Communication Systems

Assignment

TOPIC: Receiver performance measures

Submitted By
Akshay kumar.V
12BEI0001
Slot : A2

Contents
Selectivity: .................................................................................................................................................... 3
Sensitivity ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
Image frequency Rejection: ......................................................................................................................... 6
Fidelity: ......................................................................................................................................................... 8
Intermediate frequencies: ........................................................................................................................... 8
Frequency Stability:.................................................................................................................................... 10
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR): ....................................................................................................................... 11
Concept of signal to noise ratio SNR ........................................................................................... 11
Signal to noise ratio formula........................................................................................................... 12
Effect of bandwidth on SNR ............................................................................................................ 12
Signal to noise ratio specifications............................................................................................... 13
Points to note when measuring signal to noise ratio............................................................... 13
Bandwidth: ................................................................................................................................................. 14
Ideal receiver selectivity: ........................................................................................................................... 14
Amplitude Limiter: ................................................................................................................................. 19
Dynamic range:........................................................................................................................................... 20

Selectivity:
Selectivity is a measure of the performance of a radio receiver to respond only
to the radio signal it is tuned to (such as a radio station) and reject other signals
nearby infrequency, such as another broadcast on an adjacent channel.
Selectivity is usually measured as a ratio in decibels (dBs), comparing the signal
strength received against that of a similar signal on another frequency. If the
signal is at the adjacent channel of the selected signal, this measurement is also
known as adjacent-channel rejection ratio (ACRR).
Selectivity also provides some immunity to blanketing interference.
LC circuits are often used as filters; the Q ("Quality" factor) determines
the bandwidth of each LC tuned circuit in the radio. The L/C ratio, in turn,
determines their Q and so their selectivity, because the rest of the circuit - the
aerial or amplifier feeding the tuned circuit for example - will contain present
resistance. For a series resonant circuit, the higher the inductance and the lower
the capacitance, the narrower the filter bandwidth (meaning the reactance of the
inductance, L, and the capacitance, C, at resonant frequency will be relatively
high compared with the series source/load resistances). For a parallel resonant
circuit the opposite applies; small inductances reduce the damping of external
circuitry.
There are practical limits to the increase in selectivity with changing L/C ratio:

tuning capacitors of large values can be difficult to construct

stray capacitance, and capacitance within the transistors or valves of
associated circuitry, may become significant (and vary with time)
the series resistance internal to the wire in the coil, may be significant (for
parallel tuned circuits especially)
Large inductances imply physically large (and expensive coils) and/or thinner
wire (hence worse internal resistance).

Therefore other methods may be used to increase selectivity, such as Q

multiplier circuits and regenerative receivers. Super heterodyne receivers allow
use one or more fixed intermediate tuned circuits for selectivity. Fixed tuning
eliminates the requirement that multiple tuning stages accurately match while
being adjusted.

Sensitivity
Receiver sensitivity or RF sensitivity is one of the key specifications of any radio
receiver whether it is used for Wi-Fi, cellular telecommunications broadcast or any
other form of wireless communications.
The ability of the radio receiver to pick up the required level of radio signals will
enable it to operate more effectively within its application.
The two main requirements of any radio receiver are that it should be able to
separate one station from another, i.e. selectivity, and signals should be amplified
so that they can be brought to a sufficient level to be heard. As a result receiver
designers battle with many elements to make sure that these requirements are
fulfilled
Methods of specifying sensitivity performance
As the RF sensitivity performance of any receiver is of paramount importance it is
necessary to be able to specify it in a meaningful way. A number of methods and
figures of merit are used dependent upon the application envisaged:

Signal to noise ratio: This is a straightforward comparison ratio of a given

signal level to the noise within the system.

SINAD: This receiver sensitivity measurement is slightly more formalised,

and it also includes distortion as well as the noise.

Noise factor : This RF receiver measurement compares the noise added

by a unit - this could be an amplifier or other unit within the system or it could
be a complete receiver.

