Professional Documents
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Organic Manures - 17.12.12
Organic Manures - 17.12.12
Element
Scientist
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14.
15
16.
Carbon
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Sulphur
Zinc
Iron
Manganese
Copper
Molybdenum
Sodium
Cobalt
Boron
Chorine
Priestly (1800)
Theodore De saussure (1804)
Von Liebig (1844)
Carl sprengel (1839)
Carl sprengel (1839)
Carl sprengel (1839)
Carl sprengel (1839)
Sommer and Lipman (1926)
Sommer, Lipman and Mc Kenny(1931)
J.S. Hargue (1922)
Sommer, Lipman and Mc Kenny(1931)
Arnon and Stout (1939)
Brownell and wood (1957)
Ahamed and Evans (1959)
Warring ton (1923)
Broyer (1954)
Essential elements
Mostly from air and water :
Sulfur
Micronutrients from soil solids :
Functions of N:
1. N is an essential constituent of proteins and is present in many other
compounds of great physiological importance in plant metabolism.
2. N is an integral part of chlorophyll, which is primary observer of light
energy needed for photosynthesis.
3. N also imparts vigorous vegetative growth and dark green colour to plants.
4. It produces early green and delay in maturity to plants
5. It governs the utilization of K, P and other elements
Deficiency of N:
1. Loss of normal dark green colour due to insufficient chlorophyll synthesis.
2. Formation of pale yellowish leaves and premature defoliation.
3. Scorching of leaves starting from the tip.
4. Formation of slender stalks and branches.
5. Slow growth and poor development resulting in stunted growth.
6. Low yields.
Excess of Nitrogen (Toxicity)
When the N is present in excess the following conditions will be observed.
1. The re will be too much vegetative growth of the crop resulting in lodging.
2. The plants may be highly susceptible to pests and diseases.
3. The maturity will be delayed considerably.
4. The plants will be abnormally dark green in colour.
Forms of soil nitrogen
Inorganic forms and Organic forms of soil N
1. Ammonium NH4+ Amide form (NH2)
2. Plant absorbs N as both NH4, , NO3
+
3. Elemental N (No)
N transformations in soils
N Mineralisation
Aminisation
Conversation of urea
N Immobilization.
N factor
Ammonification.
Nitrification
Denitrification
Organic fixation
Elemental N loss.
Nitrogen cycle.
PHOSPHORUS
The element was discovered in 1669 and was found to be widely distributed in the lithosphere as
phosphates. It occurs in most plants in concentrations between 0.1 and 0.4%. Plants absorb either
H2PO4 - or H PO4 2- ortho PO4 ions . Absorption of H2PO4- is greatest at low pH values, whereas
uptake of HPO42- is greater at higher values of soil pH, plant uptake of HPO4- is much slower than
H2PO4.
Sources
a. Mineral deposit: Apatite.
b. Soil organic matter
Loss of P in soil
Loss by crop removal
Loss by grazing animal
Loss by erosion
Functions of Phosphorus
It has a greater role in energy storage and transfer.
It is a constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospholipids
It is essential for cell division and development
P compounds act as energy currency within plants. The most common P energy currency is
that found in ADP and ATP. Transfer of the energy rich PO4
molecules from
ATP to energy requiring substances in the plant is known as Phosphorylation
It stimulates early root development and growth and there by helps to establish
seedlings quickly.
It gives rapid and vigorous start to plants strengthens straw and decreases lodging
tendency.
It is essential for seed formation because larger quantities of P are found in seed
and fruit-phytic acid is the principle storage from of phosphorus in seeds.
It increases the activity of Rhizobia and increases the formation of root nodules.
Deficiency symptoms
Stunted growth of both shoots and roots.
Spindled or twisted growth of plants.
Premature defoliation of the older leaves.
Poor formation of lateral shoots and lateral buds which remain dormant.
Flowering is reduced and opening of buds and leaves delayed.
The leaves will turn to purple or bronze colour.
The leaves will have bluish green colour.
Leaf margins will show brown scorching.
Disease resistance is found to be decreased.
Toxicity of phosphorus
Profuse root growth i.e. laterals and fibrous root lets.
It develops normal growth having green leaf colour.
It may cause in some cases trace elements deficiencies i.e. Zinc and Iron.
POTASSIUM
Sources
1. Mineral deposits
2. Industrial by-products and
3. Synthetic potassium salts.
Losses of K
1. Loss by crop removal
2. Loss due to grazing animals
3. Loss by way of leaching and
K fixation refers to the phenomenon of the conversion of water soluble form/ available form of K
into an insoluble / unavailable form. It is in soils governed by:
1. Type of clay minerals
2. Soil moisture conditions
3. Soil pH
4. Base saturation %
5. Organic matter content
Available K in soils:
1. Readily available (exchangeable and water soluble K)
2. Slowly available (fixed K)
3. Unavailable (lattice mineral K).
Luxury consumption of K
Luxury consumption is defined as the nutrient concentration range in which added nutrient will
not increases yield but can increases nutrient concentration. The indiscriminate absorption of K
by the crops over and above their requirements is called as luxury /excessive consumption of K.
It results in and accumulation of the element in plant without a corresponding increases in
growth leading to inefficient and uneconomical use of that particular element.
Factors affecting uptake of K by plants
Soil moisture
Soil CEC
Interaction of exchangeable cations
Soil pH
Soil aeration
CALCIUM
The calcium content of the soil ranges from 0.5 -5.0 %. It found in soil in three dominant forms.
1. Insoluble Ca
2. Exchangeable Ca
3. Soluble Ca.
Sources of soil calcium
Earth crust contains about 3.64%. The important source of calcium is anorthite (Ca Al2 Si2O3).
