Jean Emmanuel 2011

UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS
A Study on Degradation
of Carbon Steel in
Atmospheric Condition
BENG (HONS) MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
JEAN EMMANUEL CHAN YOUN SEN

3/30/2011
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
TABLES OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
DECLARATION FORM
17
ABSTRACT
xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
xii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
DEFINITION OF CORROSION
1.2
CONSEQUENCES OF CORROSION
1.2.1 Economic Dimension
1.2.2 Health Dimension
1.2.3 Safety Dimension
1.3
ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION IN MAURITIUS
1.4
CLIMATE IN MAURITIUS
1.5
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
9
9
2.0
INTRODUCTION
10
2.1
MECHANISM OF CORROSION REACTION
10
2.2
ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION STAGES
12
2.2.1 Initial Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion
12
2.2.2 Intermediate Stages of Atmospheric
12
Corrosion
2.2.3 Final Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion
2.3
PARAMETERS AFFECTING ATMOSPHERIC
13
14
CORROSION
2.3.1 Time of Wetness
2.4
14
2.3.1.1 Rain
14
2.3.1.2 Temperature
15
2.3.2 Sulphur Dioxide
15
2.3.3 Airborne Chlorides
16
2.3.4 Other Corrosive Agents
16
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
16
2.4.1 Surface Roughness Parameters
17
2.4.1.1 Ra
18
2.4.1.2 Rq (rms)
19
2.4.1.3 Rz
19
2.4.1.4 Other Parameters
20
CHAPTER 3
21
METHODOLOGY
3.0
INTRODUCTION
21
22
3.1
ATMOSPHERIC EXPOSURE
23
3.1.1 Material
23
3.1.2 Exposure Test Sites
24
3.2
MASS LOSS
26
3.3
SURFACE ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENTS
26
3.3.1 Sampling Length

3.4
MEASUREMENT OF ACTUAL
28
29
CORROSION PENETRATION
3.4
3.4.1 Specimen Preparation
30
3.4.2 Depth Measurement
34
CONCLUSION
36
CHAPTER 4
37
RESULTS, ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION
37
4.0
INTRODUCTION
38
4.1
VISUAL INSPECTION OF THE SURFACE
39
4.2
CORROSION LOSS ANALYSIS
40
4.3
SURFACE ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENT ANALYSIS 42
4.4
4.3.1 Cut off Selection Methodology
42
4.3.2 Cut off Selection Methodology Results
44
4.3.3 Roughness Values Analysis
45
CHANGES IN DEPTH OF CARBON STEEL
49
POST EXPOSURE
4.4
CONCLUSION
51
CHAPTER 5
52
GENERAL DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION &
52
RECOMMENDATION
5.0
GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
53
5.1
RECOMMENDATION
54
APPENDIX A
56
A.1
UNIFORM CORROSION
56
A.2
GALVANIC CORROSION
56
A.3
PITTING CORROSION
57
A.4
CREVICE CORROSION
57
B.1
ROUGHNESS
58
B.2
WAVINESS
58
B.3
SPACING
59
B.4
HYBRID PARAMETERS
60
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C
62
C.1
CORROSION LOSS RESULTS
62
C.2
CUT OFF SELECTION
62
C.3
MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH WITH MICROSCOPE
65
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 3
Table 3.1 Composition of carbon steel exposed
23
Table 3.2 Recommended cut -offs for different surface finishes
29
CHAPTER 4
Table 4.1 Identification codes of specimens
40
Table 4.2 Corrosion loss of the specimens
41
Table 3.3 Roughness values at 0.25mm cut off
42
43
43
Table 3.6 Required cut off according to ISO 4288
43
Table 4.3 Required cut off values
44
Table 4.4 Set of measurements of specimen thickness
49
APPENDIX C
Table C.1: Corrosion Loss
62
Table C.2: Cut off test at 0.25mm
63
63
64
Table C.5: Thickness of reference specimens
65
Table C.6: Thickness of specimens of study A
65
Table C.7: Thickness of specimens of study B
67
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.1: Atmospheric corrosion of iron
11
Fig. 2.2: Cross section through a rough surface showing roughness heights
17
and surface spatial wavelengths

Fig. 2.3: Graphical representation of Ra
18
Fig. 2.4: Graphical representation of Rq and Ra
19
Fig. 2.5: Graphical representation of Rz
20
CHAPTER 3
Fig. 3.1: Specimen test coupon
27
Fig. 3.2: Profile showing a roughness wavelength of 0.25mm with an Ra
28
of about 20m
Fig. 3.3: Nikon Microscope ME600 equipped with stage micrometer
30
Fig. 3.4: Specimen Transformation
31
Fig. 3.5: Hand Bench Shear
32
Fig. 3.6: Vertical milling machine
33
Fig. 3.7: Specimen being milled along the longitudinal edge of cut
33
Fig. 3.19: Nikon Microscope ME600 equipped with a stage micrometer
34
Fig. 3.20: Specimen fixed firmly at right angle to the slide using plasticine
35
Fig. 3.21: Specimen on slide and positioned on stage
35
CHAPTER 4
Fig. 4.1: Coupon freshly removed from rack (left) and cleaned (right)
39
Fig. 4.2: Formation of rust layer and cracks
45
Fig. 4.3: Graph of Ra (m) against Corrosion loss (m)
46
Fig. 4.4: Graph of Rq (m) against Corrosion loss (m)
47
Fig. 4.5: Comparison between Ra and Rq
47
Fig. 4.6: Graph of Rz DIN (m) against Corrosion loss (m)
48
Fig. 4.6: Graph of Change in Thickness (m) against Corrosion Loss (m)
50
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I would like to thank Mr. Surnam for proposing this project to me. He acted
as my supervisor and provided me with assistance throughout the course of the project.
I am also very grateful for his guidance and sound advices which helped me doing this
project at my maximum potential.
The technicians in the Mechanical Workshop also played an important role in the
smooth running of my project. They were of great help in providing whatever piece of
equipment I needed or how to handle them. Mr Bhanjee taught me how to manipulate
the optical microscope; Mr. Dunesh explained to me how to operate the milling
machine, Mr. Seetohul gave me some tricks in using the Surtronic 3+ and Mr. Chu was
there to help me whenever I needed it.
My friends were also there to support me in dire times, boosting my morale whenever I
felt giving up and always cheering me up. I dedicate a big thank you to them, especially
Davina, who was there to accompany me during most of my all-nighters.
And finally, I would like to thank my parent, without whom, I would not have the
opportunity to complete this project as they provided me with all my financial support.
ABSTRACT
Atmospheric corrosion is a problem of growing concern in Mauritius, especially since
there has been a growing use of carbon steels over the past years according to the CSO.
However atmospheric corrosion effects in Mauritius are relatively unknown as very few
studies have been carried out in that respect. The aim of the project was to analyze the
behavior of carbon steel in atmospheric Mauritian environment.
Carbon steel test specimens were exposed across different sites of the island for some
times. Afterwards they were removed and the mass loss was measured which enable
the calculation of their respective corrosion loss. This was then used as a reference for
further tests.
Surface roughness measurements were also done in order to analyze the effects of
atmospheric corrosion on the surface. The correlation with corrosion loss was also
found as obeying a logarithmic regression method.
Thickness measurement using a microscope was also performed and the change in
thickness is evaluated. This is also correlated with corrosion loss and was found to have
a logarithmic relationship.
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
EDM
Electro Discharge Machining
RH
Relative Humidity
TOW
Time of Wetness
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Atmospheric corrosion is a major problem in most countries around the world. It has
been a recurring problem for Man since iron was first extracted from it ore about
4000 BC (Leygraf & Graedel, 2000). It is the cause of premature failure of structural
parts and outdoor equipments such as bridges, steel building roofs or even airplanes
fuselage which results in human injury or even loss of life.
Atmospheric corrosion is often seen as an inevitable stage of any metallic product

since the day it is manufactured and put in service. Certainly corrosion cannot be
avoided but it can be, at least, be reduced or prevented at most. Scientists and
researchers have carried out a lot of studies on the matter as the problem became
more and more serious over time.
It is only recently that engineers could use their arsenal of tools at their disposal to
study atmospheric corrosion as it is a very complex and hard-to-predict phenomena.
Even in Mauritius, very few studies have been undertaken on the matter which
remains largely empirical but is not appropriate for us. As atmospheric corrosion is
heavily dependent on the environment and the use of steel is growing in the island
which has known unprecedented development, it makes sense that a study on the
surface degradation of carbon steel in Mauritian atmospheric condition is carried
out.
1.1
DEFINITION OF CORROSION
Corrosion is a naturally occurring process. It is the tendency of any metal or alloy to

return to their naturally occurring compound called ores commonly found in nature
which are more thermodynamically stable. It can be defined as the destructive and
unintentional attack of a metal. However, it is electrochemical in nature and is a
surface phenomenon. The corrosion reaction mechanism involves transfer of
electron from the metal which undergoes an oxidation reaction to another chemical
species which, then, undergoes a reduction reaction. These are usually water,
atmospheric oxygen and so on (Callister, 2007). Considering the metal M, this can
be expressed by the following reaction
M Mz+ + zeThe metal M loses z electrons and becomes a positively charged ion, Mz+. This
explains the material loss as metal oxides are usually formed on the surface. The
metal which has been corroded is called the anode and the electron acceptor is called
the cathode.
1.2
CONSEQUENCES OF CORROSION
Corrosion affects the daily life of everyone and their surroundings in many aspects. I
has both direct consequences, in the sense that it affects the use of useful service
components, and indirect consequences as well by the fact that any cost incurred due
to corrosion by manufacturers or higher bodies is passed on to the consumer.
Corrosion affects in a lot of different ways, namely:
Economic
Health
Safety
1.2.1 Economic Dimension
Billions of dollars are lost each year because of it. In 1975, the National Institute of
Standards and Technology has estimated that the annual cost due to corrosion in the
United States is between $9 billion to $90 billion. Various technical bodies such as
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers corroborated the validity of these
figures at that time (Schweitzer, 2007).
The cost in the previously mentioned study was evaluated more precisely at $82
billion, or 4.9% of its gross national product (GNP). 60% of the cost was estimated
to be unavoidable. The rest could have been prevented by the use of appropriate
corrosion inhibition methods available at that time.
If nothing else had changed, the costs of metallic corrosion would have risen to
almost $350 billion annually by 1995, $139 billion of which would have been
avoidable (ASM International, 1999).
The costs of corrosion can be can categorized in two sections, namely:
Design, manufacture and construction