Noise figure: The noise figure, or NF of a unit or system is the logarithmic

version of the noise factor. It is widely used for specifications of sensitivity
and noise performance of a receiver, element within a system, or the whole
system.

Carrier to noise ratio, CNR: The carrier-to-noise ratio is the signal-tonoise ratio (SNR) of a modulated signal. This term is less widely used than
SNR, but may be used when there is a need to distinguish between the
performance with regards to the radio frequency pass-band signal and the
analogue base band message signal after demodulation.

Minimum discernable signal, MDS: The Minimum detectable or minimum

discernable signal is the smallest signal level that can be detected by a radio
receiver, i.e. one that can be processed by its analogue and digital signal
chain and demodulated by the receiver to provide usable information at the
output.

Error vector magnitude, EVM: Error vector magnitude, EVM is a measure

that can be used to quantify the performance of a digital radio transmitter or
receiver. There various points on the constellation diagram set to identify
various digital states. In an ideal link, the transmitter should generate the
digital data such that it falls as close to these points as possible - the link
should not degrade the signal such that the actual received data does not
fall onto these points, and the receiver should also not degrade these
positions. In reality, noise enters the system and the received data does not
fall exactly onto these positions. The error vector magnitude is a measure of
how far from the ideal positions the actual received data elements are. Some
times EVM may also be known as the Receive Constellation Error, RCE

Bit error rate, BER: Bit error rate is a form of measurement used for digital
systems. As the signal level falls or the link quality degrades, so the number
of errors in the transmission - bit errors - increases. Measuring the bit error
rate gives an indication of the signal to noise ratio, but in a format that is
often more useful for the digital domain.

All the receiver sensitivity specification methods use the fact that the limiting factor
of the sensitivity of a radio receiver is not the level of amplification available, but
the levels of noise that are present, whether they are generated within the radio
receiver or outside.

Image frequency Rejection:

An image frequency is an undesired input frequency equal to the station
frequency plus twice the intermediate frequency. The image frequency results in
two stations being received at the same time, thus producing interference. Image
frequencies can be eliminated by sufficient attenuation on the incoming signal by
the RF amplifier filter of the super-heterodyne receiver.

For example, an AM broadcast station at 580 kHz is tuned on a receiver with

a 455 kHz IF. The local oscillator is tuned to 580 + 455 = 1035 kHz. But a
signal at580 + 455 + 455 = 1490 kHz is also 455 kHz away from the local
oscillator; so both the desired signal and the image, when mixed with the local
oscillator, will also appear at the intermediate frequency. This image
frequency is within the AM broadcast band. Practical receivers have a tuning
stage before the converter, to greatly reduce the amplitude of image
frequency signals; additionally, broadcasting stations in the same area have
their frequencies assigned to avoid such images.

The unwanted frequency is called the image of the wanted frequency,

because it is the "mirror image" of the desired frequency reflected . A
receiver with inadequate filtering at its input will pick up signals at two different
frequencies simultaneously: the desired frequency and the image frequency.
Any noise or random radio station at the image frequency can interfere with
reception of the desired signal.
Early Autodyne receivers typically used IFs of only 150 kHz or so, as it was
difficult to maintain reliable oscillation if higher frequencies were used. As a
consequence, most Autodyne receivers needed quite elaborate antenna
tuning networks, often involving double-tuned coils, to avoid image
interference. Later superhets used tubes especially designed for
oscillator/mixer use, which were able to work reliably with much higher IFs,
reducing the problem of image interference and so allowing simpler and
cheaper aerial tuning circuitry.
Sensitivity to the image frequency can be minimised only by (1) a filter that
precedes the mixer or (2) a more complex mixer circuit [1] that suppresses
the image. In most receivers this is accomplished by a bandpass filter in
the RF front end. In many tunable receivers, the bandpass filter is tuned in
tandem with the local oscillator.
Image rejection is an important factor in choosing the intermediate frequency
of a receiver. The farther apart the bandpass frequency and the image
frequency are, the more the bandpass filter will attenuate any interfering
image signal. Since the frequency separation between the bandpass and the
image frequency is
, a higher intermediate frequency improves image
rejection. It may be possible to use a high enough first IF that a fixed-tuned
RF stage can reject any image signals.
The ability of a receiver to reject interfering signals at the image frequency is
measured by the image rejection ratio. This is the ratio (in decibels) of the
output of the receiver from a signal at the received frequency, to its output for
an equal-strength signal at the image frequency.

