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Linear Integrated Circuits Notes
Linear Integrated Circuits Notes
Marks: - 10
V.V.P.Polytechnic, Solapur
An operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is a direct coupled high gain amplifier usually consisting of one
or more differential amplifiers.
The operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is a versatile device that can be used to DC as well as AC input
signals.
It originally designed for performing mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, integration, differentiation, etc. thus the name operational amplifier is designated
as Op-Amp.
With suitable feedback components, the operational amplifier (Op-Amp) can be used for variety of
applications, such as, amplifiers, oscillator, filter, regulators, etc
Working: Input stage:o The input stage is dual input-balanced output differential amplifier.
o This stage generally provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier.
o This stage also provides high input impedance (2 M).
Intermediate stage:o The intermediate stage is driven by the output of first stage (input stage), and is dual inputunbalanced output.
o The intermediate stage is usually a differential amplifier.
o Because the direct coupling is used, the DC voltage of at the intermediate stage is well above
the ground level.
DC level shifter stage (level translator):o The DC level shifter stage, is usually a emitter follower circuit which is used after the
intermediate stage to shift DC level downwards to zero volts with respect to ground.
Output stage:o The final stage (output stage) is a complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier.
o The output stage increases output voltage swing, and supplies current supplying capability of
Op-Amp.
o Output stage provides low output impedance (75 ).
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The input stage is dual input-balanced output differential amplifier with constant current source.
This stage generally provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier.
This stage also provides high input impedance (2 M).
Differential amplifier is a two input transistor amplifier which amplifies the difference between
the two input signals Vin1 and Vin2.
The circuit is in the form of bridge and is excited by +VCC and VEE and output Vo= VC1
VC2
When supply voltages are applied then Q1 and Q2 turns ON.
As the circuit is symmetrical
Therefore IB1= IB2, and IC1= IC2
By applying KVL at the output, we get,
VC1= VCC- IC1 RC1
VC2= VCC- IC2 RC2
As,
IC1= IC2, RC1= RC2, therefore, VO= 0
As the output is taken between two collectors, the zero output is obtained, and the circuit is said
to be balanced.
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o Due to direct coupling between the first two stages, the input at level shifter stage contains dc
signal along with the required ac output.
o This increase in DC level tends to shift the operating point of the succeeding stage which
distorts the waveform.
o To avoid saturation of o/p voltage, the DC level shifter stage, usually a emitter follower
circuit, is used after the intermediate stage to shift DC level downwards to zero volts with
respect to ground.
o So that highest amplitude ac signal can be amplified without getting saturated.
o The simplest level shifter circuit is a emitter follower with a voltage divider
Question: - Explain how offset voltage nulling is an important in Op-Amp and why it is required in op- amp
application?
Answer:-
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The 741 type Op-Amp has a feature of offset voltage nulling capability.
The 741 type Op-Amp has pin number 1 and 5 for this purpose.
As shown in figure, a 10 K potentiometer be placed across offset null pins 1 and 5 and a wiper be
connected to the negative supply pin 4.
By varying the position of the wiper on the 10k potentiometer, we are trying to remove the
mismatch between inverting and non- inverting input terminals of the op- amp.
Adjust the wiper until the output offset voltage is reduced to zero.
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Op-Amp parameters:
Input offset voltage (Vio):o There is small error or offset voltage at the due to mismatching of components in the Ics
o This error voltage at output is reduced to zero by applying a suitable amount of dc voltage at the
input terminals called as the input offset voltage. It is always in mv or v
Gain bandwidth product current:o The gain bandwidth product is the bandwidth of the Op-Amp when gain is 1.
o Although for the 741 Op-Amp it is not listed under electrical characteristics, but from the open
loop voltage gain versus frequency graph it can be found to be approximately 1 MHz.
CMRR:o CMRR is the ratio of difference mode gain to common mode gain.
CMRR= Ad/Ac
o In ideal case common mode gain Ac=0, so CMRR is equal to infinite and practically common
mode gain (Ac) has low value, thus CMRR is very high
Slew Rate :o The slew rate is defined as maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time.
o It is expressed in V/s
o S.R.= dvo/dt
o Slew rate indicates that how rapidly the output of op-amp can change in response to change in
input frequency.