Generally arid region soils contain high amount of Ca regard less of texture, low rainfall and
little leaching. In arid and semiarid regions Calcite (CaCo3)Dolomite (Ca Mg(Co3)2),Gypsum
(CaSo4, 2H2O) are the main sources of Ca.In humid regions, even the soils formed from lime
stone are frequently acid in the surface layers because of the removal of Ca and other cations by
leaching.
Functions of calcium
It is a constituent of cell wall. As such it increases the stiffness of straw/stem in plants.
Promotes early root development and growth
It is immobile in plants and hence the deficiency is observed in younger leaves.
It is a constituent of cell wall and increases in stiffness of plants.
Helps to translocate the sugar in the plants.
It involves chromosome stability and that it is a constituent of chromosome structure.
Affects translocation of CHO in plants.
Encourages seed production.
Activates enzyme phosphate and kinease.
Accumulated protein during respiration by mitochondria and it increases their protein
content.
It involved in cellular organization by regulating the permeability of cell membranes.
Deficiency of calcium
Leaves with irregular margin, often shown brown scorching or spotting effects.
Thin chlorotic marginal bands in leaves will appear.
Root may become short, stubby and brown.
Causes acidity of soil.
Cell may become rigid and brittle.
Young leaves of cereals remain folded.
Factors affecting Ca2+ availability
oTotal Ca supply: Sandy acidic soils with low CEC have less Ca.
oSoil pH: In acid soils Ca is not readily available to plants
oHigh Ca2+ saturation indicates favourable pH for plant growth and microbial activity.
uptake in plant.
MAGNESIUM
Sources
Magnesium occurs as carbonates fairly similar to that of Ca and held in soil as exchangeable Mg.
It occurs in soil as mineral Mg in the form of CO3, chlorides, sulphates, etc. The primary
minerals of mg include mica, hornblende, dolomite, serpentine and the secondary minerals are
chlorite, vermiculite, etc.
Losses of Mg
It is leached by soils and it depends on the Mg content, rate of weathering, intensity of
weathering and uptake of plants.
Availability of Mg in the soil
1. It occurs predominately as exchangeable and solution Mg.
2. Coarse text soil exhibits the greatest potential for Mg deficiencies.
3. Competition bet NH4 + and Mg2+ also lower the Mg2+ availability to crops.
Functions of Mg
oMg is an important component of chlorophyll in plants helps to maintain dark green colour in
plants.
oImports dark green colour in leaves.
oIt serves as structural components in ribosomes and stabilizing the ribosome configuration for
protein synthesis.
oIt involves numbers of physiological and biochemical function.
oIt activates phosphorylating enzymes in CHO metabolism.
oIt acts as a cofactor for certain enzymes other than Po4 transfer enzyme.
oIncreases in the oil content of oil seed crops.
oIt regulates the uptake of other nutrients.
Deficiency of Magnesium
1. Appearance of chlorosis in between veins
2. Stiff brittle, twisted leaves, wrinkled and distortion of leaves.
3. In cotton lower leaves may develop a reddish purple finally necrotic spots (Reddening of
leaves)
4. In brassica, Chlorosis with interregnal mottling uniformly distributed in older leaves while the
other vascular tissues remain green. This condition is called Puckering.
5. It causes Grey speck in oats, marsh spot in peas speckled yellow of sugar beet.
Forms of Mg in soil
Mg in primary and secondary minerals.
Exchangeable Mg
Solution Mg
SULPHUR
Sulphur is an anionic secondary nutrient. Lithosphere contains 0.06 % S and the soil contains on
an average 0.05 % S. The available S in Indian soils was reported to be 5-100 ppm. More than
70-90% of soil sulphur is in the organic form (as that of N) in combination with C and N. The
inorganic sulphur (10-30%) is present as sulphates/sulphides form. Sulphates can be consumed
by the plants directly. The optimum ratio of C: N: S ratio is found to be 120:10:1 and the soil has
a stabilized ratio of 100: 10:1.
Sources
Three major sources of S in soil include
Soil minerals: Sulphides of Fe, Ni, Cu, etc.
Sulphur gases in atmosphere- SO2, H2S, and Carbonyl sulfide.
Organically bound sulphur - ester sulphates , Carbon bonded S fractions
Plants absorb S as SO3 -- and SO4-- anions.
The soluble sulphates contribute largely to the readily available form of sulphur to plants.
Functions of sulphur
1. It essential for synthesis of sulphur containing amino acids cystine, cysteine and methionine.
2. It is an essential constituent for synthesis of other metabolites including Coenzyme A., Biotin,
and Thiamin of vitamin B and Glutothione.
3. It necessary for chlorophyll formation.
4. It is a vital part of ferredoxins i.e. Fe S protein occurring in the chloroplasts.
5. Responsible for the characteristic smell or odor and taste of mustard, onion and Garlic
(Punchy smell)
differently in different soil pH conditions viz., behaving both as an acid and alkali metals and
hence it is said to be amphoteric in nature. It also as a cation as well as anion and hence its
behaviour in soil is unpredictable.
Sources
Zn is present in soil in divalent form and released as Zn 2+ ion during weathering. It is a faster
moving element in the soil profile in all directions in nature. The Zn containing soil minerals are
Sphalerite (oxide) and smithsonite (carbonate).
Functions of Zn
It is a constituent of L-lactate dehydrogenase, triosephosphate dehydrogenase and carbonic
anhydrase in which Zn is bound in ionic form and those of D- 2 + hydroxyaacid dehydrogenase
and D-lactate dehydrogenase in which Zn is bound to flavin, forming the prothetic group of the
enzymes.
It is required for the photosynthetic and N metabolism of plants
It helps in reproduction of plants.
Stabilise ribosomal fractions.
It is essential for the synthesis of Tyyptophan, a precursor of IAA.
Influence the activity of dehydrogenase enzymes
Involves in auxin metabolism like tryptophan synthetase.
Deficiency of Zn
Retardation of growth of plants due to it requirement to produce the growth
hormone IAA (auxin).