Fidelity:
The fidelity of a receiver is its ability to accurately reproduce, in its output, the
signal that appears at its input. You will usually find the broader the band passed
by frequency selection circuits, the greater your fidelity. You may measure fidelity
by modulating an input frequency with a series of audio frequencies; you then
plot the output measurements at each step against the audio input frequencies.
The resulting curve will show the limits of reproduction.
You should remember that good selectivity requires that a receiver pass a narrow
frequency band. Good fidelity requires that the receiver pass a broader band to
amplify the outermost frequencies of the side bands. Receivers you find in
general use are a compromise between good selectivity and high fidelity.

Intermediate frequencies:
In communications and electronic engineering, an intermediate frequency (IF) is
a frequency to which a carrier frequency is shifted as an intermediate step
in transmission or reception.[1] The intermediate frequency is created by mixing the
carrier signal with a local oscillator signal in a process called heterodyning, resulting in a
signal at the difference or beat frequency. Intermediate frequencies are used
in superheterodyne radio receivers, in which an incoming signal is shifted to an IF
for amplification before final detection is done.
Conversion to an intermediate frequency is useful for several reasons. When several
stages of filters are used, they can all be set to a fixed frequency, which makes them
easier to build and to tune. Lower frequency transistors generally have higher gains so
fewer stages are required. It's easier to make sharply selective filters at lower fixed
frequencies.
There may be several such stages of intermediate frequency in a superheterodyne
receiver; two or three stages are called double or tripleconversion.
Intermediate frequencies are used for three general reasons. At very high (gigahertz)
frequencies, signal processing circuitry performs poorly. Active devices such
as transistorscannot deliver much amplification (gain).[1][2] Ordinary circuits
using capacitors and inductors must be replaced with cumbersome high frequency

techniques such as striplinesand waveguides. So a high frequency signal is converted

to a lower IF for more convenient processing. For example, in satellite dishes, the
microwave downlink signal received by the dish is converted to a much lower IF at the
dish, to allow a relatively inexpensive coaxial cable to carry the signal to the receiver
inside the building. Bringing the signal in at the original microwave frequency would
require an expensive waveguide.
A second reason, in receivers that can be tuned to different frequencies, is to convert
the various different frequencies of the stations to a common frequency for processing.
It is difficult to build multistage amplifiers, filters, and detectors that can have all stages
track in tuning different frequencies, but it is comparatively easy to build
tunable oscillators. Superheterodyne receivers tune in different frequencies by adjusting
the frequency of the local oscillator on the input stage, and all processing after that is
done at the same fixed frequency, the IF. Without using an IF, all the complicated filters
and detectors in a radio or television would have to be tuned in unison each time the
frequency was changed, as was necessary in the early tuned radio frequency receivers.
The main reason for using an intermediate frequency is to improve
frequency selectivity.[1] In communication circuits, a very common task is to separate out
or extract signals or components of a signal that are close together in frequency. This is
called filtering. Some examples are, picking up a radio station among several that are
close in frequency, or extracting the chrominance subcarrier from a TV signal. With all
known filtering techniques the filter's bandwidth increases proportionately with the
frequency. So a narrower bandwidth and more selectivity can be achieved by converting
the signal to a lower IF and performing the filtering at that frequency.
Perhaps the most commonly used intermediate frequencies for broadcast receivers are
around 455 kHz for AM receivers and 10.7 MHz for FM receivers. In special purpose
receivers other frequencies can be used. A dual-conversion receiver may have two
intermediate frequencies, a higher one to improve image rejection and a second, lower
one, for desired selectivity. A first intermediate frequency may even be higher than the
input signal, so that all undesired responses can be easily filtered out by a fixed-tuned
RF stage.[3]
In a digital receiver, the analog to digital converter (ADC) operates at low sampling
rates, so input RF must be mixed down to IF to be processed. Intermediate frequency
tends to be lower frequency range compared to the transmitted RF frequency. However,
the choices for the IF are most dependent on the available components such as mixer,
filters, amplifiers and others that can operate at lower frequency. There are other factors
involved in deciding the IF frequency, because lower IF is susceptible to noise and
higher IF can cause clock jitters.

