Contents

No.

Topics

A word of gratitude

Objective

What Is FUCTION?

Tyoe Of Function

Extrema Of Function

Pierre De Fermat

Fermats Theorem

PART 1

Page

Mathematical Optimization
9
10

Global and Local Extrema

Methods to Find Extrema

11

First Derivative Test

12

Second Derivative Test

13

PART 2

14
15
16

Encik Shahs Sheep Pen

Rezas Box
The Mall
Linear Programming

17

Application In Real life

18

How It Started?

19

Reflection

A Word of Gratitude

I would like to say thank you to Allah for guiding me and giving me strength, ideas
and patience to complete this additional mathematics project. Without His blessings and
guidance, this project could not be completed.
Firstly, I would like to thank my Additional Mathematics teacher, Pn Siti Mariam
Binti Ahmad Sekak for guiding me in completing this project. She has given me many
advices and guidance throughout this project.
Next, I would like to thank the principal, Pn Meriam Binti Husin for letting me to do
some research to complete this project. Doing this project at the school gave me some
chances to do discussion among us.
Besides, I want to say thank you to my beloved parents as they provided me with
everything I need to complete this project such as money, energy, books and others. They
also shared their ideas and experience in order to make this project successful.
Lastly, I would like to thank all the teachers and friends for helping me in completing
this project. Thank you to those who involved directly or indirectly in making this project.

Objective
Every form 5 student taking additional mathematics is required to carry out a project work.
Upon completion of the project, it is hoped that students will gain some valuable experiences
and able to:
[1]

Apply and adapt a variety of problem solving strategies to solve routine and non-

routine problems.
Experience classroom environments which are challenging, interesting and

meaningful hence improve their thinking skills.

Experience classroom environments where knowledge and skills are applied in

meaningful ways in solving real-life problems.

Experience classroom environments where expressing ones mathematical thinking,

reasoning and communication are highly encouraged and expected.

Experience classroom environments that stimulate and enhance effective learning.
Acquire effective mathematical communication through oral and writing, and to use

the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas correctly and precisely.

Enhance acquisition of mathematical knowledge and skills through problem-solving

in ways that increases interest and confidence.

Prepare students for the demands of their future undertakings and in workplace.
Realise that mathematics is an important and powerful tool in solving real life

problems and hence develop positive attitude towards mathematics.

Train themselves not only to be independent learners but also to collaborate, to

cooperate, and to share knowledge in engaging and healthy environment.

Use technology especially the ICT appropriately and effectively.
Train themselves to appreciate the intrinsic values of mathematics and to become

more creative and innovative.

Realise the importance and the beauty of mathematics.

What is FUNCTION ?
In mathematics, a function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible
outputs with the property that each input is related to exactly one output. An example is the
function that relates each real number x to its square x2. The output of a function f
corresponding to an input x is denoted by f(x) (read "f of x"). In this example, if the input is
3, then the output is 9, and we may write f(3) = 9. Likewise, if the input is 3, then the
output is also 9, and we may write f(3) = 9. (The same output may be produced by more than
one input, but each input gives only one output.) The input variable(s) are sometimes referred
to as the argument(s) of the function.
[2]

Functions of various kinds are "the central objects of investigation" in most fields of modern
mathematics. There are many ways to describe or represent a function. Some functions may
be defined by a formula or algorithm that tells how to compute the output for a given input.
Others are given by a picture, called the graph of the function. In science, functions are
sometimes defined by a table that gives the outputs for selected inputs. A function could be
described implicitly, for example as the inverse to another function or as a solution of a
differential equation.
The input and output of a function can be expressed as an ordered pair, ordered so that the
first element is the input (or tuple of inputs, if the function takes more than one input), and
the second is the output. In the example above, f(x) = x2, we have the ordered pair (3, 9). If
both input and output are real numbers, this ordered pair can be viewed as the Cartesian
coordinates of a point on the graph of the function.
In modern mathematics, a function is defined by its set of inputs, called the domain; a set
containing the set of outputs, and possibly additional elements, as members, called
its codomain; and the set of all input-output pairs, called its graph. Sometimes the codomain
is called the function's "range", but more commonly the word "range" is used to mean,
instead, specifically the set of outputs (this is also called the image of the function). For
example, we could define a function using the rule f(x) = x2 by saying that the domain and
codomain are the real numbers, and that the graph consists of all pairs of real numbers (x, x2).
The image of this function is the set of non-negative real numbers. Collections of functions
with the same domain and the same codomain are called function spaces, the properties of
which are studied in such mathematical disciplines as real analysis, complex analysis,
and functional analysis.
In analogy with arithmetic, it is possible to define addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division of functions, in those cases where the output is a number. Another important
operation defined on functions is function composition, where the output from one function
becomes the input to another function.