Light yellow or white areas bet the veins of leaves particularly older leaves.
Death of tissue, discolored and mal formation of fruits
Reduced growth hormone production.
Common symptoms in plants:
1. Cotton : White bud (or) little leaf
2. Citrus : Mottle leaf
3. Potato : Fern leaf
4. Fruit trees : Rosette
5. Paddy : Khaira
Remedies:
a. Soil application of ZnSO4 @25-50 kg/ha or Zinc chelates (Zn-EDTA, etc) @ 5kg /ha.
b. Foliar spray of 0.2 to 0.5% ZnSO4 twice or thrice.
c. Root dipping of seedlings (eg. Rice) in 1-2 % ZnO suspension.
d. Use of zincated fertilizers viz., zincated PO4, zinc ammonium phosphate, etc.
Factors affecting Zn availability
1. Soil pH: Available Zn decrease with increase in soil pH. Zn def occur in neutral
and calcareous soil.
2. Organic matter: it promotes the availability of Zn.
3. CaCO3: More common in calcareous soils due to it adsorption.
4. Soil P level: Zn deficiency in high PO4 soils have been observed frequently.
5. Clay minerals /type of other accompanying cations
IRON
Fe is one of the commonest elements in the earth crust and also in soils. It absorbed by plants
roots as Fe2+, Fe3+ and chelated irons. Sufficiency range of Fe in plant tissue is 50-250 ppm.
Sources of iron
Earth crust contains about 5%
Primary and secondary minerals such as
1. Olivine, 2. Pyrite 3. Hematite, 4. Goethite, 5. Magrulite and 6. limestone
Functions of Iron
It helps in the synthesis of chlorophyll.
It acts as a catalyst in the production of chlorophyll
It is structural component of porphyrin molecules like cytochromes, hematin, hemes,
ferrichrome and hemoglobin. These substances are involved in oxidation-reduction reactors in
respiration and photosynthesis.
It acts as a co - factor for many of the enzyme.
It is essential for protein formation.
Constituent of enzyme systems eg. cytochrome oxidase, catalase, nitrogenase reaction in
plants.
Component of flavoprotein like FMN ( Flavin mono nucleotides) and FAD (Flavin
Adenosine Dinudeotide).
Deficiency symptoms
Deficiency symptoms occur in younger leaves since Fe is immobile element in plant.
It occurs in soils of calcareous or alkaline soils and poorly drained water logged soils.
Younger leaves develop interveinal chlorosis with progresses rapidly over the entire leaf.
Severe cases entire leaf turns yellow colour.
Forms of iron
Fe occurs in four major forms in soil.
1. Primary and secondary minerals of Al & Fe
2. Adsorbed Fe
3. Organic Fe and
4. Solution Fe.
Factors affecting the availability of iron in soils
1. Soil pH
2. Presence of carbonate, bicarbonate, phosphate, Ca & K in soils.
3. Organic matter content of soils
4. Soil texture
5. Water logging or Submergence
6. Ionic imbalance in soils
Correction of Fe deficiency
Correction of soil pH and decreasing the carbonate content by the use of acidifying materials.
Application of Fe compounds to soil
Foliar spray of Fe compounds.
MANGANESE
Manganese has been found to exist in soils as water soluble, exchangeable and insoluble oxides
of Mn and these forms of Mn are in equilibrium in soils. The average Mn content of Indian soils
is 300-1600 ppm and the available Mn content is traces to 200 ppm. The Mn equilibrium in soils
in represented as follows:
Divalent Mn prevalent in acid soils
increases Mn availability.
Functions of chloride
1. Essential for biochemical reactions Osmotic cation neutralization reactors.
2. Act as a counter ion during rapid K fluxes.
3. Involves in the evaluation of O2 in photosynthesis.
4. It creates disease resistant by increase osmotic pressure in cell sap.
Deficiency of Cl
1. Partial wilting and loss of turgidity.
2. Necrosis, leaf bronzing and reduction in growth.
Sources of Cl
i. Igneous and metamorphic rocks
ii. Soluble salts such as NaCl, CaCl2 and MgCl2.
iii. Earth crust 0.02-0.05%.
It is mobile with in the plant it can be rapidly recycled through soil systems.
COBALT
Normal concentration of Co in dry matter - 0.02 - 0.5 ppm.
Functions of cobalt
Essential for microorganisms that fixes atmospheric nitrogen.
Improves growth, transpiration and photosynthesis.
VANADIUM
Low concentration of Vanadium is beneficial for growth of microorganisms.
Vanadium acts as substitute for Mo in N fixation by Rhizobia.
Involves in Biological - oxidation reduction reactions.
NICKEL
Nickel content in pt 0.1 - 1.0 ppm dry matter basis.
Taken by plant as Ni
2+
Sources of Na
Earth crust (2.8%) and minerals.
Functions
1. Essential for maintaining turgor and growth of Plants.
2. Helps oxalic acid accumulation in Plants.
3. Helps in stomatal opening and regulate NO3- reductase activity.
Forms of Na in soil
Solution, exchangeable Na and in silicate minerals.
In arid and semi arid soils Na exist in silicates, NaCl, Na2SO4
Na salts accumulating in poorly drained soils of wild and semi arid regions and causes
soil salinity and sodicity.
Effect of Na on soil properties
Dispersing action of Na+ on clay and organic matter reduces soil aggregation,
permeability to air and H2O, germination and root growth.
Silca
Functions of silica
1. Contributes structure of cell wall.
2. Contributes drought tolerance to crops.
3. Regulates photosynthesis.
4. De activates invertase enzyme activity in sugarcane resulting grater sucrose production. Larger
amounts of Si are accumulated in intracellular deposits known as plant opals.