Modern satellite television receivers use several intermediate frequencies.[4] The 500
television channels of a typical system are transmitted from the satellite to subscribers
in theKu microwave band, in two subbands of 10.7 - 11.7 and 11.7 - 12.75 GHz. The
downlink signal is received by a satellite dish. In the box at the focus of the dish, called
a low-noise block downconverter (LNB), each block of frequencies is converted to the IF
range of 950 - 2150 MHz by two fixed frequency local oscillators at 9.75 and 10.6 GHz.
One of the two blocks is selected by a control signal from the set top box inside, which
switches on one of the local oscillators. This IF is carried into the building to the
television receiver on a coaxial cable. At the cable company's set top box, the signal is
converted to a lower IF of 480 MHz for filtering, by a variable frequency oscillator.[4] This
is sent through a 30 MHz bandpass filter, which selects the signal from one of
the transponders on the satellite, which carries several channels. Further processing
selects the channel desired, demodulates it and sends the signal to the television.

Frequency Stability:
Frequency drift is an unintended and generally arbitrary offset of
an oscillator from its nominal frequency. Causes may include component
aging,[1] changes in temperature that alter the piezoelectric effect in a crystal
oscillator, or problems with a voltage regulator which controls the bias voltage to
the oscillator. Frequency drift is traditionally measured in Hz/s. Frequency
stability can be regarded as the absence (or a very low level) of frequency drift.
On a radio transmitter, frequency drift can cause a radio station to drift into
an adjacent channel, causing illegal interference. Because of this, Frequency
allocation regulations specify the allowed tolerance for such oscillators in a typeaccepted device. A temperature-compensated, voltage-controlled crystal
oscillator (TCVCXO) is normally used for frequency modulation.
On the receiver side, frequency drift was mainly a problem in early tuners,
particularly for analog dial tuning, and especially on FM, which exhibits a capture
effect. However, the use of a phase-locked loop (PLL) essentially eliminates the
drift issue. For transmitters, a numerically controlled oscillator (NCO) also does
not have problems with drift.
Drift differs from Doppler shift, which is a perceived difference in frequency due
to motion of the source or receiver, even though the source is still producing the

same wavelength. It also differs from frequency deviation, which is the inherent
and necessary result of modulation in both FM and phase modulation.

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):