[3]

The GRAPH of the function f(x) = x3 9x2 + 23x 15. The interval A =

[3.5, 4.25] is a

subset of the domain, thus it is shown as part of the x-axis (green). The image of A is
(approximately) the interval [3.08, 1.88]. It is obtained by projecting to the y-axis (along
the blue arrows) the intersection of the graph with the light green area consisting of all points
4.25. The part of the (vertical) y-axis shown in blue. The preimage of B = [1, 2.5] consists of
three intervals. They are obtained by projecting the intersection of the light red whose xcoordinate is between 3.5 and area with the graph to the x-axis.

Type of FUNCTION

[4]

Extrema of FUNCTION
[5]

In mathematical analysis, the maxima and minima (the plural of maximum and minimum) of
a function, known collectively as EXTREMA (the plural of extremum), are the largest and
smallest value of the function, either within a given range (the local or relative extrema) or on
the entire domain of a function (the global or absolute extrema). Pierre de Fermat was one
of the first mathematicians to propose a general technique, ADEQUALITY, for finding the
maxima and minima of functions As defined in set theory, the maximum and minimum of a
set the greatest and least elements in the set. Unbounded infinite sets, such as the set of real
numbers, have no minimum or maximum.

The function x2 has a unique global minimum at x = 0.

[6]

The function x3 has no global minima or maxima. Although the first derivative (3x2) is 0 at
x = 0, this is an ininflection point.
The function x-x has a unique global maximum over the positive real numbers at x = 1/e.
The function x3/3 x has first derivative x2 1 and second derivative 2x. Setting the first
derivative to 0 and solving for x gives stationary points at 1 and +1. From the sign of the
second derivative we can see that 1 is a local maximum and +1 is a local minimum. Note
that this function has no global maximum or minimum.
The function |x| has a global minimum at x = 0 that cannot be found by taking derivatives,
because the derivative does not exist at x = 0.
The function cos(x) has infinitely many global maxima at 0, 2, 4, , and infinitely
many global minima at , 3, . The function 2 cos(x) x has infinitely many local
maxima and minima, but no global maximum or minimum.
The function cos(3x)/x with 0.1 x 1.1 has a global maximum at x = 0.1 (a boundary), a
global minimum near x = 0.3, a local maximum near x = 0.6, and a local minimum near x =
1.0.
The function x3 + 3x2 2x + 1 defined over the closed interval (segment) [4,2] has a local
maximum at x = 1153, a local minimum at x = 1+153, a global maximum at x = 2 and
a global minimum at x = 4. FERMAT'S THEOREM.

Pierre De Fermat
[7]

PIERRE DE FERMAT ; 17 August 1601 12 January 1665) was a French lawyer at the
Parlement of Toulouse, France, and a mathematician who is given credit for early
developments that led to innitesimal calculus, including his technique of adequality. In
particular, he is recognized for his discovery of an original method of nding the greatest and
the smallest ordinates of curved lines, which is analogous to that of the dierential calculus,
then unknown, and his research into number theory. He made notable contributions to
analytic geometry, probability, and optics. He is best known for Fermat's Last Theorem,
which he described in a note at the margin of a copy of Diophantus' Arithmetica

Fermats Theorem
[8]

PIERRE DE FERMAT developed the technique of adequality (adaequalitas) to calculate

maxima and minima of functions, tangents to curves, area, center of mass, least action, and
other problems in mathematical analysis. According to Andr Weil, Fermat "introduces the
technical term adaequalitas, adaequare, etc., which he says he has borrowed from
Diophantus. As Diophantus V.11 shows, it means an approximate equality, and this is indeed
how Fermat explains the word in one of his later writings." (Weil 1973). Diophantus coined
the word (parisots) to refer to an approximate equality. Claude Gaspard Bachet de
Mziriac translated Diophantus's Greek word into Latin as adaequalitas.[citation needed] Paul
Tannery's French translation of Fermats Latin treatises on maxima and minima used the
words adquation and adgaler.

Fermat used adequality first tofi nd maxima of functions, and then adapted it to find tangent
lines to curves. To find the maximum of a term p(x), Fermat equated (or more precisely
adequated) p(x) and p(x+e) and after doing algebra he could cancel out a factor of e, and then
discard any remaining terms involving e. To illustrate the method by Fermat's own example,
consider the problem of fi nding the maximum of p(x)=bx-x^2. Fermat adequated bx-x^2
with b(x+e)-(x+e)^2=bx-x^2+be-2ex-e^2.