Materials selection, such as replacement of carbon steel with stainless
steel
Additional material, such as larger corrosion allowances
Mitigation and prevention of corrosion by the use of coatings,
sealants, inhibitors, and cathodic protection, including the cost of
labor and equipment
Management
Corrosion-related inspections
Corrosion-related maintenance, repairs, replacement of parts,
inventory of backup components, rehabilitation, and loss of
productive time (Cost of Corrosion, 2010).
In Mauritius, no such statistics are available and there is no reliable estimate of the
cost of corrosion for the island. This would require a collaboration of all acting
members of each economic sector to obtain valid results.
1.2.2
Health Dimension
There has been a notable increase in the use of metallic prosthetic devices in the
body recently. Examples are pins, hip joints, plates and pace makers. Although new
alloys and implementation techniques have been developed, corrosion is still a
problem. Examples include failures through broken connections in pacemakers,
inflammation caused by corrosion products in the tissue around implants, and
fracture of weight-bearing prosthetic devices (Kruger, 2001)
The health aspect is also very important in plants which produce a lot of waste water
or have large chimneys releasing tones of smoke in the atmosphere. Internal
corrosion of distribution pipes can cause the contamination of water or smoke with
heavy metal or toxic particles. This is even more acute for water distribution plants.
1.2.3
Safety Dimension
There have been many accidents in the past owing to or partly due to a failed
metallic component put in service. A failed component may seem inconsequential at
first but can be greatly aggravated by the circumstances leading to severe human
injury or loss of lives. Two examples of such accidents are listed below.
The structural failure on April 28, 1988 of a 19 year old Boeing 737,
operated by Aloha airlines, was a defining event in creating awareness of
aging aircraft in both the public domain and in the aviation community. This
5
aircraft lost a major portion of the upper fuselage in full flight at 24,000 feet,
near the front of the plane (Miller, 1990). Multiple fatigue cracks were
detected in the remaining aircraft structure, in the holes of the upper row of
rivets in several fuselage skin lap joints (Wildey, 1990).
On December 15, 1967 at approximately 5 p.m., the U.S. Highway 35 bridge

connecting Point Pleasant, West Virginia and Kanauga, Ohio suddenly
collapsed into the Ohio River. At the time of failure, thirty- seven vehicles
were crossing the bridge span, and thirty-one of those automobiles fell with
the bridge. Forty- six individuals perished with the buckling of the bridge
and nine were seriously injured. Along with the numerous fatalities and
injuries, a major transportation route connecting West Virginia and Ohio was
destroyed, disrupting the lives of many and striking fear across the nation
(LeRose, 2001).
1.3
ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION IN MAURITIUS
Mauritius is developing very fast at an unprecedented rate during the last decade.
And, indeed steel is part of it and is used increasingly each year for the construction
of big structures, roof shelters, guarding rails and so on. For the year 2008 alone, the
total import of iron and steel in Mauritius totaled Rs 3675 millions for a total
quantity of 114,000 tonnes (Central Statistics Office, 2009).
Low carbon steel and medium carbon steel are the types of steel used most often.
This is because they are cheap, relatively strong, and malleable and offers a good
balance of properties versus cost. Whenever large quantities of steel are needed such
as for the construction of steel buildings or steel bridges, carbon steel is used. It is
also used for the manufacture of smaller structures such as solar water heaters,
doors, fences, gates or road signs.
Unfortunately carbon steel is not corrosion resistant. As soon as the manufactured

product is put in service, it will start to corrode being in contact with the atmosphere.
Furthermore there have been no serious studies concerning corrosion of carbon steel
in atmospheric condition in Mauritius and as such information on this phenomenon
is scarce. Corrosion is not taken seriously by Mauritians as their effects in the short
term are not visible. It is seen as an inevitable process that every carbon steel
product is subject to. Signs of corrosion can be seen all over Mauritius. Rusted steel
roof, corroded bodies of old cars, rusted road sign displays or rusted outdoor gates
are some examples. It is taken as granted and is thought to be inherent to the use of
the product. Increased awareness of corrosion control methods can bring Mauritians
up to date on the matter.
1.4
CLIMATE IN MAURITIUS
Mauritius has two kinds of climate. Below the 400-meter level on most of the
windward (southeastern) side of the island and below 450 meters on the leeward
side, a humid, subtropical climate prevails. Above these altitudes, the climate is
more temperate, but there is no sharp break, and variations in exposure, altitude, and
distance from the sea produce a wide range of patterns. The island has two seasons.
The hot and wet summer lasts from November through April. February is the
warmest month with temperatures averaging 27 C in the lowlands and 22 C on the
plateau. Cyclone season runs from December through March, and the storms, which
come from the northeast, have caused much destruction on the island over the years.
Winter, lasting from May through October, is cool and dry, influenced by the steady
southeasterly trade winds. July is the coolest month and has average temperatures of
22 C in the lowlands and 16 C in the plateau. Rainfall is abundant, ranging from
90 centimeters per year in the western lowlands to 500 centimeters in the tableland-an average of 200 centimeters per year overall. Nonetheless, the high rate of
evaporation and uneven distribution necessitate irrigation. Humidity is frequently
above 80 percent (Mauritius-Climate , 1994).
Factors affecting atmospheric corrosion are temperature, time of wetness, wind

velocity, humidity, presence of atmospheric pollutants, airborne salinity and others.
Given the climate prevalent in Mauritius, the atmosphere in the island greatly favors
atmospheric corrosion of carbon steel. There is abundant amount of sunshine time
and rainfall time at all times during the year. The humidity level is often above the
critical value of 80% and, being a small island, Mauritius is surrounded by sea,
which places it in a category of serious airborne salinity level.
1.5
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The project aims at studying the effects of atmospheric corrosion on carbon steel
locally in Mauritius. Carbon steel specimens of standard shape and size have been
exposed to the open atmosphere at specific different sites around the island for a set
amount of time exposure.
The objectives of the project would then be to:
Analyze the reduction in thickness of the specimens after being subjected to

atmospheric corrosion.
Analyze the surface roughness characteristics of the base metal of the

corroded samples. This would lead to the development of models to predict
corrosion loss based on surface roughness.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0
INTRODUCTION
The objective of the project is to assess the effects of atmospheric corrosion on carbon
steel in the local Mauritian environment. However there have not been many serious
studies in the past covering this matter. This literature review will gather the research
and findings of other published papers and documenting them.
The following topics have been compiled and documented:
2.1
Mechanism of corrosion reaction
Parameters affecting atmospheric corrosion
Surface roughness
MECHANISM OF CORROSION REACTION (Roberge, 2000)
Being electrochemical in nature, atmospheric corrosion requires the presence of an

electrolyte. Above a certain critical humidity level, thin-film invisible electrolytes
tend to form on the surface of carbon steel under atmospheric exposure conditions. The
critical humidity level is not constant and depends on the corroding material, the
tendency of corrosion products and surface deposits to absorb moisture, and the
presence of atmospheric pollutants.
Atmospheric corrosion proceeds by cathodic and anodic reactions. The latter reaction
involves the dissolution of the metal into the electrolyte while the former is considered
as an oxygen reduction reaction which is plentiful in the atmosphere. For iron,
Anode Reaction: 2Fe 2Fe2+ + 4e
equation (2.1)
Cathode Reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH-
equation (2.2)
10
Fig. 2.1: Atmospheric corrosion of iron
The anodic and cathodic reactions for the atmospheric corrosion of iron (main
constituent of carbon steel) are illustrated schematically in Figure 2.1. Besides an anode
and a cathode, a metallic path (iron) connecting both electrodes and the presence of an
electrolyte (e.g. water containing salt) are required. As soon as there is a difference in
potential between the anode and the cathode, a complete circuit is set up and corrosion
takes place.
Adding equation (2.1) and equation (2.2) leads to the following stoichiometric equation:
2Fe + O2 +2H2O 2Fe(OH)2
equation (2.3)
The compound with the chemical formula 2Fe(OH)2 is known as ferrous hydroxide. Its
color is greenish black and is quite unstable in the presence of dissolved oxygen. It
quickly turns into ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH)3, which is reddish-brown in color and is
known as rust.
4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 4Fe(OH)3
11
equation (2.4)
2.2
ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION STAGES (Leygraf & Graedel, 2000)
Atmospheric corrosion occurs through multiple stages over time. From the initial stages
of corrosion which occurs in mere seconds when exposed to atmosphere; to the
intermediate stages; to the final stages, which occur after years or even decades of
exposure.
2.2.1
Initial Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion
Surface Hydroxylation
This is the instant reaction of water vapor with the metal surface which occurs within a
fraction of a second. The bond formed maybe either in molecular or dissociated form.
This results in the formation of metal-hydroxyl bonds for the former and metal-oxygen
bonds for the former. As surface hydroxyl groups (-OH) are generated, these act as sites
for further water adsorption on metal surfaces. This is the precursor to the formation of
thin layers of electrolytes on the metal surface.
Adsorption and Absorption of Water
Upon further exposure to the atmosphere, subsequent atmospheric water is adsorbed in