5. Increased available P.
6. Responsible for plant disease resistance.
Sources of silicon
Earth crust: 27.6% most abundant element in earth crust. In soils it accounts 23-35%. Its major
source from primary and secondary minerals and quartz.Quartz is the most common mineral in
soil, comprising 90-95% of all sand and silt tractions.
Factors affecting Si availability
1. High H2O content encourages Si uptake
2. Heavy application of N decreases Si concentration
3. Liming decreases Si uptake in plants.
Lecture II
Manures- Types-composition and value - sources
Manures can be defined as any materials which are organic in origin, bulky or concentrated in
nature, containing plant nutrients in relatively low concentration. They are derived from plant,
animal and human residues. Manures may be called as low analysis organic fertilizers.
Manures may be classified as
The term bulky organic manure generally includes those materials of natural
origin, organic in composition having greater volume per unit content of nutrients and
being used to increase the nutrient status of the soils as well as organic matter
content of soils. They are obtained mainly as natural products. The materials included
in this group are farmyard manure, compost, sewage sludge and green manure. Of
these FYM, compost and green manure are the most important and widely used bulky
organic manures.
Horse
76.5
21.0
3.3
0.47
.38
.30
Cattle
80.0
15.2
3.8
0.30
.18
.18
Buff
81.0
12.7
5.3
0.26
.18
.17
Sheep
61.9
33.1
4.7
.70
.51
.29
Pig
80.7
17.0
3.0
.59
.46
.43
Poultry
57.0
29.3
5.6
1.46
1.17
.62
Lime (CaO)
.17
0.36
.46
.46
.07
Poultry manure is very rich in nutrient content compare to others. Next to poultry sheep
manure is fairly rich, cattle and buffaloe dung is poor in nutrient content.
Urine
It contains 96% H2O and A% is made up of dissolved substances primarily urea derived
from the protein catabolism in the blood and partly from leucine and tyrosine as a result of
tryptic digestion in the intestine. It is also derived as a by product of disintegration in the
various organs of the animal body. Other was to subs in urine in addition to urea are uric and
Hyppuric acid.
Inorganic salts
c.
Ca and Mg Po4
d.
K and Na So4
in varying proportions.
Horse
89.6
8
8
1.29
.01
1.39
.45
Cattle
92.6
4.8
2.1
1.21
.01
1.35
.01
Buff
81.0
0.62
Traces
1.61
-
Sheep
86.3
9.3
4.6
1.47
0.05
1.96
.16
Pig
96.6
1.5
1.0
0.38
.10
.99
.01
Litter
It is used as a bedding material in foreign country. In Indian condition it refuse to rejects
and waste materials. It includes straws of cereals, stalks of sunflower etc. If is used to conserve
the loss of NH3 from urine. If urine is treated with soil (or) soil is soaked with urine (or) matured
straws of sorghum, Cumbu, there is a wide range of C : N ratio.
Eg. Sorghum 50 : 1
Factors affecting the composition of manures
1. Kind of animal
2. Age and condition of animal
3. Kind of food or fodder.
4. Litter use and its composition.
5. Handling and storage
6. Products derived from the animal.
Young animals poor in nutrient.
Old animal rich in nutrient.
More food rice in nutrient.
50% of the dung is used as fuel. Urine is not properly utilized.
Milch animals and laying hens poor in nutrient.
Sick animal- more nutrient, working animal poor in nutrient.
Amount of manures obtained from different animals
Tan Manure / year / 1000 1b of body wt.
Weight of excrement
Horse :
9.0
Pig
Cow
13.5
Sheep :
6.25
Hen
4.75
:
:
15.25
x4
3
where 3 = 2/3 of dry matter is lossed during digestion I is body and 1/3 is excreted in
the from of dung, urine.
4 = Final manure will have 75% of moisture. Remaining 25% have manure i.e.
dry matter.
Characteristics of Farm yard manure
a. Moisture :
75% is made up of moisture. In general moisture content is 50-80% and dry matter 2050%
b. It is low analysis manure :
one lone of FYM will supply 5 kg N, 2.5 kg P2O5 , 5 kg K2O.
c. Residual effect of FYM
In FYM nutrients are present in complex form as proteins or microbial tissues. During
the process of decomposition the microbial tissues are decomposed and farm a source of N. In
well decomposed FYM about N, K, 1/6 P readily available to first crop.
Remaining part will left in the soil for the succeeding crops. In well decomposed FYM
the C:N ration is 12-15 : Partly decomposed FYM the C:N ration is 20 :. IN such case the
residual effect is more for 2 or 3 succeeding crops.
d. Nutrient is unbalanced.
FYM is poor in NPK content is particularly P2O5. So it is considered as unbalanced.
FYM is mixed with super (or) Rock PO4 before addition not the field, P2O5 content can be
increased.
FYM + super Rein forked. So it is considered us complete manure. It also supplied
secondary and micronutrients.
Chemical changes that are taking place during the process of decomposition
FYM consist of 1. Liquid material - Urine and H2O
2. Solid material - Undigested material, bedding material, Farm
sweeping, weeds and leaves.
Liquid material
Urine Urea, Uric, Hippuric acid.
Uro bacteria
R OH + NH3 + Energy
Hydrolyses
c. Nitrification
Process in which Ammonium compounds are converted into Nitrite and Nitrates.
Enzymes
First stage
2NH3 + 3O2
Oxidation
NO2 + O2
Oxidation
2. Moisture content
3. Aeration
4. pH
5. Bases
6. Darkness
7. C:N ratio
needed.
8. Micro nutrient
9. Ammonia
Unaerobic condition
d. Mineral compounds
P is present either in organic or inorganic from it is simply converted into inorganic
from.
K : Higher proportion of K is excreted through urine. It is H2O soluble. Acidity is
produced during decomposition.
Ca<Mg Insoluble compounds of ca<mg are converted into soluble compounds during
decomposition.
Factors affecting decomposition
1. Temperature
2. Aeration
3. Moisture
6. Basic material
7. composition of refuse.