Input offset current:o The algebraic difference between the currents flowing into the inverting and non-inverting
terminals of Op-Amp is called an input offset current (Iios).
Iios = l IB1-IB2 l
o IB1 is current flowing through non-inverting terminal
o IB2 is current flowing through inverting terminal
o Ideally input offset current should be zero.
o Typically (practically) the input offset current is 6 nano-Amps.
Input bias current:o Input bias current is the average of the currents flowing into the two input terminals of the OpAmp.
Input bias current = (IB1+IB2)/2.
o IB1 is current flowing through non-inverting terminal
o IB2 is current flowing through inverting terminal
o Ideally input bias current should be zero.
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Package type
Temperature range
Package type
Temperature range
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In basic op amp operation, the offset voltage is assumed to be zero where the output voltage is
plotted against input difference voltage (Vid) keeping gain constant.
However, that the output voltage cannot exceed the positive and negative saturation voltage.
These saturation voltage are specified by an output voltage swing rating of the op amp for given
value of supply voltage that means output voltage is directly proportional to the input difference
voltage only until it which is the saturation voltage and that there after output voltage remains
constant.
Hence, the curve is called an ideal voltage transfer curve.
List the ideal values and practical values (typical values) of Op-Amp:Parameters
Input impedance
Voltage gain
Bandwidth
CMRR
Slew rate
SVRR (PSRR)
Input offset voltage
Input bias current
Input offset current
Output offset voltage
Output impedance
Ideal
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Practical
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Marks: - 18
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Differential amplifier:-
o Figure shows the open loop differential amplifier in which input signal Vin1 and Vin2 are applied
to positive and negative terminals.
o Since Op-Amp amplifies the difference between two input signals, this configuration is called
the differential amplifier.
o As OP-Amp can amplify AC as well as DC input signals, this means V in1 and Vin2 can be AC or
DC voltages.
o The source resistance Rin1 and Rin2 are normally negligible compared to input resistance Rin of
Op-Amp.
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waveform
o Figure shows the open loop inverting amplifier in which only one input signal (V in) is applied
and that is to the inverting input terminal.
o The non-inverting input terminal is grounded.
o Since V1= 0 volts and V2= Vin; the output voltage will be
VO= -Av X Vin
o The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to the input by
180o or is of opposite polarity.
o Thus in the inverting amplifier the input signal is amplified by the gain (AV) and is also inverted
at the output.
waveform
o Figure shows the open loop non-inverting amplifier in which only one input signal (V in) is
applied and that is to the non-inverting input terminal.
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Question: - Calculate the output voltage for open-loop non-inverting amplifier if Vin = 10mV dc. Also draw i/p
and o/p waveforms.
Answer:-
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Question: - Why open loop configuration of op- amp is never used for amplification? Give reasons.
Answer: Since open-loop gain of the op-amp is very high, the clipping occurs in the open-loop configuration
when the output attempts to exceed the saturation levels of the Op-Amp.
The open loop voltage gain of the op-amp is not constant. The gain varies with the changes in
temperature and power supply. This makes op-amp unsuitable for the linear applications.
Open loop configuration of op-amp is never used for amplification because an amplifier requires linear
relationship between input signal and output signal.
Therefore for very small input differential voltage (Vd) of the order of few microvolts, the op- amp
output will reach saturation level (+Vsat or -Vsat) and linear relationship between input and output is not
possible for input signal (Vd) beyond few microvolts.
Also there are problems of distortion, noise, low bandwidth in open loop mode.
Hence op- amp is never used in open loop mode for amplification.
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o The circuit diagram of closed loop inverting amplifier is shown in the above figure.
o The signal which is to be amplified is applied to the inverting terminal of the Op-Amp through
resistor R1.
o The resistor RF, connected between the output terminal and the inverting terminal is called as
feedback resistor. It introduces negative feedback.
o The non-inverting terminal is connected to ground.
o The amplified output signal will be 180o out of phase with respect to the input signal.
o As the output signal is in the inverted form of the input signal, therefore this amplifier is called
as inverting amplifier.
o Input and output waveforms are shown below.
Derivation (expression) for closed loop voltage gain of the inverting op-amp:-
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The circuit diagram of closed loop non-inverting amplifier is shown in the above figure.