molecular form on the surface, leading to a surface less conducive to rapid combination
with water. The first layer of water has a high degree of ordering relative to the
substrate because of its proximity to the solid surface. As amount of layers increase,
they become more mobile with a higher degree of random orientation. From three
monolayers or thicker, aqueous films possess properties close to bulk water.
2.2.2
Intermediate Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion
Gas Deposition
The aqueous phase acts as a solvent for atmospheric constituents in either gaseous or
particulate form that deposit into the liquid layer and which are known to affect the
atmospheric corrosion process. Gaseous atmospheric constituents include nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and ammonia (NH3). One particulate form of
atmospheric constituent is sodium chloride (NaCl), which is readily present in marine
atmospheres.
12
Change in Layer Liquid Chemistry
The deposition of constituents into the aqueous phase results in a number of chemical
and electrochemical reactions. Important chemical reactions which can occur are the
transformation of SO2 into sulphurous acid (HsSO4) or the transformation of NO2 into
nitric acid (HNO3). As the thickness of the liquid layer varies continuously, its chemical
composition changes continuously as well. Hence the pH of the aqueous layer may
change from neutral at high liquid layer thickness to highly acidic at low liquid layer
thickness.
Nucleation of Corrosion products
When the concentration of ion pairs in the liquid layer eventually reaches
supersaturation, the ion pairs will precipitate into a solid phase. The nucleation of
precipitated species is facilitated by the heterogeneous nature of the substrate surface,
particularly by solid-state defects, which can act as nucleation sites.
2.2.3
Final Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion
Coalescence of Corrosion Products
With prolonged exposure, the number of precipitated nuclei and their size increase until
eventually they completely cover the metal surface. These precipitates at this stage are
normally referred to as corrosion products. The brown rust layer often seen on
carbon steel is a common designation for clearly visible and often observed corrosion
products. There are other products which are invisible to the naked eye such as passive
films.
Aging and Thickening of Corrosion
While being affected by a number of continuously varying parameters such as relative

humidity or liquid layer thickness, the corrosion product layer undergoes a 3-step
sequential growth. The first step occurs during the increase of the liquid layer thickness
when part of the corrosion product may dissolve; the second involves the coordination
in the liquid layer of dissolved metal anions and counterions; and the third step occurs
during the decrease of the liquid layer thickness when the newly coordinated ion pairs
reprecipitate. The repeated cycles continuously cause the layer of corrosion products to
change its properties.
13
When the corrosion products finally become stable and acquire properties which no
longer change with time, then it can be said to have a constant corrosion rate. The time
to reach stable conditions can vary from years to decades, or even centuries.
2.3
PARAMETERS AFFECTING ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION
The rate of atmospheric corrosion is influenced by a number of parameters which are

atmospheric gases, atmospheric particles and weathering parameters. Being
electrochemical in nature, the presence of an electrolyte is mandatory and, thus, the time
of wetness greatly influences atmospheric corrosion. Atmospheric corrosive gases such
as carbon dioxide (CO2) or hydrogen sulfide (H2S) also degrade carbon steel. Sea salt,
mainly sodium chloride (NaCl), behaves as atmospheric corrosive particles and
catalyzes the formation of acid electrolytes.
2.3.1
Time of Wetness (Schweitzer, 2007)
Time of wetness (TOW) is defined as the length of time during which the metal surface
is covered by a film of water, i.e. an electrolyte film, therefore allowing atmospheric
corrosion to take place. This is a very complex variable which depends on factors such
as relative humidity (RH) whereby the film of water is greatest when RH80%, the
temperature of the air and the metal surface above 0C, the duration and frequency of
rain, fog, dew, and melting snow, as well as the amount of sunshine time and rainfall
time.
2.3.1.1 Rain (Schweitzer, 2007)

Rain precipitation has three effects on carbon steel from the point of view of
atmospheric corrosion. They are:
1) It creates thicker layers of electrolytes on the metal surface as compared to fog
or dew.
2) A phase layer of moisture containing ions such as H+ and SO42- which stimulate
corrosion is formed.
3) It washes away any atmospheric corrodants which may have deposited on the
surface during the preceding dry period.
14
The first two effects promote atmospheric corrosion whereas the third one decreases
corrosion rate for carbon steel. Which effect predominates depends on certain
conditions such as weather, type of corrosion atmosphere and so on.
In a strongly polluted atmosphere, corrosion on the skyward side of steel plates is

substantially lower than on the downward side. In a strongly polluted atmosphere where
dry deposition is considerably greater than deposition of sulphur pollutants, the washing
effect of rain takes over. In a less-polluted area, the situation is reversed, which
indicates that the corrosive action of rain, in this case, is more important.
2.3.1.2 Temperature (Schweitzer, 2007)

The effects of temperature affecting corrosion are also very complex as it has dual
effects depending on conditions similar to rain effects. An increase in temperature
increases the rate of chemical and electrochemical reactions as well as diffusion rates.
Consequently an increase in temperature promotes corrosion rate. On the other hand, an
increase in temperature also decreases the relative humidity and causes the more rapid
evaporation of the surface electrolyte, causing a decrease in corrosion rate as time of
wetness is reduced.
2.3.2
Sulphur Dioxide (Roberge, 2000)
Sulphur dioxide is mainly produced as the product of the burning of sulphur-containing

fossil fuels, especially in urban and industrial atmospheres. It plays a vital role in
atmospheric corrosion as it is readily adsorbed onto the metal surface, has a high
solubility in water and has a tendency to form sulphuric acid in the presence of an
aqueous layer of electrolyte. Sulphate (SO42-) ions are formed by the oxidation of
sulphur dioxide according to the following equation:
SO2 + O2 + 2e- SO42-
equation (2.5)
This reaction, i.e. the formation of sulphate ions, is considered as the principal factor
which accelerates atmospheric corrosion of iron and steel. This ultimately leads to the
formation of iron sulphate (FeSO4) which is a corrosion product found in industrial
atmospheres and in the layers of the metal surface.
15
2.3.3
Airborne Chlorides (Roberge, 2000)
Chlorides are considered as one of the most corrosive components responsible for the
degradation of steel. It is commonly found in relatively large amounts in marine
atmospheres and coastal areas because of the close proximity of the sea. The
concentration of chlorides varies according to the direction and strength of the wind. It
also decreases when moving further inland.
Airborne salinity increases with the presence of chlorides and chloride salts are
deposited on the surface of the metal, which greatly affects corrosion. They are
deposited as droplets or as crystals. This increases markedly corrosion rates. Apart from
the enhanced surface electrolyte formation by hygroscopic salts such as NaCl and
MgCl2, direct participation of chloride ions in the electrochemical corrosion reactions
also happen.
In ferrous metals, chloride ions have a tendency to compete with hydroxyl groups for
combining with ferrous cations produced in the anodic reaction. While ferrous iron salts
are fairly stable, iron chloride salts are relatively more soluble, therefore stimulating
further the corrosion effect.
2.3.4
Other Corrosive Agents
The parameters discussed in section 2.3 are part of the main atmospheric sources of
atmospheric corrosion. There are many more not discussed in detail but needs to be
mentioned at least. These are:
2.4
Dust, dew and fog

Carbon dioxide, nitrogen compounds (NOx) and ozone
Sheltering from particles, rainfall and sunshine
Wind velocity
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Surface topography characterizations have many important applications such as friction,

lubrication and wear (Thomas, 1999). Therefore surface parameters are vital in required
performance such as efficiency of heat exchanger tubes which is better when their
surfaces are slightly rough rather than highly finished. Other applications which work
16
best with some degree of roughness are brakes and clutch plates. On the other hand, if a
thin film of lubrication is to be maintained between two sliding parts, the surface
roughness should be small enough so that the peaks do not protrude out of the oil film,
even under severe conditions. Otherwise there will be wear. Hence controlling or
predicting surface parameters is very important as this affects to a large extent the
properties of a component (Sharma, 2008).
2.4.1
Surface Roughness Parameters
Roughness is defined as the deviation from a true flat surface, resulting in finer
irregularities in the surface texture which are inherent to the production process.
(Bennett, 2003)
Fig. 2.2: Cross section through a rough surface showing roughness heights and
surface spatial wavelengths. Note that the height scale is in angstroms and the
length scale is in micrometers (1 m = 10,000 )
It can be quantified by certain specific amplitude parameters which are known as Rx
values where x is a subscript depending on the definition of the parameter. This type of
parameter characterizes the vertical deviation of the surface from the mean line and is
17
defined by mathematical formulas which represent statistically the surface by a single

number.
2.4.1.1 Ra
Fig. 2.3: Graphical representation of Ra
This is defined as the average roughness of all points from the mean center line across
the sampling length and is defined by the following formula,
It is the most commonly used parameter in industry. This is because it is readily

available in even the less sophisticated instruments such as the Surtronic 3+ as
calculations required are relatively not complex as compared to other parameters. Hence
it is a very stable and repeatable parameter which is useful in industry where time and
repeatability are essential. Furthermore it is a good parameter for distinguishing random
type surfaces and, by nature, corrosion produces random surfaces,
18
2.4.1.2 Rq (rms)
Fig. 2.4: Graphical representation of Rq and Ra
It is the root mean square average roughness of the surface taken along the assessment
length and is the rms parameter corresponding to Ra. It is defined by the formula,
Rq is more sensitive to peaks and valleys than Ra as the amplitudes are squared in the
former.
2.4.1.3 Rz
It is also called the ten-point height as it is the average peak-to-valley profile roughness
of 5 successive sampling lengths, i.e. the evaluation length and is defined by the
following formula,
19
Fig. 2.5: Graphical representation of Rz
Rz is more sensitive to peaks and valleys as opposed to Ra and Rq as the parameter

works with maximum heights and deepest valleys instead of averages.
2.4.1.4 Other Parameters