4. pH
5. Supply of N
N
0.5
1.1
0.7
0.7
0.3
0.7
P2O5
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
K2O
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.7
0.3
1.2
0.8
0.8
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.9
Aerobic
Rapid decomposition
Anaerobic
Slow decomposition.
b. Temperature :
c. Aeration
d. Moisture
e. Soil factors
f. Nature of GM :
If it is succulent
Non- succulent
quick decomposition
slow decomposition
Acetic acid
Lactic acid
CO2
Alcohol
Methane
2. Protein
Agricultural wastes
Sugarcane Begass
Sugarcane Begass compost
Sugarcane Begass Press mud
Press mud compost
Saw dust
Tobacco waste
Tabacco seed cake
Tea waste
Cotton dust
Textile waste
N
0.25
1.40
1 1.5
1.5
Traces
0.5 1.0
4 4.5
2.8 3.6
1 1.5
1 1.5
P2O5
0.12
0.45
2.0
1.5
0.2 - 0.25
0.8
7 15
03. 0.4
-
K2O
.20
0.60
1.0
5 5.5
12
-
Concentrated organics
1.
Oil cakes
2.
Various meals is Blood meal, Fish meal, Bone meal, Salughter house.
3.
Sullage
waste
H2O only.
Sewage
Sludge
Oil cakes
In India about 2m.t. of oil cakes are produced / year. Out of this only 85% is edible and
15% is non edible portion. The nutrient present in the oil cakes are insoluble in H 2O but which
are readily available to the plants. (with in 10 days). The Mahuva cake takes 1- 1 month
time for perfect mineralization. The nutrient content of the oil cake.
N
2.5 - 8.0 %
P2O5
1.0 - 3.0%
K2O
1.0 - 2.0%
Nutrient content of different concentration Organic.
Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Oil cake
N
Groundnut cake (Decordicated)
7.8
Lin seed cake
5.5
Mustard cake
4.5
Neem cake
5.2
Niger cake
4.8
Pungam cake
2.5
Safflower (decordicated)
7.8
Sesamum
6.2
Castor
5.8
Coconut
3.2
Slaughter House wastes
Blood meal
10 12
Meat meal
10.5
Fish meal
4 -10
Horn Hoff meal
13
Leather - waste
7
Hair and wool waste
12.3
Sewage water
25ppm
Sludge
1.5 3.5
Sewage is produced @ 6600 million lit/ day.
P2O5
1.5 1.9
1.4
1.5
1.0
1.8
1.0
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.8
K2O
1.4
1.2
1.0
1.4
1.0
1.0
2.0
1.2
1.0
1.7
1.2
2.5
39
0.1
0.1
5 ppm
0.75 4
1.0
0.5
0.3 1.5
0.2
0.3
15 ppm
0.3 0.6
day
0.36 MT K2O
Soil factors
Total nutrient content
Availability of nutrient
Soil reaction
Soil Erosion
Soil texture
Soil drainage
Soil management practices
Presence of impermeable layers
II.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
III.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Crop factor
Nutrient requirement of crops
Crop sequence
Crop adaptability to soil factors
Crop production practices
Crop residues
hutchinsoni. Finally they got a manure which is closely resemble to FYM which is called
Artificial or synthetic FYM.
60 80%
(b) Lignin
15 20%
5 12%
(d) Protein
2 -3 %
3. Soluble N
4. Aeration
5. Moisture
6. Temperature
Methods of compost making
a. ADCO process
b. Activated process
c. Indore Process
d. Bangalore Method
C.N. Acharya.
e. Coimbatore Method
AC & RI.
a. ADCO process
Agriculture
decomposition. The plant refuse (or) which can not fed to cattle is used. The refuse material is
spread uniformly on the floor to a thickness of 9 12. Then the adco powder is sprinkled @
7% ie. 7kg/ 100 kg of material.
Adco powder contains soluble N, AM SO 4, AM CO3 certain amounts of P2 K, lime,
rock PO4, Ash, KCl. This material is moistened. This can be repeated normally 6 layers.
Periodically moistened for quick decomposition. It can be allowed for 3 4 months. It is
aerobic and Heap method. For proper decomposition this material is turned or moistened and
restate in the form of heap.
b. Activated process
In this method, instead of adco powder, we use some inoculum or activator to decompose
the material quickly. It is a heap system and turning is given. The starter should be dung urine,
Urine mixed earth, sewage and sludge etc. The straw is uniformly spread and moistened and
added sewage sludge. This can start the reaction. This must be respected and after moistened,
the level was maintained and periodical turning is given. After 3 4 months, the entire mass is
converted into Brown colour. They called it as Starter. 1/3 of it is used for compost making.
c. Indore Process
Materials Cattle dung, wood ash, H2O and urine soaked earth.
- It is aerobic method. The composting is made in trenches of suitable size 33
x 14 x 2. Spread the refuse materials uniformly to a thickness of 9 12 and after moistening
3 dung slurry or urine earth along with wood ash is spread over the refuse material. This can be
repeated till the heap raise to 1-2 above the ground level. This is allowed to undisturbed
condition for 15 days.
First turning was given 14 days after filling.
Second turning was given 14 days after first turning.
Third turning was given 2 months after filling.
All the mass is removed from the trenches and rebuilt in the earth in the form of Heap. It
is ready after a month.
d. Bangalore Method
In this method the starter used is Night soil.
Composting is done in trenches
Refuse materials are Garbage and Street sewage.
The size of the trenches various depending upon the availability of Night soil and refuse
material. The depth of the trench is 3. But length and breadth varies. Garbage is uniformly
spread to a thickness of 9 12. Later on Night soil is spread or float on the garbage to a
thickness of 3. This can be repeated upto 1 1 above the ground level. During filling certain
amount of aeration is there. For about a week it cannot be plastered. After one week time, the
top layer of the garbage is covered with earth to athasim of 3 to eliminate the fly breeding.
