteristics of inductive transducers manufactured by Hottinger Baldwin FR
Germany.
Tabelul 2.5
Tipul

Modelul

WAT

cu palpator

WAL

WET

cu palpator

W1EL/0

WI

cu palpator

WE

Domeniu de
msurare [mm]
0...2 0...100
0...2 0...500
+/-1; +/-5
+/-1
2; 5; 10;
10; 20; 50; 100

Tipul
legturii
jumtate de
punte i punte
ntreag
jumtate de
punte i punte
ntreag
jumtate de
punte
jumtate de
punte
jumtate de
punte
jumtate de
punte i punte
ntreag

Sensibilitatea
[mV/V]
+ 80

Abaterea de la
liniaritate [%]
+/-0,2 la +/-0,1

Clasa de
protecie
IP67(IP54)

+ 80

+/-0,2 la +/-0,1

IP67(IP54)

+/-10

<0,3/0,9

IP64

+/-80

+/-0,2

IP20

+/-40

+/-0,2

IP67

+ 80

+/-0,2

IP67(IP54)

Inductive transducer calibration is done on special devices for measuring

linear or angular displacements with the precision required. . Engaging the inductive
transducer to measure the size of the device output power corresponding to each value
of the displacement, point by point, the entire calibration curve. Adjusting the conversion
constant can be done by changing the supply voltage of the transmitter without
exceeding the limit of the impure heating condition.

2.2.5 Potentiometric transducers

Potentiometric sensor consists of an electrical resistance uniformly distributed on a
support along which one cursor can slide in perfect contact with the resistance.The
transducers cursor is mechanically coupled in the measuring object, which by its
action , modifies its position. The transducer input value can be a linear or an angle
displacement.
The necessary conditions for a potentiometer to be used as a transducer are its resistivity
to be as evenly distributed along the resistant element, resistance contact between cursor
and resistant elements has to have values as low as possible and to be constant during
operation, the resistivity variation with temperature are minimized.
Potentiometers which best
meet these requirements are
wired potentiometers with metal
film and carbon film.
The principle schemes of the
potentiometric transducers are
shown in Figure 2.19, respectively
in
Figure
2.19,
a
linear
potentiometer transducer is shown
and in Figure
2.19, b rotary potentiometric
trandsucer.In
parallel
are
presented the output voltage
characteristics according to the Uo
linear x and angle . This
transducer
bonding
scheme
presents the following drawbacks:
Fig. 2.19. Schema de funcionare a traductoarelor
poteniometrice: a) liniare; b) de rotaie.
sensitivity
to
temperature
variations,
the impossibility of adjusting the zero level.
To eliminate these drawbacks in practice recommends the use of potentiometric
transducers bridge connected, as shown in Figure 2.20. Re potentiometer is connected
In parallel, with which equilibrate the bridge. Rezistena de sarcin Rs are rolul de a
limita curentul care trece prin contactele cursorului

Fig. 2.20. Circuit de msurare cu traductor

poteniometric.

Extreme cursor position:

Z min = Rmin = Rs .

potentiometric sensor and the

resistance Rn allows the adjustment
voltage deck. Based on the equivalent
circuit, Figure 2.21 can be calculated
the
potentiometric
transducers
impedance. Impedance value varies
depending on the position of the
potentiometers cursors Rt and Re.
According to the scheme in Figure
2.21, the cursors middle position
achieve maximum impedance:
1
Z max = Rmax
(Re + Rt ) + Rs ( 2.9)
=
4,
and the minimum impedance for the
scheme in Figure 2.21, b, is obtained
for
( 2.10)

Fig. 2.21Potentiometric transducer equivalent circuit: a) maximum impedance b)minimum

impedance
.

Potentiometric transducers must be connected to the measuring circuit with bigger

impedances to reduce measurement errors due to variation of the load impedance.
The calibration of the potentiometric transducer is the same as the calibration of the
inductive transducer, using special devices for measuring linear or angular displacement
with desired accuracy. Coupling the sensor to these devices and measuring the output
voltage corresponding to each value of the displacement,it outlines, point by point the
calibration feature. If the calibration feature is assumed to be linear, it is sufficient to
draw through two points.
To calculate the transducer conversion constant kt in [V / A] or [V / m] we use the
t
following equation:k = U o1 U o 2 .
( 2.11)
1 2
where: Uo1, Uo2 are the output voltages; 1, 2 are the input corresponding measures
(angular or linear displacements).