The surface parameters covered previously in section 2.4.1 are the most commonly used
ones. However there are many other families of surface parameters which define surface
topography and are available in the ISO standards. Some examples are given below.
Roughness Parameters
Waviness Parameters
Spacing Parameters
Hybrid Parameters
Further notes on the above family of surface parameters are included in the appendix.
20
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.0
INTRODUCTION
This chapter contains details about the exposure of the carbon steel specimens in
different sites across Mauritius. Post-exposure, all the steps and procedures involved in
experimentation would be discussed.
Details pertaining to how the study would be carried out, under what conditions
and on which sites will be described first.
After having obtained the mass loss, further operations taken to study the
specimen will be discussed.
Measurement of surface roughness using the Talysurf will be explained.
The steps taken in order to prepare the samples for being used with the optical
microscope will be discussed as well.
Details and procedures for using the Nikon optical microscope will be analyzed.
22
3.1
ATMOSPHERIC EXPOSURE (B.Y.R. & Oleti, 2008)
The samples used in the project were obtained from previous atmospheric exposure of
carbon steel samples because of time constraints. Corrosion monitoring techniques
require exposure time to be around 1000 hours if corrosion rate is estimated to be
around 0.05 mm year -1, i.e. corrosion loss around (Roberge, Corrosion Inspection and
Monitoring, 2007)
The exposure of the carbon steel specimens was carried out in two distinct studies; one
was called study A and another one subsequently called study B. The type of carbon
steel used and sites of exposure was specific to each study. Only the time of exposure
was the common to both studies, i.e. 1 year. Each test coupon was clearly marked
using alphabetical stamps.
3.1.1
Material
Carbon steel plates were used in both study A and study B. Their size was 150 mm x
100 mm x 3 mm and was cut from the same sheet for each study. The carbon steel used
in each study was of different percentage composition of alloying elements which are
listed in the table below.
Table 3.1 Composition of carbon steel exposed
The main characteristic used in the classification of steel is the percentage composition
of carbon as alloying element. Low carbon steel (mild steel) is classified as steel having
approximately 0.05% to 0.26% carbon content with up to 0.4% manganese content and
23
medium carbon steel is classified as steel having approximately 0.29% to 0.54% carbon
content with 0.60 to 1.65% manganese content (Key to Metals AG, 1999).
Hence, based on this, the carbon steel plates used for study A would be classified as
medium carbon steel and the carbon steel plates used for study B would be classified as
low carbon steel (mild steel).
3.1.2
Exposure Test Sites
The sites chosen for the exposures were chosen such that the test specimens were
exposed to the full effects of the weather and were exposed to different types of
environment, which are listed below (Roberge, 2000):
Rural
This is the least corrosive type of environment and normally does not contain pollutants
such as sulphur dioxide or chlorides but it does contain organic and inorganic
particulates. The principal corrosive agents are moisture, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Urban
This is similar to the rural type given that there very little or no industrial activity in this
type of environment. However there are additional contaminants of SO x and NOx it
because of the more densely populated area and increased traffic activity.
Industrial
The atmosphere is heavily polluted with sulphur dioxides, phosphates, nitrates and
chlorides because of intense industrial activity.
Marine
This type of environment is characterized mostly by its location nearby coastal areas.
Fine chloride particles blown by the wind are deposited on metal surfaces and this tends
24
to be highly corrosive. It is usually dependent in a large extent on wind speed, wind

direction and distance from the sea.
Three sites were chosen for study A as follows,

The University of Mauritius at Reduit, which is considered a rural region.
The Mauritius Meteorological Services at Vacoas which is an urban region.
The Ministry of Agriculture at Palmar which is found in a rural region.
As for study B, four sites of exposure were selected as follows,

Reduit (same as for study A)
Belle Mare which purely a marine zone.
Port Louis which is an industrial environment and, given its close proximity to
the shore line, a marine type as well.
St Julien dHotman which is a rural site.
Prior to exposure the specimens were cleaned using acetone. Stains of rust found on
some of the mild steel samples were dealt with a rust remover beforehand. According to
ISO 8565 for atmospheric corrosion testing for metals and alloys, the samples were then
exposed to the atmosphere for a period about 1 year.
For study A, samples were removed at 1 , 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 months from start of
exposure for mass loss analysis. There were 7 successive removals
For study B, samples were removed at 2 , 7, 12 and 19 months from start of exposure
for mass loss analysis. There were 4 successive removals.
25
3.2
MASS LOSS
Before the test coupons were exposed, each one was weighed to the nearest 0.001g.
This is the sample mass before exposure. After specific time periods, the carbon steel
test coupons are removed and cleaned from their corrosion products according to BS
7545 (1991), which are then reweighed. The difference between the sample mass before
and after exposure is the mass of metal corroded and, as a result, can be used for the
determination of corrosion loss.
The mass loss values were also already determined prior to the start of this project as
exposure time was very long and time was limited as one year for completion of this
project.
The values of the corrosion loss were then calculated and some other parameters such as
time of exposure or density of carbon steel can be used for the calculation of corrosion
penetration, also commonly as thickness loss of material, as shown below.
CP =
equation (3.1)
Where,
CP = corrosion penetration, mm
W = mass loss, g
= density of specimen, g/mm3
A = area of specimen, mm2
The value obtained for CP will only be an average value for the time it has been
exposed.
3.3
SURFACE ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENTS
After removal of the corrosion products using ISO 8565 (1995), the surface roughness
of the base metal skyward surfaces were analyzed using a surface profilometer to assess
of any trend or changes in surface topography.
26
Fig. 3.1: Specimen test coupon
The instrument used was the Taylor Hobson Surtronic 3+ with a stylus diamond tip
radius of 2 m. The stylus diamond tip radius of 2 m was preferred to the 5 m one
because the smaller tip radius measures the finer and deeper valleys that bigger ones
cannot.
The coupon was of dimension 150mm x 100mm and its thickness was of 3mm. The
surface roughness measurements were taken on face which was skyward during
exposure. Besides, it was taken along a small longitudinal area in the middle of the
skyward face as shown in figure 3.1.
27
3.3.1
Sampling Length
The sampling length in surface roughness measurement is the length of assessment

acting as a filter to remove unwanted wavelengths from a surface. For example a
sampling length, which is often written as cut off length, of 0.8mm will allow
wavelengths below 0.8mm to be analyzed whereas wavelengths above 0.8mm will be
considered as waviness and their amplitudes will be severely reduced.
However the selection of cut off value is vital for the accuracy of the measurements
since roughness values fluctuate when the cut off is altered.
Fig. 3.2: Profile showing a roughness wavelength of 0.25mm with an Ra of about

20m
The hypothetical profile in figure 3.9 shows that roughness amplitude of Ra of about
20m is obtained for a roughness wavelength of 0.25mm. It the surface was analyzed
with a 0.08mm cut off value, the value for Ra would be virtually zero and with a cut of
0.25mm, the Ra value would be about 10m. Only at larger cut offs, say 0.08mm or
2.5mm, that the correct value of 20m would be obtained. At cut offs of 8mm and
higher, the profile would include large waviness errors and this would increase the
value of Ra.
Furthermore manufacturing process and material also influence the selection of the
sampling length. According to ISO 4288 pertaining to rules and procedures for the
28
assessment of surface texture, the choice of cut off depend on the different surface
finish processes and can be chosen based on the following table.
Periodic
Profiles
Non-Periodic Profiles
Cut-off
Sampling
Length/
Evaluation
Length
Spacing
Rz (m)
Ra (m)
c (mm) c (mm)/L
Distance
Sm (mm)
> 0.013 - 0.04
To 0.1
To 0.02
0.08
0.08/0.4
> 0.04 - 0.13
> 0.1 - 0.5
> 0.02 - 0.1
0.25
0.25/1.25
> 0.13 - 0.4
> 0.5 - 10
> 0.1 - 2
0.8
0.8/4
> 0.4 - 1.3
>10 - 50
> 2 - 10
2.5
2.5/12.5
> 1.3 - 4.0
> 50
> 10
8
8.0/40
Table 3.2 Recommended cut -offs for different surface finishes (ISO 4288 1996)
Atmospheric corrosion implies removal of material from the surface and it can be
treated within reasonable limits to a manufacturing process with no control over the
process parameters unlike EDM where the discharge current can be adjusted or milling
where the feed rate can be increased or lessened as required. Corrosion is therefore
expected to produce an irregular texture on the carbon steel surface and would produce
non-periodic profiles. According to table 3.2, then the value of the cut off would depend
on the value of Ra and Rz
Tests were then carried out on each specimen to determine the required cut off
according to ISO 4288 (1996). This involved taking surface roughness measurements
with all available cut offs on the Surtronic 3+, i.e. 0.25mm, 0.8mm and 2.5mm, and the
appropriate cut off was chosen based on the results obtained.
3.4
MEASUREMENT OF ACTUAL CORROSION PENETRATION
The corrosion penetration rate obtained through mass loss analysis in section 3.2 is an
average value for the amount of time the carbon steel test coupons have been exposed to
the atmosphere. However the actual corrosion penetration is not uniform across the
surface and some localized corrosion penetration run much deeper through the metal
29
than the value obtained by equation (3.1) and should not be overlooked as structural
components strength and service life will be affected by the actual corrosion
penetration.
It is a good idea to know the deepest penetration of corrosion on the samples. It can then
be compared to the corrosion penetration rate and an idea of the discrepancy between
the average penetration and the actual penetration can then be obtained.
The atmospheric corrosion process is not uniform across the samples and in order to
measure the penetration at different locations, direct measurement of the thickness of
the carbon steel samples after exposure is preferred instead of mass loss analysis. This
can be achieved with an instrument, the Nikon Microscope ME600 equipped with a
stage micrometer giving a precision of up to 0.001mm, which is available for use in the
UOM metallurgy laboratory.
Fig. 3.3: Nikon Microscope ME600 equipped with stage micrometer
3.4.1
Specimen Preparation
The carbon steel specimens with initial dimensions of 150mm x 100mm x 3mm cannot
be used with the Nikon Microscope ME600 as they are too large and bulky to be
handled on the stage of the microscope. Ideally a thin strip of metal cut along the length
of the specimen can be used, say a 150mm x 15mm x 3mm. This is roughly the
dimension of the strip, in figure 3.1.
30
The strip in the middle of the specimen along its length is preferred for measurement of
the depth because,
This area of the metal affected by atmospheric corrosion is most representative

of a real-life situation of a service component exposed to the atmosphere since it
surrounded by bulk material on all sides.
This part of the specimen was also chosen for surface roughness measurements.
For the sake of consistency, it makes sense to use this region for depth
measurement as well.
The challenge is to convert a 150mm x 100mm x 3mm plate into a 150mm x 15mm x
3mm strip.
Fig. 3.4: Specimen Transformation
The cutting of the specimen from X to Y has been done in several steps as described in
the following methodology. Great care was taken to ensure reliability of results and
many precautions were followed in the methods described below.
Bench Shear
31
Fig. 3.5: Hand Bench Shear
The outlines of the strip, like in figure 3.4, were carved onto the surface using a scriber.
Then it was cut along the outline in a shear sheet metal operation.
Milling Machine
Before they are machined further, it is a good practice to reduce the degree of bending
as far as possible to ensure a good gripping whenever it is being machined and to
maintain parallelism to the maximum possible when required. A metalworking bench
vice commonly found in the mechanical workshop has been used to do so. The bent
specimens have been placed between the jaws of the vice while they were closed
afterwards. The large forces applied, akin to forging processes, caused the specimens to
return to its initial unbent shape to some extent.
The specimen is then machined with the vertical milling machine available in the UOM
mechanical workshop as seen in figure 3.6. It is used to correct the deformed and rough
surface produced by the previous shearing operation by removing material along its
32
longitudinal edges where it was sheared, corresponding to a reasonable depth of cut, of

say 3 mm, on each side (see figure 3.7).
This will produce a new surface along the edges where it was cut which is smooth,
sharp and clean. The strip of metal can now be used with the Nikon Microscope ME600
equipped with a stage micrometer to measure its depth to an accuracy of 0.001 mm.
Fig. 3.6: Vertical milling machine
Fig. 3.7: Specimen being milled along the longitudinal edge of cut
33
3.4.2 Depth Measurement