The signal which is to be amplified is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the Op-Amp.
The resistor R1 is connected in between inverting terminal of op-amp and ground.
The resistor RF, connected between the output terminal and the inverting terminal is called as
feedback resistor. It introduces negative feedback.
o The amplified output signal will be 0o or 360o phase shifted with respect to the input signal.
o As the output signal is in phase with the input signal, therefore this amplifier is called as noninverting amplifier.
o Input and output waveforms are shown below.
o
o
o
o
Derivation (expression) for closed loop voltage gain of the non-inverting op-amp:-
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Question: - Design the circuit to get O/P voltage VO = 5Vi and draw design circuit.
V.V.P.Polytechnic, Solapur
Sr.
No
Parameters
Open-loop configuration
Closed-loop configuration
Circuit diagram
Gain
3
4
5
Bandwidth
Stability
Frequency response
6
7
8
Feedback
Input resistance
Disadvantage
Application
Bandwidth is low
Less stable
Frequency response has high gain and
less bandwidth
No feedback from output to input
Very high
Cannot be used as amplifier, since output
gets distorted
Comparator
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o The lowest gain that can be obtained from a non-inverting amplifier with feedback is 1.
o When non-inverting amplifier is configured for unity gain, it is called a voltage follower, because
the output is equal to and in phase with the input.
o In other words, the output of voltage follower (unity gain amplifier) follows the input.
o The voltage follower (unity gain amplifier) is preferred because it has much higher input
resistance and the output amplitude is exactly equal to input.
o To obtain the voltage follower (unity gain amplifier) from the non-inverting amplifier, simply
open R1 and short RF.
o The voltage follower is also called as a non-inverting buffer because, when placed between the
two networks, it removes the loading on the first network.
OR
The voltage Vid = 0, implies that terminal 1 (inverting) has same potential at terminal 2 (noninverting).
If the non-inverting terminal of OP-AMP is connected to ground then due to the virtual short
existing between the two input terminals, the inverting terminal will also be at ground potential.
Hence it is said to be virtual ground
Similarly, if the inverting terminal is connected to ground, then the non-inverting terminal will be at
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o Figure shows the inverting configuration with three inputs Va, Vb, and Vc.
o Depending on the relation between the feedback resistor (RF) and the input resistance Ra, Rb,
and Rc, the circuit can be used as summing amplifier.
o The circuits function can be verified by examining the expression for output voltage VO.
o So, applying Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) to the node V2, we get:-
o Therefore, when the gain of the circuit is 1, i.e. RF/R=1, i.e. if Ra=Rb=Rc=RF, the output voltage
is equal to the negative sum of the input voltages.
VO= - (Va+Vb+Vc)
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Averaging amplifier:-
o Figure shows the inverting configuration with three inputs Va, Vb, and Vc.
o The circuit can be used as averaging circuit, in which the output voltage is equal to the average
of all the input voltages.
o This is accomplished by using all input resistors of equal values, Ra=Rb=Rc=R.
o Also the gain of the circuit must be equal to 1 over the number of inputs, i.e. RF/R=1/n, where n
is number of inputs (3 input for above circuit)
o Depending on the relation between the feedback resistor (R F) and the input resistance Ra, Rb, and
Rc, the circuit can be used as averaging amplifier.
o The circuits function can be verified by examining the expression for output voltage VO.
o So, applying Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) to the node V2, we get:-
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o Figure shows the inverting configuration with three inputs Va, Vb, and Vc.
o If each input is amplified by different factor, i.e. weighted differently at the output, the circuit is
then called as scaling amplifier or weighted amplifier.
o Depending on the relation between the feedback resistor (RF) and the input resistance Ra, Rb,
and Rc, the circuit can be used as scaling amplifier or weighted amplifier.
o The circuits function can be verified by examining the expression for output voltage VO.
o So, applying Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) to the node V2, we get:-
o The condition can be accomplished if Ra, Rb, and Rc are different in value. Thus the output
voltage of the scaling amplifier is derived above.
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Drawbacks of integrator:-
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OR
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IC 555:-
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OR
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Or
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Schmtt trigger:-
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Bistable multivibrator:-
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