Potentiometric transducers are simple, robust and reliable in operation. Due to the
output signal which has a sufficiently large value, it is not necessary to use the amplifier
and are not affected by electric noise. Due to these advantages the potentiometric
transducers are widely used to measure linear and angular displacements. To improve
the accuracy of the results obtained with this type of transducers must take into account
the following features:
wirewounded potentiometric transducers can not be used to measure small
displacements
, due to the fact that the step of coils can not be reduced under 0,02-0,05 mm;
mechanical contact between the slider and the mechanical strength
negatively affects the transducers reliability;
durability decreases considerably when the rotation is
alternative;
transducers wear will increase the electrical noise produced by it;
frequency response of the sensor is limited due to inertia forces and
friction in the mechanical system, and ectrical noise generated by the mobile contact
increases with increasing displacementspeed. It is recommended to limit the linear
speed of the cursor and the electrical resistance within 3 m / s.
Connecting two or more potentiometric transducers in a single measuring deck can be
made complex measurements by adding or subtracting signals. Potentiometric transducer
characteristics are that they are very often used in the vehicle testing to measure linear or
angular displacements of controlling elements: steering wheel, pedals, etc..

2.2.6 Impulse transducers

In the case of impulse transducer, the input value, linear and angular displacement,it
is transformed in electric impulses.Rectangulary shaped impuses are mostly used due to
high precision. If the output signal of the sensor is different from the shape, it can be
made in a rectangular shape using special electronic circuits, known as training circuits.
In some cases, to notify immediately when the encoder fails, their training is done so that
both branches of the constant voltage wave signal have voltages different than zero. In
this way the zero voltage info means a faulty transducer and can not be confused with
lack of movement. Proportionality between the number of pulses and angular or linear
displacements ensures linearity conversion characteristic. By the way impulses are
obtained, the transducers can be divided into two
groups: Transducers with pulse contact
Transdurcers without pulse contact.
Contact pulse transducers produce electrical impulses by closing and opening some
electric switches controlled by a driven mechanical system due to displacement to be
measured. Figure 2.22 presents a transducer

Contact pulse for measuring angular

displacements. Non-electrical control
cursor size 1, moving on the disk
contacts
2, closing the circuits pulse counterers
A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H. Each electrical
pulse has a corresponding angular
displacement a. Pulse counters provide
information on the class distribution of
the movements in measuring domain of
the transducer + /-amax. Due to
mechanical contacts such transducers
have low reliability compared with noncontact transducers and is only used for
measuring displacements at low speeds,
such as moving the pedals, throttle
movement, movement volanului, .a.
Fig. 2.22. Impule transducers without contact.

To eliminate the disadvantages of contact pulse transducers are used contactless

induction transducers, Figure 2.23, or photoelectric Figure 2.24.

Fig. 2.23. Contactless impulse transducers

In the case of the contactless pulse induction transducers, Figure 2.23, generating
pulses is done by the variation of the magnetic field of coil 1 ,by moving to the right of
magnetic core of a disc 2. The shape of the teeth made in disc 2, influence
the shape of the output transducer s signal, and the angular speed w is
proportional with its amplitude.The electric forming system 3, modifies
signal 1 into a rectangular signal.Step type signal can be processed
much easier with the help of a counting block 4, or electricall y, obtaining
derivated sizes speed,acceleration,etc.The minimum inferior frequency
is limited b y the electric pulse amplitude decrease, drawback which can
be partl y corrected b y increasing the no. of grooves. The maximum
frequency is also limited b y the characteristics of the meter, the main
sampling time in which he works because the sampling frequency must
be at least two times the frequency of the signal processed. Therefore in
addition to the geometric limitation concerning the possibility to increase
the no.of grooves interpheres a limitation due to the measuring chain
and measuring size characteristic.

Fig. 2.24. Contactless optical impulse transducer.

In the case of the photoelectric pulse transducer, figure 2.24, to obtain pulses is
performed using a photo-transistor 3, the light source 1 and the disc with slots
2, by means of which the flow of light is interrupted. The output signal of the transducer ,
which has a trapezoidal shape can be used directly to control the pulse counter 4.
Phototransistor is characterized by a very low response time
1.5 mS - 8s, so that the measurement range can be greatly expanded in comparison
with the non-contact encoder induction. If we take into consideration the modern
possibility of processing disc 2, the measurement is limited only by the range is only

limited by the sampling frequency of the counter, the range of variation of the quantity
measured and the conversion feature of the transducer. . By using the photoresist
other photovoltaic elements in place of the photo-transistor, one can obtain other pulse
transmitters, which because of the higher response time of the control device lowers the
work significantly higher frequency of the transducer.
Due to the fact that the amplitude of the signal at the output of the transmitter
remains substantially constant (about equal to the voltage of the sensor), this type of
transducer can be used and when frequency of the signal is very small.
As main disadvantage of the photoelectric impulse transducers shoulb be
mentioned the need to isolate from the daylight influence, which could negatively
influence the test results.
Pulse transducers can be easily used for measuring linear position, or other
quantities that can be converted mechanicaly In the case of vehicles, they are used
for measuring the area, speed and acceleration, as well as for measuring the angular
velocities of the different components in rotation. In conclusion we can say that pulse
transducers, especially those without contact, ensure high measurement accuracy,
and allow easy signal processing directly and electrically.