The specimen which had been prepared by applying measures mentioned in section
3.4.1 is used with the Nikon Microscope ME600 equipped with a stage micrometer. Its
depth, i.e. thickness, has been measured with the stage micrometer which offers an
accuracy of 0.001mm. Only the deepest valleys are measured as only the deepest level
of corrosion penetration is of interest here.
Fig. 3.19: Nikon Microscope ME600 equipped with a stage micrometer
The specimen was held at right-angle to the slide using parallels and great was care was
taken while fixing it firmly using plasticine that it remained at right angle to the slide.
The slide was then positioned on the stage and there was no further hand manipulation.
Any relative movement of the slide needed was done via the respective knobs which
moved the stage in the X, Y or Z directions.
On each specimen, ten readings of the thickness measurement are taken along the length
of the metal stripe with 5mm interval between each reading. A magnification of 5X was
34
used since it would time-consuming to measure ten readings per specimen over 20
specimens, which meant a total of 200 readings
Fig. 3.20: Specimen fixed firmly at right angle to the slide using plasticine
The initial thickness of the carbon steel test coupons before exposure was 3mm. While
observing the thickness under the stage microscope with a magnification of 5X, the
length measured with the stage microscope would theoretically be 15mm. However the
scale of the filar micrometer onboard the microscope eyepiece can read a maximum of
10mm. Hence each reading must be done in a two-step process.
Fig. 3.21: Specimen on slide and positioned on stage

35
3.4
CONCLUSION
Many carbon steel test coupons were exposed to the atmosphere and they were
affected by atmospheric corrosion, causing material loss. After the time of
exposure, the specimens retrieved and this mass loss measured. From that, the
average corrosion penetration rate was calculated
The effect of atmospheric corrosion on the surface roughness values was also
monitored. After exposure, measurement of the surface roughness values was
carried on the specimens using the Taylor Hobson Surtronic 3+.
The actual corrosion penetration was also measured. First the specimens were
machined with a bench shear and milling machine to turn them into a thin metal
stripe. These were then measured using Nikon Microscope ME600 equipped
with a stage micrometer to find the actual thickness over ten locations.
36
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS, ANALYSIS &

DISCUSSION
4.0
INTRODUCTION
This chapter contains all the various results obtained from the experiments carried on
the carbon steel test specimens after having been subjected to atmospheric corrosion.
The analysis of these results obtained through various experiments will be interpreted so
that meaningful conclusions can be drawn out and discussed thoroughly.
Results obtained are:
Corrosion penetration determined from mass loss in grams through difference

between mass of coupon before and after exposure in different sites across
Mauritius. This will be used as a reference.
Surface roughness measurement values by the use of a Taylor Hobson Surtronic
3+ surface profilometer on the metal surface.
The thickness of the test coupons after exposure along different locations among
the longitudinal length.
These results will be analyzed and interpreted to assess the effects of atmospheric
corrosion as follows:
The values for corrosion loss obtained will be correlated with the surface
roughness measurement values obtained and any resulting patterns or
relationship will be identified and discussed.
The value of corrosion penetration obtained by the weight loss method is an
average value only, i.e. a uniform thickness across the whole surface. However
the true thickness is much less than that. The smallest thickness for each test
coupon will be located along the longitudinal length and measured using a
Nikon Microscope ME600 equipped with a stage microscope. The true change
in thickness will be compared against the average corrosion loss obtained by the
mass loss method.
38
4.1
VISUAL INSPECTION OF THE SURFACE
After exposure to the atmosphere for the duration of the time of exposure, the
specimens are removed and a visual inspection is carried out on them which allow firsthand examination of the corroded carbon steel surface and preliminary detection of
discontinuities such as cracks, corrosion or surface finish.
Fig. 4.1: Coupon freshly removed from rack (left) and cleaned (right)
Figure 4.1 show the coupon with identification code R2 when it has been freshly
removed from the rack and after it has been cleaned according to ISO 8565 (1995)
which has been obtained by scanning the surface. There is a thick layer of rust formed
on the skyward surface of the specimen and it can be seen clearly that the surface did
not corrode uniformly. Part of the rust layer is thicker as evidenced by the areas which
are more reddish brown whereas areas where corrosion is lighter, the layer is thinner as
it becomes more yellowish. There are also brown spots which indicate even thicker rust
layer.
After removing the layer of rust through cleaning processes according to ISO standards,
the specimen has been scanned again as shown in figure 4.1 (right). Small pits are seen
39
all over the surface and they are more concentrated in the middle, albeit irregularly
scattered. This is why surface roughness measurements were carried out in the middle
and the thin metal strip for thickness measurement was taken from the middle section as
well. Hence it is concluded that although the base metal carbon steel is covered with
layers of corrosion products during exposure, it has also been attacked underneath as
proven by these small pits. This is probably due to the formation of cracks in the rust
layer. These pits also grow larger and deeper with corrosion loss.
4.2
CORROSION LOSS ANALYSIS
The variables from equation (3.1) for calculation of corrosion loss of the test coupons
are the mass loss, m (g), density of specimen (g/mm-3) and area of specimen, A (mm2
). Variable is constant for all specimens since same dimensions were used for
specimens of both study A and study B. However variable is different for each study
as the composition of low carbon steel used in study B and medium carbon steel used in
study A are different (See table 3.1).
Area, A = 31500 mm2

Density of low carbon steel, b (Study B) = 0.0077 g/mm3
Density of medium carbon steel, a (Study A) = 0.0075 g/mm3
A code was stamped on each specimen before atmospheric exposure for identification
purposes. This code was written according to exposure site and study as show in table
4.1 below. Each code was followed by a random number stamped with it for
identification purposes for specimens within the same site.
Study B
Study A
Site
Palmar
Reduit
Vacoas
Code
MB
RB
VB
Site
Reduit
Port L:ouis
St Julien dHotman
Belle Mare
Code
R
P
S
B
Table 4.1 Identification codes of specimens
40
Results for the calculated corrosion loss of the specimens are shown in ascending order
of corrosion loss in tables 4.2.
Code
VB08
P29
R2
RB02
S18
S5
RB20
VB22
S22
B29
R18
B26
R28
P1
P22
Mass
loss (g)
1.861
2.876
2.953
3.982
5.148
5.614
7.55
7.656
8.023
8.23
9.419
10.385
11.289
13.159
18.202
Days of
exposure
47
580.2
78.9
175
90.1
90.1
506.1
532
225.3
196.9
213.1
580.2
596
196.1
573.1
Corrosion loss
(m)
7.88
11.86
12.17
16.86
21.22
23.15
31.96
32.41
33.08
33.93
38.83
42.8
46.54
54.25
75.04
Table 4.2 Corrosion loss of the specimens
The results obtained were as expected, i.e. the corrosion loss increases with respect to
the number of days it has been exposed.
The specimen test coupons which were used for the computation of corrosion loss were
taken from many different sites and there are many different factors affecting corrosion
in each site, e.g. temperature, time of wetness, wind velocity, rainfall time and so on.
Although the variable of site could have been eliminated by taking all coupons from
the same location for computation of corrosion loss, this was not done because the aim
of this project is to assess the surface roughness properties with corrosion loss and an
investigation of the true thickness after corrosion.
41
Furthermore there are many types of corrosive environment classified as rural, urban,
industrial and marine across Mauritius. The test coupons were taken from different sites
to get a good range of corrosion loss for correlation with surface roughness
measurements and true change in thickness.
4.3
SURFACE ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENT ANALYSIS
As described in section 3.3, surface roughness measurements have been carried out on
some specimens to analyze the behavior of the carbon steels surfaces against
atmospheric corrosion. Each specimen had an appropriate sampling length with which
surface roughness measurements were performed using the Taylor Hobson Surtronic 3+
surface profilometer.
4.3.1
Cut off Selection Methodology
The Taylor Hobson Surtronic 3+ surface profilometer offers a choice of 3 cut off values
to work with, i.e. 0.25mm, 0.80mm and 2.50mm. In terms of roughness, there are five
amplitude parameters and one spacing parameter available. Values obtained were Ra,
Rq, Rz, Rt, Ry and Sm.
The required cut off for each carbon steel test coupon is different since corrosion is
dependent on many factors, many of which are uncontrollable. To find the required cut
off for each test coupon, the methodology described below has been applied.
Surface roughness measurement is taken on each test specimen using all the
available cut offs on the Surtronic 3+ and the roughness values corresponding to
the specific cut off used are noted, especially Ra and Rz. Tables 3.3 to 3.4 below
show some typical values obtained for three test coupons stamped as RB13, B10
and B16.
Lc = 0.25mm CR
Ra/m Rq/m RzDIN/m Rt/m Ry/m
1.52
2.04
7.4
12
10.7
RB13
0.82
1.06
4.3
5.7
5
B10
1.1
1.44
5.4
8.9
7.4
B16
42
Sm/m
106
61
79
Lc = 0.80mm CR
Ra/m Rq/m RzDIN/m Rt/m Ry/m
2.18
2.8
12.8
16.4
15.2
RB13
1.22
1.6
8
11.5
10.6
B10
1.8
2.46
12
14.9
14
B16
Sm/m
148
109
146
Lc = 2.50mm CR
Ra/m Rq/m RzDIN/m Rt/m Ry/m Sm/m
2.4
3.32
18
23.5
22
149
RB13
1.24
1.6
8.1
12
11.8
149
B10
2.82
3.72
20.2
24.5
23.6
206
B16
RB1
3
B10
B16
Using Ra and Rz values as reference to be compared against table 3.2, the