High temperature is developed that will kill the pathogens and destroy the viability of weed
seeds. At the end of 7th day the whole heap is completely plastered. The sides of the walls are
also covered with garbage to avoid contact of Night soil with the walls. High temperature is
maintained inside the trench which facilitate the destroying of weed seeds and pathogen. About
4 5 months it is ready for application.
No turning is given
e. Coimbatore Method
Composition
Definite and fixed Varied
Nutrient
High
Low
Volume of material, unit kg Low
High
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
of nutrient
Source
Nature
Response to crops
Residual effect
Nutrient added
Organic matter addition
Synthetic
Simple salts
Readily
N
1 or 2 or 3
No
Natural
Compound / complex
Slowly
Longer time
All nutrients elements
It adds organic matter
to soil
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Heap method
Condition
Yield of manure
N content
Carbon content
C/N ratio
H2O requirement
Mixing
Labour charge
Time required
Materials drying
Uniformity of manure
Trench method
Aerobic
Low
Low
Low
1 : 10 - 12
High
Done
High
Quick
Quickly
Less homogenous
Anaerobic
High
High
High
1 : 15
Low
Not
Low
Slow
Do not dry up
More homogenous.
1. Trash
2. Pleurotus
: 3 bottles
3. Trichoderma viridi
: 20 grams
4. Urea
: 5Kg
= 0.70 %
P2O5
= 0.25%
K2O
= 0.70%
20 kg dugongs 60 lit H2O
100 kg S. trash
100 g Trash derma
100 g S. trash
1 kg urea
100 kg S. trash
1 bottle pleurotus
S. Trash - 100 kg
Composting is done in trenches. The size of the trench will be 5 x 3
m.
S. trash was cut into small spices and spread uniformly on the floor
under shade.
As in figure.
Like wise 10 layers may prepared and finally covered with 250 Kg
of clay soil or Red soil for compacting the beds Sprinkle the H2O once in a week.
Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus (P)
Potassium (K)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Sulphur (S)
Iron
Manganese
Zinc
Copper
C:N ratio
1.60
1.10
0.50
1.00
0.60
0.48
2710 ppm
450ppm
370ppm
80 ppm
22:1
Nutrient
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Lignin
Cellulose
C : N Ratio
Carbohydrates
Iron (PPM)
Manganese (PPM)
Zinc (PPM)
Copper (PPM)
Raw
0.26
0.01
0.78
30.00
26.50
112 : 1
29.00
0.07
12.50
7.50
3.10
Composted
1.06
0.06
1.20
4.80
10.10
24 : 1
24.90
0.09
20.00
15.80
6.20
Vermicomposting
Vermi composting
The term vermin composting had recently been coined to mean the use of earthworms
for composting organic residues. Earthworms can consume practically all kinds of organic matter
and they can eat their own body weight per day; thus, for example, one kilogram of worms can
consume one kilogram of residues every day. The excreta or castings of the worms are rich in
nitrate, available forms of phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. The passage of soil
through earthworms promotes bacterial and actinomycetes growth; actinomycetes thrive well in
the presence of worms and their content in worm casts is over six times more than in the original
soil.
Vermiculture in India
Preparing vermicompost
The bed should be 2.5 ft. high x 4 ft. wide x any length desired. Apply worms for every
part of waste.
Blending- Carbonaceous substances like sawdust, paper and straw can be mixed with
nitrogen rich materials such as sewage sludge, biogas slurry and fish scraps to obtain a
near optimum C/N ratio of 30:1 / 40:1. A varied mixture of substances produces good
quality compost, rich in major and micro nutrients.
Half digestion- The raw materials should be kept in piles and the temperature allowed to
reach 50-55oC. The piles should remain at this temperature for 7 to 10 days.
Moisture, temperature and pH- The optimum moisture level for maintaining aerobic
conditions is 50-60%. Proper moisture and aeration can be maintained by mixing fibrous
with nitrogen rich materials. The temperature of the piles should be within 20-30 oC.
Higher or lower temperatures will reduce the activity of micro flora and earthworms. The
height of the bed can help control the rise in temperature. The pH of the raw material
should not exceed 6.5 to 7.
After about a month the compost is ready. It will be black, granular, lightweight and
humus-rich. To facilitate separating the worms from the compost, stop watering two to three days
before emptying the beds. This will force about 80% of the worms to the bottom of the bed. The
rest of the worms can be removed by hand. The vermicompost is then ready for application.
Earthworms have been on the earth for over 120 million years. Their purpose is simple
but very important. They are natures way of recycling organic nutrients from dead tissues back
to living organisms. Referring to an earthworms Darwin said, it may doubted whether there are
many other animals in the world which have played sop important a port in the history of the
world as have these lowly organized creatures. Earthworms play a key role in soil biology by
serving as versatile natural bioreactor to effectively harness the beneficial soil micro flora and
destroy soil pathogens, thus converting organic wastes into valuable products such as
biofertilizers, biopesticides, vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics and proteinaceous worm biomass.
Earthworm often called Ecosystem engineers because they are actively redesigns the physical
structure of the soil environment.
Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is the process of degradation of organic wastes by earthworms to
achieve three objectives:
1.
2.
3.
Benefits of Earthworms
Earthworms help in the preparation of compost maintaining soil health as follows :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Use of earthworms in recycling of city and rural wastes, sewage waste waters and sludge,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Least vermistabilisation time (period of inactivity after initial inoculation organic wastes)
Epigeic earthworm like Eudrilus eugeniae, Eisenia foetida and Perionyx excavatus are
some of the popularly used worms for vermicomposting (Kale et al ., 1982). Eudrilus eugeniae a
tropical earthworm commonly called African night crawler is large in size grows rapidly breeds
fast and is capable of decomposing large quantities of organic material into valuable
vermicompost.