The noise performance and hence the signal to noise ratio is a key parameter for
any radio receiver. The signal to noise ratio, or SNR as it is often termed is a
measure of the sensitivity performance of a receiver. This is of prime importance
in all applications from simple broadcast receivers to those used in cellular or
wireless communications as well as in fixed or mobile radio communications, two
way radio communications systems, satellite radio and more.
There are a number of ways in which the noise performance, and hence the
sensitivity of a radio receiver can be measured. The most obvious method is to
compare the signal and noise levels for a known signal level, i.e. the signal to noise
(S/N) ratio or SNR. Obviously the greater the difference between the signal and
the unwanted noise, i.e. the greater the S/N ratio or SNR, the better the radio
receiver sensitivity performance.
As with any sensitivity measurement, the performance of the overall radio receiver
is determined by the performance of the front end RF amplifier stage. Any noise
introduced by the first RF amplifier will be added to the signal and amplified by
subsequent amplifiers in the receiver. As the noise introduced by the first RF
amplifier will be amplified the most, this RF amplifier becomes the most critical in
terms of radio receiver sensitivity performance. Thus the first amplifier of any radio
receiver should be a low noise amplifier.
Concept of signal to noise ratio SNR
Although there are many ways of measuring the sensitivity performance of a radio
receiver, the S/N ratio or SNR is one of the most straightforward and it is used in
a variety of applications. However it has a number of limitations, and although it is
widely used, other methods including noise figure are often used as well.
Nevertheless the S/N ratio or SNR is an important specification, and is widely used
as a measure of receiver sensitivity

Signal to noise ratio for a radio receiver

The difference is normally shown as a ratio between the signal and the noise (S/N)
and it is normally expressed in decibels. As the signal input level obviously has an
effect on this ratio, the input signal level must be given. This is usually expressed
in microvolts. Typically a certain input level required to give a 10 dB signal to noise
ratio is specified.
Signal to noise ratio formula
The signal to noise ratio is the ratio between the wanted signal and the unwanted
background noise.

It is more usual to see a signal to noise ratio expressed in a logarithmic basis using
decibels:

If all levels are expressed in decibels, then the formula can be simplified to:

The power levels may be expressed in levels such as dBm (decibels relative to a
milliwatt, or to some other standard by which the levels can be compared.
Effect of bandwidth on SNR
A number of other factors apart from the basic performance of the set can affect
the signal to noise ratio, SNR specification. The first is the actual bandwidth of the
receiver. As the noise spreads out over all frequencies it is found that the wider the
bandwidth of the receiver, the greater the level of the noise. Accordingly the
receiver bandwidth needs to be stated.

Additionally it is found that when using AM the level of modulation has an effect.
The greater the level of modulation, the higher the audio output from the receiver.
When measuring the noise performance the audio output from the receiver is
measured and accordingly the modulation level of the AM has an effect. Usually a
modulation level of 30% is chosen for this measurement.

Signal to noise ratio specifications

This method of measuring the performance is most commonly used for HF
communications receivers. Typically one might expect to see a figure in the region
of 0.5 microvolts for a 10 dB S/N in a 3 kHz bandwidth for SSB or Morse. For AM
a figure of 1.5 microvolts for a 10 dB S/N in a 6 kHz bandwidth at 30% modulation
for AM might be seen.
Points to note when measuring signal to noise ratio
SNR is a very convenient method of quantifying the sensitivity of a receiver, but
there are some points to note when interpreting and measuring signal to noise
ratio. To investigate these it is necessary to look at the way the measurements of
signal to noise ratio, SNR are made. A calibrated RF signal generator is used as
a signal source for the receiver. It must have an accurate method of setting the
output level down to very low signal levels. Then at the output of the receiver a true
RMS AC voltmeter is used to measure the output level.

S/N and (S+N)/N When measuring signal to noise ratio there are two basic
elements to the measurement. One is the noise level and the other is the
signal. As a result of the way measurements are made, often the signal
measurement also includes noise as well, i.e. it is a signal plus noise
measurement. This is not normally too much of a problem because the
signal level is assumed to be much larger than the noise. In view of this
some receiver manufacturers will specify a slightly different ratio: namely
signal plus noise to noise (S+N/N). In practice the difference is not large, but
the S+N/N ratio is more correct.