required cut off is deduced. Table 3.6 below shows a typical result for the three
samples used above.
According to 0.25mm
test
Ra
Rz
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
According to 0.80mm
test
Ra
Rz
0.8
2.5
According to 2.50mm
test
Ra
Rz
2.5
2.5
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
2.5
2.5
Table 3.6 Required cut off according to ISO 4288
0.8
2.5
The results show that the required cut off itself varies according to the cut off used for
the test. For B10, the required cut off is definitely 0.8mm and therefore only the
roughness values obtained while using a cut off of 0.8mm will be considered for further
analysis.
For RB13 and B16, the choice for required cut off is between either 0.8mm or 2.5mm.
The selection is decided by the cut off which emerged as the required one according to
ISO 4288 AND was the also the cut off which was the smallest one as smaller required
43
cut off means a finer surface and more detail is captured by the profilometer. In that
case it is 0.8mm for both RB13 and B16.
4.3.2
Cut off Selection Methodology Results
An appropriate cut off value was required for surface roughness measurement of each
specimen as atmospheric corrosion was not uniform on the metal surfaces and the
surface irregularities are not spread regularly. Table 4.3 shows the required cut offs of
the specimens in ascending order of corrosion loss. They have been obtained according
to ISO 4288 (1996).
Required cut off

Corrosion loss
(mm)
(m)
VB08
0.8
7.88
P29
0.8
11.86
R2
0.8
12.17
RB02
0.8
16.86
S18
2.5
21.22
S5
2.5
23.15
RB20
2.5
31.96
Table 4.3 Required cut off values
Test coupons with relatively small cut corrosion loss have a required cut off of 0.8mm
and as corrosion loss increases, the required cut off increases to 2.5mm. It can be
deduced that during the first stages of corrosion that the base metal has a fine surface
such as a 0.8mm cut off is sufficient to capture enough surface irregularities for
statistical averaging. As corrosion progresses, the rust layer formed on the surface is
thought to be protecting the surface but the surface of the base metal becomes coarser as
corrosion loss increases. This is demonstrated by increase in cut off to 2.5mm which
can be explained by the fact that the surface irregularities are more widely spaced and a
larger distance is required to pick up a sufficient amount of irregularities for statistical
calculations of roughness values.
This phenomenon can be explained by the types of corrosion mechanism involved. At

the onset of exposure, the atmosphere attacks the metal surface as a thin layer of
electrolyte is formed on it. At first, general corrosion occurs whereby there is a gradual
44
reduction in thickness of the corroding material and the formation of a rust layer which
increases over time. However this reduction in thickness is not uniform as corrosion
does not proceed at the same rate over the whole metal surface area.
The rust layer is therefore also not uniform as seen from its color variation on the metal
surface from figure 4.1 and there are small variations on the surface which causes the
layer of rust to be porous because of the differential rate of corrosion. With time, there
is a diffusion process whereby atmospheric corrodants such as chloride ions diffuse into
the rust layer and attacks the base metal underneath at specific points. Pitting corrosion
occurs as the rust layer is porous and has cracks. This is a possible explanation for the
numerous pits found on the base metal after the rust layer has been removed during
cleaning.
Rust layer
Crack
s
Pit
Base Metal (carbon

steel)
Fig. 4.2: Formation of rust layer and cracks
4.3.3
Roughness Values Analysis
The results for the surface roughness measurements of the specimens are presented in
graphs below where they have been plotted against corrosion loss. A general trend has
been observed as shown in figures 4.2 to 4.5.
45
Ra against Corrosion Loss

8
7
y = 2.073ln(x) - 2.996
R = 0.556
Ra (m)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Corrosion loss (m)
Fig. 4.3: Graph of Ra (m) against Corrosion loss (m)
From figure 4.3, it is observed that the rate of Ra against corrosion loss increases rapidly
initially and then levels down almost to a steady value of about 8m with increasing
corrosion lost. This shows that the value of Ra is extremely affected by corrosion loss
which itself increases as layer of rust increases. Roughness values of about 2m for
small corrosion losses may be due to direct atmospheric attack itself. This explains the
initially high rate of increase of Ra and it decreases afterwards as rust layer thickens but
does not immediately die down to zero because of diffusion of atmospheric corrodants
into the rust layer which attacks the base metal underneath, causing the formation of
pits which grow deeper with corrosion loss.
46
Rq against Corrosion Loss

10
y = 2.601ln(x) - 3.495
R = 0.553
Rq (m)
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Corrosion loss (m)
Fig. 4.4: Graph of Rq (m) against Corrosion loss (m)
Although Ra is a reliable quantity due to its averaging of the surface, it is not influenced
by sudden peaks. But Rq has a magnifying effect on odd single spikes or valleys as it is
a root mean square deviation as compared to Ra which is an arithmetic one. Hence it is
expected to be greater than Ra since any unusually high peak or deep valley will push
up the Rq value because of the squaring and rooting process in its calculation, making
it more sensitive to peaks and valleys.
Ra and Rq against Corrosion Loss

Roughness (m)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Corrossion loss (m)
Fig. 4.5: Comparison between Ra and Rq

47
70
80
In figure 4.5, the envelope of the curve for Rq is higher than that of Ra and the
difference between the two curves increases with increase in corrosion loss, being about
0.5m early on and increases to about 2m as corrosion is reaching a steady state. It can
be concluded that there are some sudden peaks abnormally higher than the average
surface and the difference between the highest peaks or deepest valleys from the
average surface increases with corrosion loss. This is because pitting, which is a
localized process occurring beneath the rust layer on the base metal surface, increases
with time.
Rz DIN(m)
Rz DIN(m)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
y = 11.82ln(x) - 14.69
R = 0.586
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Corrossion loss (m)
Fig. 4.6: Graph of Rz DIN (m) against Corrosion loss (m)
The parameter RzDIN, also known as the ten-point height, has a pattern similar to Ra and
Rq when plotted against corrosion loss. As stated in section 2.4.1.3, it works with
maximum peak-to-minimum valley heights over the sampling length irrespective of the
centre line and is thus more sensitive to odd crests or unusual deep troughs. It gives an
idea of the difference between maximum and minimum penetration
As shown in figure 4.6, RzDIN varies from about 10m to 40m with respect to
corrosion loss. Figure 4.6 shows that this is much more than Ra and Rq as it is involves
maximum heights and deepest valleys instead of averaging the surface. While Ra and Rq
values gave an idea of the depth of the pits from the peaks relative to the centre line,
48
RzDIN gives a proper idea of the depth of the pits from peak to valley, which is about ten
times that of Ra and Rq as shown by the graph in figure 4.2. Hence it is gives an
indication of the extent of extremely localized corrosion, giving rise to pits, and the
graph shows that the difference between maximum and minimum penetration increases
with time. It can be as much as 35m in extreme cases, which indicates pits of about
35m in depth beneath the base metal. This is a very serious as they are very difficult to
detect and predict given that they occur inside the base metal and beneath the rust layer
invisible to the naked eye.
4.4
CHANGES IN DEPTH OF CARBON STEEL AFTER EXPOSURE
Using the weight loss analysis technique to calculate the corrosion loss via the mass loss
of the specimens only gives an average of the corrosion penetration. This method does
not detect rapid changes in corrosion or localized spots where corrosion is extremely
severe. However these localized spots, also called pits or holes, are extremely
dangerous.
A single of these holes causing material loss can cause the failure of a whole
engineering system and it is even more critical that it is difficult to detect since they are
usually covered by layers of corrosion products.
Measuring the actual thickness of the carbon steel test specimens gives an idea of the
real penetration of corrosion. A Nikon Microscope ME600 equipped with a stage
micrometer giving a precision of up to 0.001mm as shown in figure 3.10 has been used
for the measurement. Each specimen taken was processed into a small metal strip and
measured under the microscope at ten different points along its longitudinal length with
each reading being done at 5mm from the previous one and a typical set of results is
shown in table 4.4 for a random sample. Only the deepest penetration was measured
each time and an average was found.
2.852mm 2.766mm
2.99mm
2.784mm 2.888mm
2.652mm 2.994mm
3.186mm
2.734mm 2.85mm
Table 4.4 Set of measurements of specimen thickness
49
All the results for each specimen is found in the appendix and further details in the
methodology adopted for this process are also mentioned.
Figure 4.6 shows a graph where the change in thickness of each specimen is plotted
against corrosion loss; it can also be viewed as a graph of actual penetration v/s average
penetration.
Change in Thickness (m)
Change in Thickness
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
y = 154.8ln(x) - 241.5
R = 0.58
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Corrosion loss (m)
Fig. 4.6: Graph of Change in Thickness (m) against Corrosion Loss (m)
A logarithmic trendline can be incorporated into the set of points of graph 4.6 with R2
value of 0.58. This relatively low value suggests that these points fit onto a logarithmic
pattern only partially. However there are many factors and variables which could not
and had not been fixed such as exposure site, weather conditions, cosine error in
measuring depth on micrometer stage or damage to surface during machining. But it
provides a general trend for the actual pitting underneath the rust layer during corrosion.
Localized corrosion can give rise to pits of about 400mm which is about times the
maximum of RzDIN and, although at a decreasing rate, the pits keep growing with time.
A single of these cracks into a structural engineering component bearing loads or
undergoing rapid motion can cause premature failure and even the loss of lives.
50
4.4
CONCLUSION
Low and medium carbon steel test coupons were exposed to the atmosphere and
subjected to atmospheric corrosion. Afterwards they were removed from the
atmosphere and analyzed to assess the effects caused by atmospheric corrosion.
A rapid visual inspection showed a non-uniform rust layer and, upon cleaning, a
considerable number of pits on the base metals surface underneath the rust layer. It is
therefore evident that although the metal surface was covered by the rust layer, it was
attacked by the atmosphere. This evidence was backed up by the surface roughness
measurements which were carried out post-exposure.
The changes in Ra, Rq and RzDIN values with corrosion loss showed a relatively accurate
modeling with a simple logarithmic regression analysis, having a R2-value of about 0.6.
This indicates an initially high rate of corrosion which decreases overtime and corrosion
settles down to a nearly constant value afterwards.
The measurement of changes in depth revealed that at several localized spots, the pits
present were much deeper than the average surface. This also demonstrates a
logarithmic regression behavior. It is concluded that the pits formed grow deeper over
time, even while the metal surface is being covered by the rust layer.
51
CHAPTER 5
GENERAL DISCUSSION,
CONCLUSION &
RECOMMENDATION
5.0
GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Knowledge of atmospheric corrosion in Mauritian context is largely non-existent as