Rearing of earthworms
The worms are reared and multiplied from a commercially obtained breeder stock in
shallow wooden boxes of 45 cm x 60 cm, provided with drainage holes and stored on shelves
and tiers. A bedding material is compounded from miscellaneous organic residues saw dust,
cereal straw, rice husks, sugarcane trash, bagasse, paper, cardboard, coir waste, grasses etc. and is
moistened well with water. The wet mixture is stored for 30 days covered with a damp sack and
is thoroughly mixed several times. When fermentation is complete, chicken manure and green
matter eg. Leucaena leaves or water hyacinth is added. The material is placed in the boxes in
sufficiently loose for the worms to burrow and should be able to retain moisture. The proportion
of the different materials will vary according to the nature of the material but a final nitrogen
content of about 2.4% should be aimed at. A pH value as near neutral as possible is necessary
and the boxes should be kept at temperatures between 20 0C and 300C. At higher temperatures the
worms will aestivate and at lower temperatures they hibernate. for each 0.1 m 2 of surface area
100 g of breeder worms are added to the boxes. In spite of their being able to eat the bedding
material, the worm at this stage are regularly fed @ 1 kg of feed a day for every kg of worms.
The feed stuffs used are again various types of organic matter and include partially digested cow
dung, chicken manure, Leucaena leaves, vegetable waste and water hyacinth. Some form of
protection against predators like birds, vats, ants, frogs, leeches and centipede is provided to the
worms.
Methods of vermin composting
1) Solid waste materials are spread out over the soil surface, for incorporation directly into
the soil by earthworms for burial and decomposition.
2) Wastes are sacked into heaps or placed in pins, where they are treated like compost heaps
and earthworms are released. Earthworm activity results in the production of large quantities of
earthworm casts, which are widely used as manure.
S. No
1.
1.Agricultural fields
2.
2.Plantations
3.Animal waste
Urban slid waste
3.
Agro-industries waste
treatment plants
Peel, rind and unused pulp of fruits and
vegetables.
Press mud and seed milk
Press mud, fine baggase and boiler ash
Spent wash, barley waste, yeast sludge
Core of fruits, paper, and date expired seeds
Stems, leaves and flowers after extraction
Coir pith
Any type of containers can be used. The numbers of earth warms widened on the
container size. A volume of 0.3 m3 (1m x 1m x 0.3m) can accommodate 2000 warms. The can be
constructed in brick masonry and cement, wood or even plastic trough can be used. Composting
has to be done under a roof to avoid direct sunlight and rain.
Bedding material
Saw dust or husk or coir waste about 3 cm layers each of fine sand and garden soil is
provided as bedding material inside the container. The composting material added above the
bedding material. The material should be partially decomposition before introduce into
vermicompost bed. The warms feeding actively assimilate only 5-10% for their growth and is
excreted as loose granules mounds or worm cast. In general abed of 1m x1m x 0.3m requires 30
to 40 Kg of bedding and feeding materials. This can support 1000 to 1500 earthworms which
would multiply and compost the matter from upper layers the first lot of vermicompost is ready
in 30-40 days only. According to available extrapolative estimates 1Kg of earthworm (1000 adult
nos) would produce 10 Kg casts in 60-70 days.
Precautionary measures.
Moisture level should be maintained around 50-60%
Temperature should be maintained with the range of 20-30 C.
Handle the earthworms gently to avoid injury.
Protect from predators like ants, rats etc.
Use of decomposing cultures available like actinomycetes, phosphate solubilizing bacteria
for accelerating decomposition would speed up the operation.
Vermi composting in pits
A number of pits 2m x 1m with sloping sides are dug having suitable dimension. Vermi
composting
is
done
in
pits
and
in
vitro.
Both
of
these
are
discussed
here.
Bamboo poles are laid in parallel row on the pits. Its floor is with a lattice of wood strips.
Necessary drainage is provided because worms can not survive in a waterlogged condition.
Alternatively to this and sand can be placed in the bottom of the pit to facilitate proper drainage.
Above this a thick layer (15-20 cm) of good loamy soil should be spread. The pit can now be
filled with available organic residues such as animal manure, leaves and green weeds, crop
residues etc. Moisture levels of the contents of pit is maintained through addition of required
amount of water. The worms from breeding boxes are introduced in the organic refuse, the
worms
immediately
burrow
down
into
the
damp
soil.
The compost pit is left for 60 days. It should be shaded from hot sunshine and it must be kept
moist. Within 60 days about 10 kg of castings would have been producer per kg of worms. The
pit is then excavated to an extent of about two-thirds to three-quarters and the bulk of the worms
removed by hand or by sieving. This leaves sufficient worms in the pit for further composting
and the pit can be refilled with fresh organic residues and continued. The compost can be sundried and sieve to give good quality compost. The average nutrient content of Vermicompost is N
0.6-1.20%, P2O5 1.34-2.20%, K2O 0.4-0.67%, CIO 0.44% and Mao 0.15%. The excess worms
that have been harvested from the pit can be used in the other pits, sold to other farmers for
compost inoculation, and may be used as animal and poultry feed or fish food.
Method of pit vermicomposting
Selection of earthworm: Earthworm which is native to the local soil and Vermicompost may be
used. Size of pit : Any convenient dimensions such as 2m * 1m *1m may be prepared. This can
hold 20,000-40,000 worms giving 1 tonne manure/month (30 days).
Preparation of vermibed : a 15-20 cm thick layer of good loamy soil above a thin layer (5cm) of
broken bricks and sand should be made. This layer is inhabited by earthworms.
Inoculation of earthworms : About 100 earthworms are introduced as an optimum inoculating
density into a compost pit of about 2m * 1m * 1m provided with a vermibed.