PD and EMF Occasionally the signal generator level in the specification

will mention that it is either PD or EMF. This is actually very important
because there is a factor of 2:1 between the two levels. For example 1
microvolt EMF. and 0.5 microvolt PD are the same. The EMF (electro-motive
force) is the open circuit voltage, whereas the PD (potential difference) is
measured when the generator is loaded. As a result of the way in which the
generator level circuitry works it assumes that a correct (50 Ohm) load has

been applied. If the load is not this value then there will be an error. Despite
this most equipment will assume values in PD unless otherwise stated.
While there are many parameters that are used for specifying the sensitivity
performance of radio receivers, the signal to noise ratio is one of the most basic
and easy to comprehend. It is therefore widely used for many radio receivers used
in applications ranging from broadcast reception to fixed or mobile radio
communications.

Bandwidth:
Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a
continuous set of frequencies. It is typically measured in hertz, and may
sometimes refer to passband bandwidth, sometimes to baseband bandwidth,
depending on context. Passband bandwidth is the difference between the
upper and lower cutoff frequencies of, for example, a bandpass filter,
a communication channel, or a signal spectrum. In the case of a low-pass
filter or baseband signal, the bandwidth is equal to its upper cutoff frequency.
Bandwidth in hertz is a central concept in many fields,
including electronics, information theory, digital communications, radio
communications, signal processing, and spectroscopy and is one of the
determinants of the capacity of a given communication channel.
A key characteristic of bandwidth is that any band of a given width can carry the
same amount of information, regardless of where that band is located in
the frequency spectrum. For example, a 3 kHz band can carry a telephone
conversation whether that band is at baseband (as in a POTS telephone line)
or modulated to some higher frequency.

Ideal receiver selectivity:

Selectivity is one of the major specifications of any receiver. Whilst the sensitivity
is important to ensure that it can pick up the signals and receive them at a
sufficient strength, the selectivity is also very important. It is this parameter that
determines whether the receiver is able to pick out the wanted signal from all the
other ones around it. The filters used in receivers these days have very high
levels of performance and enable receivers to select out individual signals even
on today's crowded bands.

Superhet principle
Most of the receivers that are used today are superhet radios. In these sets the
incoming signal is converted down to a fixed intermediate frequency. It is within
the IF stages that the main filters are to be found. It is the filter in the IF stages
that defines the selectivity performance of the whole set, and as a result the
receiver selectivity specification is virtually that of the filter itself.

Figure 1 Block diagram of a basic superhet receiver

In some receivers simple LC filters may be used, although ceramic filters are
better and are used more widely nowadays. For the highest performance crystal
or mechanical filters may be used, although they are naturally more costly and
this means they are only found in high performance sets.
Filter parameters
There are two main areas of interest for a filter, the pass band where it accepts
signals and allows them through, and the stop band where it rejects them. In an
ideal world a filter would have a response something like that shown in Figure 2.
Here it can be seen that there is an immediate transition between the pass band
and the stop band. Also in the pass band the filter does not introduce any loss
and in the stop band no signal is allowed through.

Figure 2 The response of an ideal filter

In reality it is not possible to realise a filter with these characteristics and a typical
response more like that shown in Figure 3. It is fairly obvious from the diagram
that there are a number of differences. The first is that there is some loss in the
pass band. Secondly the response does not fall away infinitely fast. Thirdly the
stop band attenuation is not infinite, even though it is very large. Finally it will be
noticed that there is some in band ripple.

Figure 3 Typical response of a real filter

In most filters the attenuation in the pass band is normally relatively small. For a
typical crystal filter figures of 2 - 3 dB are fairly typical. However it is found that
very narrow band filters like those used for Morse reception may be higher than
this. Fortunately it is quite easy to counteract this loss simply by adding a little
extra amplification in the intermediate frequency stages and this factor is not
quoted as part of the receiver specification.
It can be seen that the filter response does not fall away infinitely fast, and it is
necessary to define the points between which the pass band lies. For receivers