very few studies have been carried out on the issue for Mauritius. Although many
corrosion studies have been carried through out by many international renowned
researchers and scientists such as The effect of environmental variables on
atmospheric corrosion of carbon steel in Shenyang by WANG Chuan, WANG Zhen
Yao & KE Wei, the results and findings are irrelevant in Mauritius because local
features and geographical conditions influence greatly the corrosive action. Hence if
engineers and scientists in Mauritius are to predict and prevent atmospheric corrosion of
materials in the environment of Mauritius, the behavior of metals in local conditions is
required and this project provided some data in this respect.
Several carbon steel test coupons were exposed to the atmosphere across six different
sites in the island, which are representative of the different categories of corrosivity of
the different types of environment according to ISO 9223. When they were removed, it
was observed that the rust layer was not uniform as shown by the variation in color of it.
This implied that the corrosion process was not uniform across the metal surface. The
samples were then cleaned and it was observed that there were many pits on the base
metal. This means that the base metal was attacked underneath the rust layer during the
exposure time.
The corrosion of the sample specimens were monitored using a weight loss method. It
was observed that, as expected, mass of the specimens were increasing with increasing
days of exposure. From these values, the respective corrosion was calculated and used
as a reference for further tests.
Surface roughness measurements were then taken on the specimens to verify whether
there is a correlation with corrosion loss. At first it was observed that the required cut
off for each specimen was not the same for every specimen and that it changed from
0.8mm to 2.5mm with increasing corrosion loss. It is concluded that with time, the
metal surface changed from a fine surface with low roughness to a coarser one with
increased roughness values.
Therefore roughness increases with time and this can be confirmed by the graphs of
roughness values against corrosion loss. Roughness values and corrosion loss are
53
observed to be related by an approximate logarithmic correlation. Roughness values

increase rapidly with time initially because of direct attack by the atmosphere and slow
down because of partial protection by the rust layer.
The increase in roughness is explained because of the formation of localized valleys on
the base metal surface and beneath the rust layer which grow deeper with time. The
graph of RzDIN shows clearly that the maximum peak to valley heights increase with
corrosion loss. Formation of localized pits is the phenomenon explaining this. Initially
as the metal surface was attacked directly by the atmosphere, the rate was high because
the whole surface was attacked by a general corrosion which proceeded uniformly and
caused the formation of rust layer. With time, the layer grew thicker and shielded
partially the base metal surface but cracks started to form in the rust layer which,
coupled with the fact that corrosion in not uniform now, caused it to become porous.
Atmospheric corrodants diffused into the rust layer and attacked the base metal surface
at localized spots. It proceeded by a general corrosion mechanism which was not
uniform as well as pitting corrosion mechanism.
The weight loss method and surface roughness measurements are averaging methods
only and do not give values for the actual corrosion loss. From the graph of change in
thickness against corrosion it is seen that at some localized spots, the valleys grow so
deep so as to produce a corrosion loss of about 500m whereas the same specimen gave
an average corrosion loss of 75m. Hence there is a net difference between the average
corrosion loss and maximum corrosion loss and this difference increases with corrosion
loss. It is concluded that the valleys (pits) grow deeper with time at some localized
spots.
5.1
RECOMMENDATION
The relationship between corrosion loss and roughness values is a single regression with
corrosion loss being the independent variable and roughness values being the dependent
variable. The resulting logarithmic correlations of the different surface parameters in
chapter 4 resulted in a model with R2-value of about 0.6. This means that the variability
of the roughness values around the regression line is about 1 - 0.6 times the original
variance. Ideally the target is to explain all the original variance, i.e. a R2-value of 1.
The value of about 0.6 for the R2-value is because there are many other factors affecting
atmospheric corrosion which have not been plugged in the regression model such as
54
concentration of specific atmospheric corrodants such as chlorides, temperature, wind

velocity or time of wetness. Even if some of these factors were accounted for in the
regression model, only a few of them might have turned out to be significant as many of
them are intermittent or simply very difficult to measure to the point that it can said that
plugging in those factors is a bet that might work or not.
Multiple regression can certainly be used to improve the correlation of the data with the
model provided the multiple dependent variables used are pertinent ones and can be
easily obtained. This will increase the R-value closer to 1, indicating a much better
correlation.
55
Appendix A
Corrosion occurs in different forms and each form has its own mechanism of action
which depends on the exact nature of the environment in which corrosion takes place.
The four main mechanisms by which atmospheric corrosion occurs are detailed below.
A.1
UNIFORM CORROSION
According to tonnage wasted, this is the most severe form of corrosion and it results in
a fairly uniform penetration (or thinning) over the entire exposed metal surface. The
general attack results from local corrosion-cell action; that is, multiple anodes and
cathodes are operating on the metal surface at any given time. The location of the
anodic and cathodic areas continues to move through out on the surface, resulting in
uniform corrosion. Uniform corrosion often results from atmospheric exposure,
especially polluted industrial environments (Davis, 2001).
Also known as generalized corrosion, it is a well distributed and low level attack against
the entire metal surface with little or no localized penetration. It is the least damaging of
all forms of corrosion. Generalized corrosion usually occurs in environments in which
the corrosion rate is inherently low or well controlled.
It is the only form of corrosion whereby weight loss or metal loss data from corrosion
coupons or ultrasonic testing can be used to accurately and reliably estimate corrosion
rates (Common Types of Corrosion, 2000).
A.2
GALVANIC CORROSION
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two metals with different electrochemical potentials or
with different tendencies to corrode are in metal-to-metal contact in a corrosive
electrolyte.
56
When two metals with different potentials are joined, such as copper (+0.334 V) and
iron (-0.440 V), a galvanic cell is formed. A cell, in which the chemical change is the
source of energy, is called a galvanic cell. The corrosion which is caused due to the
formation of the galvanic cell is, therefore, called galvanic corrosion. The driving force
or corrosion is a potential difference between different materials (Ahmad, 2006).
A.3
PITTING CORROSION
It is a form of localized corrosion of a metal surface where small areas corrode

preferentially leading to the formation of cavities or pits, and the bulk of the surface
remains unattacked. Metals which form passive films, such as aluminum and steels, are
more susceptible to this form of corrosion. It is the most insidious form of corrosion. It
causes failure by penetration with only a small percent weight-loss of the entire
structure. It is a major type of failure in chemical processing industry. The destructive
nature of pitting is illustrated by the fact that usually the entire system must be replaced
(Ahmad, 2006).
A.4
CREVICE CORROSION
Crevice corrosion is a form of localized corrosion that occurs in zones of restricted flow
where a metallic material surface is in contact with a small volume of confined,
stagnant liquid whereas most of the material surface is exposed to the bulk environment.
Crevice zones may result from the design of the component or from the formation of
deposits during service, shutdown, or even fabrication. These deposits may come from
suspended solids in the environment, corrosion products, or biological activity. Lowflow areas are prone to the formation of such deposits. Crevice corrosion occurs mainly
(but not exclusively) on passive materials. The most important problem is the crevice
corrosion of stainless steels, nickel-base alloys, aluminum alloys, and titanium alloys in
aerated chloride environments, particularly in sea or brackish water, but also in
environments found in chemical, food, and oil industries. Other cases of crevice
corrosion are also known such as the so-called corrosion by differential aeration of
carbon steels, which does not require the presence of chloride in the environment
(Combrade, 2002)
57
Appendix B
There are a number of surface texture parameters available nowadays to describe a
surface. They can be grouped into roughness, waviness, spacing and hybrid. Each
family of surface texture parameters has its own definition of their components and
some are calculated over the sampling length only while others are calculated over the
whole assessment length (Zygo Corporation, 2005)
B.1
ROUGHNESS
They are parameters which measure the vertical deviations of the surface characteristics
and are finer irregularities inherent to the production processes. Roughness includes
parameters such as Ra, Rq, Ry, Rp, Rv and so on.
Fig. B.1: Definition of Rp and Rv
Figure A.1 shows the graphical definition of two parameters which are R p and Rv. Rp is
the highest peak. It is the maximum distance between the mean line and the highest
point within the sampling length. Rv is the lowest valley.
B.2
WAVINESS
58
They are also measures of the vertical characteristics of a surface but are larger
component of surface texture with higher wavelength upon which roughness is
superimposed. Waviness includes three parameters: Wa, Wq and Wy.
Fig. B.2: Definition of Wa
Figure A.2 shows the graphical representation of Wa. It is the arithmetic average
roughness, or average deviation, of all points from a plane fit to the waviness data.
B.3
SPACING
Spacing parameters are a measure of the horizontal characteristics of the surface

deviations. They include parameters such as Pc, S or Sm.
59
Fig. B.3: Definition of Sm
Sm is the average spacing between peaks at the mean line over the evaluation length. A
peak is the highest point between an upwards and downwards crossing of the mean line.
It is calculated by summing all the peak spacing and dividing by the number of spaces.
B.4
HYBRID PARAMETERS
Hybrid parameters are the combination of spacing and roughness parameters. They
include parameters such as Rvolume, bearing ratio tp or material probability parameters
such as Rpq.
Fig. B.4: Definition of Rvolume