Organic layering : It is done on the vermibed with fresh cattle dung. The compost pit is then
layered to about 5 cm with dry leaves or hay. Moisture content of the pit without flooding is
maintained through the addition of water. Wet organic layering : It is done after 28 days with
moist/green organic waste which can be spread over it to a thickness of 5 cm. This practice can
be repeated every3-4 days. Mixing of wastes periodically without disturbing the vermibed
ensures proper vermi composting. Wet layering with organic waste can be repeated till the
compost pit is nearly full.
Harvesting of Vermicompost : At maturation, the moisture content is brought down by stopping
the addition of water for 3-4 days. This ensures drying of compost and migration of worms into
the vermibed. The mature compost, a fine loose granular mass is removed out from the pit, dried
and packed.
Lecture 5. Fortified Organics, Enriched FYM, Zinc enriched organics Preparation and
characteristics
Farm compost is poor in P content (0.4-0.8 percent). Addition of P makes the compost
more balanced, and supplies nutrient to micro-organisms for their multiplication and faster
decomposition. The addition of P also reduces N losses.
Preparation of P enriched FYM
In black soils and calcareous soils due to calcareousness, P applied through fertilizers not
readily available to crops due to high P fixation by Ca. Hence, in dry land farming P is supplied
through enriched FYM for easy availability to crops.
Mix recommended dose of P as SSP or Rock phosphate with 750 kg FYM, moisten and
keep it in an anaerobic condition for 45 days (Refer Crop Production Guide).
Sl. No.
Crop
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Rainfed Groundnut
Rainfed Cotton
Rainfed Sorghum
Rainfed Cumbu
Rainfed Ragi
FYM (Kg/ha)
25
50
50
50
50
Mix recommended dose of Zn as Znso 4 with 1 tonne of FYM as per the corp.
requirement. Maize (12.5 kg Znso4) ; (Rice 25 kg/ha)
Moisten the compost till the heaps attain 50-60% moisture & keep it in an anaerobic
condition for 30 days.
0.716
65
18.0
7.40
10.30
0.38
0.007
7.72
0.73
0.027
0.58
921
321
22
790
2.76
0.705
0.59
Recommendations
Rice
Pulses
Groundnut
Sugarcane
Cotton
Onion
Tomato
Fly ash
Fly ash is a waste from Thermal power station. Flyash is found to contain silica (49 %), potash
(8.3 %) , S (7.1%), FeO (4.6%), CaO (12%) and MgO (6.3%). Besides macro and secondary
nutrients, flyash is found to contain considerable quantities of B and heavy metals such as Cr, Ni,
Pd and Cd etc., Application of flyash is found to reduce the bulk density and increase the water
retainability. Since it is alkaline in reaction it could be used as a amendment in acid soils.
Bottom Slag
Bottom Slag is a thermal plant byproduct of Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC). It is estimated
that 91,000 tonnes of bottom Slag is generated annually. Bottom slag is basically an acid material
rich in total Fe and S resembling low grade iron pyrite.
The pH of the Bottom Slag range from 1.80-2.65 and were rich in total iron content (5.87 % to
15.41 %).
Bottom slag @ 16 t ha-1 was found to be effective in reclaiming sodic soil
Application of bottom slag in calcareous soil along with phosphor bacteria was found to increase
the yield of groundnut and sunflower.
Press Mud
Press Mud is a by-product of sugar industry. For every 100 tonnes of sugarcane crushed
about 3 tonnes of press mud cake is left behind as by-product. It has been estimated that 2.7
million tonnes of press mud is produced every year in our country. Sugar industry generates
Press mud, a low density, soft, amorphous waste material containing 1-20% N, 0.6-36% P and
0.3- 1.8% K. Average nutrient composition of one tone of pressmud is 10-15 kg N, 14-40 kg P, 520 kg K and 32-120 kg Ca. Press mud contains trace quantity of micronutrients The pressmud
could be further enriched by the addition of rock phosphate and zinc sulphate.
Prevents soil erosion, crusting and cracking,
Adjust soil pH,
improves drainage and
promotes normal bacterial and microbial growth in the soil.
It is used as both soil reclamant as well as soil conditioner.
However, due to its bulky nature and wax content it usually give less benefit in the year of
direct application in the fields. Composting and vermicomposting could be an alternative to the
problem for promoting its use in agriculture.
Composition
pH
EC (dSm-1)
C:N
Nitrogen (%)
Phosphorus (%)
Potassium(%)
Calcium(%)
Magnesium (%)
Sulphur (%)
Organic carbon (%)
Iron (%)
Manganese (%)
Zinc (%)
Copper (%)
Raw Pressmud
Composted
6.0 7.0
3.0 3.3
25-36
1.0 1.5
1.4 2.5
0.5 2.0
3.2 12.0
1.0 2.0
0.1 0.5
15.0- 36.0
0.08- 0.3
0.01-0.3
0.14-0.4
0.003-0.024
7.1- 7.6
1.5-2.3
10-11.4
2.7 3.5
3.0 4.0
3.0 3.5
4.0 6.2
4.0 6.2
2.0 3.0
30-40
1.6-1.8
0.21-0.22
0.19-0.42
0.72-1.0
Ferro gypsum
Ferrogypsum is a byproduct of effluent treatment plants of the titanium industry where
TiO2 is manufactured using naturally occurring ilmenite ore (FeTiO 3). Many countries in the
world manufacture TiO2 where ferrogypsum is also recovered from the effluent treatment plants.
During the process of manufacturing, ferrogypsum is obtained by treating the filtrate ferrous
sulfate with lime during the process of neutralisation. Ferrogypsum, which contains gypsum and
iron, may also be an effective amendment for sodic soils. The present investigation was carried
out with a view to determine the composition of ferrogypsum and to evaluate its effectiveness as
a soil amendment to reclaim sodic soils, when used alone or in combination with farmyard
manure or green manure, and its impact on soil properties.
2. Coromandel International
(MAIDC)