the pass band is taken to be the bandwidth between the points where the
response has fallen by 6 dB, i.e. where it is 6 dB down or -6 dB.
A stop band is also defined. For most receiver filters this is taken to start at the
point where the response has fallen by 60 dB, although the specification for the
filter should be checked this as some filters may not be as good. Sometimes a
filter may have the stop band defined for a 50 dB attenuation rather than 60 dB.
Shape factor
It can be seen that it is very important for the filter to achieve its final level of
rejection as quickly as possible once outside the pass band. In other words the
response should fall as quickly as possible. To put a measure on this, a figure
known as the shape factor is used. This is simply a ratio of the bandwidths of the
pass band and the stop band. Thus a filter with a pass band of 3 kHz at -6dB and
a figure of 6 kHz at -60 dB for the stop band would have a shape factor of 2:1.
For this figure to have real meaning the two attenuation figures should also be
quoted. As a result the full shape factor specification should be 2:1 at 6/60 dB.
Filter types
There is a variety of different types of filter that can be used in a receiver. The
older broadcast sets used LC filters. The IF transformers in the receiver were
tuned and it was possible to adjust the resonant frequency of each transformer
using an adjustable ferrite core.
Today ceramic filters are more widely used. Their operation is based on the
piezoelectric effect. The incoming electrical signal is converted into mechanical
vibrations by the piezoelectric effect. These vibrations are then affected by the
mechanical resonances of the ceramic crystal. As the mechanical vibrations are
then linked back to the electric signal, the overall effect is that the mechanical
resonances of the ceramic crystal affect the electrical signal. The mechanical
resonances of the ceramic exhibit a high level of Q and this is reflected in its
performance as an electrical filter. In this way a high Q filter can be manufactured
very easily.
Ceramic filters can be very cheap, some costing only a few cents. However
higher performance ones are also available, and these are likely to be found in
scanners and many other receivers.
For really high levels of filter performance crystal filters are used. Crystals are
made from quartz, a naturally occurring form of silicon, although today's
components are made from synthetically grown quartz. These crystals also use

the piezoelectric effect and operate in the same way as ceramic filters but they
exhibit much higher levels of Q and offer far superior degrees of selectivity. Being
a resonant element they are used in many areas where an LC resonant element
might be found. They are used in oscillators - many computers have crystal
oscillators in them, but they are also widely used in high performance filters.
Normally crystal filters are made from a number of individual crystals. The most
commonly used configuration is called the half lattice filter as shown in Figure 4.
Further sections can be added to the filter to improve the performance. Often a
filter will be quoted as having a certain number of poles. There is one pole per
crystal, so a six pole crystal filter would contain six crystals and so forth. Many
filters used in amateur communications receivers will contain either six or eight
poles.

Figure 4 A basic half lattice crystal filter section

Choosing the right bandwidth
It is important to choose the correct bandwidth for a give type of signal. It is
obviously necessary to ensure that it is not too wide, otherwise unwanted offchannel signals will be able to pass though the filter. Conversely if the filter is too
narrow then some of the wanted signal will be rejected and distortion will occur.
As different types of transmission occupy different amounts of spectrum
bandwidth it is necessary to tailor the filter bandwidth to the type of transmission
being received. As a result many receivers switch in different filters for different
types of transmission. This may be done either automatically as part of a mode
switch, or using a separate filter switch. Typically a filter for AM reception on the
short wave bands will have a bandwidth of around 6 kHz, and one for SSB will be

approximately 2.5 kHz. For Morse reception 500 and 250 Hz filters are often
used.
Summary
Selectivity is particularly important on today's crowded bands, and it is necessary
to ensure that any receiver is able to select the wanted signal as well as it can.
Obviously when signals occupy the same frequency there is little that can be
done, but by having a good filter it is possible to ensure that you have the best
chance or receiving and being able to copy the signal you want.