60
The parameter Rvolume is defined as the volume of the roughness data as specified above
or below the surface.
61
Appendix C
The various results obtained throughout the experimentation are all listed below for
further reference. There were fifteen specimens analyzed.
C.1
CORROSION LOSS RESULTS
All the test coupons were weighed before and after exposure to determine the mass loss
due to corrosion and the results were used to calculate corrosion loss.
Code
VB08
P29
R2
RB02
S18
S5
RB20
VB22
S22
B29
R18
B26
R28
P1
P22
C.2
Mass
Days of
Corrosion loss
loss (g)
exposure
(m)
1.861
47
7.88
2.876
580.2
11.86
2.953
78.9
12.17
3.982
175
16.86
5.148
90.1
21.22
5.614
90.1
23.15
7.55
506.1
31.96
7.656
532
32.41
8.023
225.3
33.08
8.23
196.9
33.93
9.419
213.1
38.83
10.385
580.2
42.8
11.289
596
46.54
13.159
196.1
54.25
18.202
573.1
75.04
Table C.1: Corrosion Loss
CUT OFF SELECTION
The test to find the required cut off values for each specimen as described in 4.3.1 was
carried out thoroughly and the results are shown in the following table.
62
Lc = 0.25mm CR
Ra/m Rq/m RzDIN/m
1.98
2.6
10.1
B26
2.1
2.74
8.2
B29
2.3
2.98
9.7
P1
1.42
1.76
6.2
P22
1.08
1.42
5.8
P29
1.34
1.72
6.9
R2
1.94
2.46
9.3
R28
1.26
1.66
7
RB02
2.54
3.12
10.7
RB20
1.46
1.9
7.3
S18
1.66
2.1
7.3
S22
1
1.28
4.8
S5
1.52
2.14
7.3
VB08
1.04
1.44
5.7
VB22
1.18
1.64
5.8
R18
Lc = 0.80mm CR
Ra/m Rq/m RzDIN/m
3.32
4.14
17.6
B26
3.7
4.9
18.7
B29
3.06
3.94
17.4
P1
3.34
4.26
16
P22
1.38
1.82
8.5
P29
1.78
2.34
9.2
R2
3.96
5.14
19.4
R28
1.9
2.5
12.3
RB02
4
4.94
20
RB20
3.36
4.68
19.4
S18
2.82
3.62
15.3
S22
1.78
2.4
10.6
S5
1.72
2.5
11.9
VB08
1.58
2.2
10
VB22
1.4
2.06
9
R18
63
Lc = 2.50mm CR
Ra/m Rq/m RzDIN/m
3.8
4.86
23.7
B26
3.04
4.04
21.3
B29
4.5
6.16
31.1
P1
4.76
6.12
29.9
P22
2.02
2.7
15
P29
3.14
4.38
22
R2
6.84
8.74
38.1
R28
2.28
2.92
15.3
RB02
5.1
6.86
33.8
RB20
4.12
5.4
26.6
S18
4.94
6.28
29.6
S22
4.12
5.74
26.6
S5
1.7
2.58
15.7
VB08
3.04
4.42
21.3
VB22
1.74
2.32
12.7
R18
64
C.3
MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH WITH MICROSCOPE
Study
A
B
3.09
3.218
Study A
Thickness of specimen measure under the microscope (mm)
Code
MB08
MB17
RB20
RB02
VB22
VB08
RB25
Reference Specimens
3.14 3.014 3.118 3.146 3.184 3.1
3.09
3.058 3.03
3.21 3.166 3.124 3.148 3.356 3.156 3.316 3.232 3.062
Table C.5: Thickness of reference specimens
2.822
2.266
2.872
3.036
2.78
3.146
2.674
2.732
2.622
2.754
3.004
2.864
3.128
2.67
2.46
2.322
2.754
2.822
2.848
3.08
2.796
2.4
2.662
2.89
2.852
2.82
3.064
2.89
2.748 2.506
2.196
2.67
2.246
2.566 2.414
2.526
2.508 2.942
3.08
2.866
2.786
2.948 3.034
2.756 2.75
2.924
2.818 2.956
2.808 2.744
2.748
2.83
2.82
3.072 3.07
3.06
3.074 3.142
2.726 2.672
2.79
2.78
2.658
Table C.6: Thickness of specimens of study A
Average (mm)
3.097
3.1988
Average
(mm)
2.2
2.926
2.802
2.958
2.852
3.028
2.382
2.498
2.5754
2.8786
2.8876
2.8114
3.0864
2.7038
Change in
Thickness
(m)
599
521.6
218.4
209.4
285.6
10.6
393.2
The thickness of each specimen is measured along the longitudinal length of cut as seen in figure 3.20. Each reading was taken at
5mm from the previous one along the length and ten readings were taken for each specimen. The minimum thickness was measured
65
each time a measurement was made and an average was found afterwards. These processes were also applied to reference specimens
for both study A and study B which were not exposed to the atmosphere.
Study B
Code
P1
S18
B26
P22
R18
B29
S22
R28
P29
R12
R2
S5
B10
2.95
2.72
3.106
2.822
3.196
3.004
2.73
2.832
2.864
2.908
3.106
2.852
2.91
2.89
2.932
3.246
2.772
2.816
2.818
2.826
2.792
3.06
2.862
3.284
2.766
2.8
3.052
3.04
3.114
2.746
2.89
2.5
3.17
2.05
2.844
2.72
3.234
2.99
2.426
2.762 2.874 2.946 2.882 2.77 2.786 2.774

2.864 2.856 2.824 2.91 2.562 2.93 2.716
3.01 2.792 2.866 3.016 2.676 2.612 3.15
2.872 2.532 2.61 2.63 2.352 2.754 2.418
2.928 2.778 2.902 2.888 3.202 3.222 3.052
2.998 2.816 2.924 3.128 2.624 2.898 2.878
3.16 3.05 2.416 3.41 3.252 2.878 2.748
2.918 2.902 2.992 2.984 2.936 2.862 2.734
2.864 2.994 2.886 2.968 3.156 2.932 3.026
2.686 2.95 2.864 2.922 2.93 2.818 3.016
3.104 3.126 3.19 3.094 2.786 2.822 3.29
2.784 2.888 2.652 2.994 3.186 2.734 2.85
2.89 2.906 2.828 2.638 2.75 3.026 3.048
Table C.7: Thickness of specimens of study B
Average
(mm)
2.8686
2.8354
2.9588
2.6508
2.9874
2.8588
2.964
2.8002
2.9594
2.8676
3.1036
2.8696
2.8222
Change in
Thickness (m)
330.2
363.4
240
548
211.4
340
234.8
398.6
239.4
331.2
95.2
329.2
376.6
Hence the change in thickness for a specimen was obtained by the difference between the average thickness of its corresponding
reference specimen and its own average thickness.
66
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Bennett, J. M. (2003). Surface Roughness . In Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering.
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Callister, W. D. (2007). Materials Science and Engineering. John Wiley & Sons.
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Electrochemistry Experts Ltd: http://www.corrosionexperts.co.uk
Key to Metals AG. (1999). Steel Composition. Retrieved March 6, 2011, from Key
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UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS

JEAN EMMANUEL CHAN YOUN SEN

1.2.1 Economic Dimension

1.2.2 Health Dimension

1.2.3 Safety Dimension

ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION IN MAURITIUS

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

MECHANISM OF CORROSION REACTION

ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION STAGES

2.2.1 Initial Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion

2.2.2 Intermediate Stages of Atmospheric

PARAMETERS AFFECTING ATMOSPHERIC

2.3.2 Sulphur Dioxide

2.3.3 Airborne Chlorides

2.3.4 Other Corrosive Agents

2.4.1 Surface Roughness Parameters

2.4.1.4 Other Parameters

3.1.2 Exposure Test Sites

SURFACE ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENTS

3.3.1 Sampling Length

3.4.1 Specimen Preparation

3.4.2 Depth Measurement

VISUAL INSPECTION OF THE SURFACE

CORROSION LOSS ANALYSIS

SURFACE ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENT ANALYSIS 42

4.3.1 Cut off Selection Methodology

4.3.2 Cut off Selection Methodology Results

4.3.3 Roughness Values Analysis

CHANGES IN DEPTH OF CARBON STEEL

GENERAL DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION &

GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

CORROSION LOSS RESULTS

CUT OFF SELECTION

MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH WITH MICROSCOPE

Table 3.2 Recommended cut -offs for different surface finishes

Table 4.2 Corrosion loss of the specimens

Table 3.3 Roughness values at 0.25mm cut off

Table 3.4 Roughness values at 0.80mm cut off

Table 3.5 Roughness values at 2.50mm cut off

Table 3.6 Required cut off according to ISO 4288

Table 4.3 Required cut off values

Table 4.4 Set of measurements of specimen thickness

Table C.2: Cut off test at 0.25mm

Table C.3: Cut off test at 0.8mm

Table C.4: Cut off test at 2.5mm

Table C.5: Thickness of reference specimens

Table C.6: Thickness of specimens of study A

Table C.7: Thickness of specimens of study B

and surface spatial wavelengths

Fig. 2.4: Graphical representation of Rq and Ra

Fig. 2.5: Graphical representation of Rz

Fig. 3.2: Profile showing a roughness wavelength of 0.25mm with an Ra

Fig. 3.4: Specimen Transformation

Fig. 3.5: Hand Bench Shear

Fig. 3.6: Vertical milling machine

Fig. 3.19: Nikon Microscope ME600 equipped with a stage micrometer

Fig. 3.21: Specimen on slide and positioned on stage

Fig. 4.2: Formation of rust layer and cracks

Fig. 4.3: Graph of Ra (m) against Corrosion loss (m)

Fig. 4.4: Graph of Rq (m) against Corrosion loss (m)

Fig. 4.5: Comparison between Ra and Rq

Fig. 4.6: Graph of Rz DIN (m) against Corrosion loss (m)

Electro Discharge Machining