Amplitude Limiter:
Amplitude Limiters and FM Thresholding The vast majority of terrestrial FM radio
communications systems use conventional noncoherent demodulation because
most standard frequency discriminators use envelope detection to remove the
intelligence from the FM waveform. Unfortunately, envelope detectors (including
ratio detectors) will demodulate incidental amplitude variations as well as
frequency variations. Transmission noise and interference add to the signal and
produce unwanted amplitude variations. Also. frequency modulation is generally
accompanied by small amounts of residual amplitude modulation. In the receiver,
the unwanted AM and random noise interference are demodulated along with the
signal and produce unwanted distortion in the recovered information signal. The
noise is more prevalent at the peaks of the FM waveform and relatively in
ignificant during the zero crossings. A limiter is a circuit that produces aconstantamplitude output for all input signals above a prescribed minimum input level,
which is often called the threshald,quieting. or capture level. Limiters are required
in most FM receivers because many of the demodulators discussed earlier in this
chapter demodulate amplitude as well as frequency varia-tions. With amplitude
limiters, the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the demodulator (postdetection)
can be improved by as much as 20 dB or more over the input (predetection)
signal to noise. Essentially, an amplitude limiter is an additional IF amplifier that
is overdriven. Limiting begins when the IF signal is sufficiently large that it drives
the amplifier alternately into saturation and cutoff. Figures 8-9a and b show the
input and output waveforms for a typical limiter. In Figure 8-9b. it can be seen
that for IF signals that are below threshold, the AM noise is not reduced. and for
IP signals above threshold, there is a huge reduction in the AM noise level. The
purpose of the limiter is to remove all amplitude variations from the IF signal.
Figure 8-10a shows the limiter output when.the noise is greater than the signal
(i.c.. the noise has captured the limiter). The irregular widths of the serrations are
caused by noise impulses satu-rating the limiter. Figure 8-10b shows the limiter
output when the signal is sufficiently greater than the noise (the signal has
captured the limiter). The peaks of the signal have the limiter so far into sat-

uration that the weaker noise is totally eliminated. The improvement in the SIN
ratio is called FM thresholding, FM quieting, or the FM capture effect. Three
criteria must be satisfied before FM thresholding can occur.
The pre detection signal-to-noise ratio must he I0 dB or greater.
The IF signal must be sufficiently amplified to overdrive the
limiter.
The signal must have a modulation index equal to or greater than
unity

Dynamic range:
The dynamic range of a radio receiver is essentially the range of signal levels
over which it can operate. The low end of the range is governed by its sensitivity
whilst at the high end it is governed by its overload or strong signal handling
performance. Specifications generally use figures based on either the intermodulation performance or the blocking performance. Unfortunately it is not
always possible to compare one set with another because dynamic range like
many other parameters can be quoted in a number of ways. However to gain an
idea of exactly what the dynamic range of a radio receiver means it is worth
looking at the ways in which the measurements are made to determine the range
of the radio receiver.
The overall dynamic range of the receiver is very important because it is just as
important for a set to be able to handle strong signals well as it is to be able to
pick up weak ones. This becomes very important when trying to pick up weak
signals in the presence of nearby strong ones. Under these circumstances a set
with a poor dynamic range may not be able to hear the weak stations picked up
by a less sensitive set with a better dynamic range. Problems like blocking, intermodulation distortion and the like within the receiver may mask out the weak
signals, despite the set having a very good level of sensitivity. These parameters
are obviously important when determining what equipment should be used in a
radio communications system.
When looking at dynamic range specifications, care must be taken when
interpreting them. The MDS at the low signal end should be viewed carefully, but
the limiting factors at the top end show a much greater variation tin the way they
are specified. Where blocking is used a reduction of 3 dB sensitivity is normally
specified, but in some cases may be 1 dB used. Where the inter-modulation
products are chosen as the limiting point the input signal level for them to be the
same as the MDS is often taken. However whatever specification is given, care
should be taken to interpret the figures as they may be subtlety different in the way
they are measured from one receiver to the next.

To gain a feel for the figures which may be obtained where inter-modulation is the
limiting factor figures of between 80 and 90 dB range are typical, and where
blocking is the limiting factor figures around 115 dB are generally achieved in a
good radio receiver used for professional radio communications applications.