[9]

Mathematical Optimization
In mathematics, computer science, operations research, mathematical optimization
(alternatively, optimization or mathematical programming) is the selection of a best element
(with regard to some criteria) from some set of available alternatives. In the simplest case, an
optimization problem consists of maximizing or minimizing a real function by
systematically choosing input values from within an allowed set and computing the value of
the function. The generalization of optimization theory and techniques to other formulations
comprises a large area of applied mathematics. More generally, optimization includes finding
"best available" values of some objective function given a defined domain (or a set of
constraints), including a variety of different types of objective functions and different types of
domains.

Global & Local Extrema

A real-valued function f defined on a domain X has a global maximum point at x if f(x*) _
f(x) for all x in X. Similarly, the function has a global (absolute) minimum point at x if
f(x*) _ f(x) for all x in X. The value of the function at a maximum point is called the
maximum value of the function and the value of the function at a minimum point is called the
minimum value of the function.
If the domain X is a metric space then f is said to have a local ( relative) maximum point at
the point x if there exists some _ > 0 such that f(x*) _ f(x) for all x in X within distance _ of
x*. Similarly, the function has a local minimum point at x if f(x*) _ f(x) for all x in X within
distance _ of x*. A similar definition can be used when X is a topological space, since the
definition just given can be rephrased in terms of neighbourhoods. Note that a global
maximum point is always a local maximum point, and similarly for minimum points.
In both the global and local cases, the concept of a strict extremum can be defined. For
example, x is a strict global maximum point if, for all x in X with x* _ x, we have f(x*) >
[10]

f(x), and x is a strict local maximum point if there exists some _ > 0 such that, for all x in X
within distance _ of x with x* _ x, we have f(x*) > f(x). Note that a point is a strict global
maximum point if and only if it is the unique global maximum point, and similarly for
minimum points.
A continuous real-valued function with a compact domain always has a maximum point and a
minimum point. An important example is a function whose domain is a closed (and bounded)
interval of real numbers

Methods to Find Extrema

[11]

Methods to
find Extrema

1st Derivative test

2nd Derivative test

1st Derivative test

The first derivative of the function f(x), which we write as f(x) or as df/dx is the slope of the
tangent line to the function at the point x. To put this in non-graphical terms, the first
derivative tells us how whether a function is increasing or decreasing, and by how much it is
increasing or decreasing. This information is reflected in the graph of a function by the slope
[12]

of the tangent line to a point on the graph, which is sometimes describe as the slope of the
function. Positive slope tells us that, as x increases, f(x) also increases. Negative slope tells us
that, as x increases, f(x) decreases. Zero slope does not tell us anything in particular: the
function may be increasing, decreasing, or at a local maximum or a local minimum at that
point. Writing this information in terms of derivatives, we see that:

if df/dx (p) > 0, then f(x) is an increasing function at x = p.

if df/dx (p) < 0, then f(x) is a decreasing function at x = p.
if df/dx (p) = 0, then x = p is called a critical point of f(x), and we do not know
anything new about the behaviour of f(x) at x = p.

[13]

2nd Derivative Test

In calculus, the second derivative test is a criterion for determining whether a given critical
point of a real function of one variable is a local maximum or a local minimum using the
value of the second derivative at the point.
The test states: if the function f is twice differentiable at a critical point x (i.e. f'(x) = 0), then:
If f (x) < 0 then \ f has a local maximum at \ x.
If f (x) > 0 then \ f has a local minimum at \ x.
If f (x) = 0 the test is inconclusive.

I-think Map

[14]

En Shahs Sheep Pen

[15]

Rezas Box

The Mall
[16]

[17]

Based on the graph, the mall reaches its PEAK HOUR at 3.30 pm which is 6 hours after the
mall opens. The number of people in the mall at that time is 3600.
At 7.30 pm which is 10 hours after the mall opens, the number of people would be 900.

t=10

t
6
+1800
p (t )=1800 cos

1800 cos

( 6 10)+ 1800

The time when the number of people reaches 2570 is at 1.20 pm

P (t )=2570

6
P (t )=1800 cos

t) + 1800

2570=1800 cos ( t) +1800

6

770=1800 cos ( t)
6
t=3.844

[18]

Linear Programming

Linear programming (LP; also called linear optimization) is a method to achieve the best
outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a mathematical model whose
requirements are represented by linear relationships. Linear programming is a special case of
mathematical programming (mathematical optimization).

More formally, linear programming is a technique for the optimization of a linear objective
function, subject to linear equality and linear inequality constraints. Its feasible region is a
convex polytope, which is a set defined as the intersection of infinitely many half spaces,
each of which is defined by a linear inequality. Its objective function is a real-valued affine
function defined on this polyhedron. A linear programming algorithm finds a point in the
polyhedron where this function has the smallest (or largest) value if such a point exists.

Application in real life

[19]

Crew Scheduling
An airline has to assign crews to its flights.
Make sure that each flight is covered.
Meet regulations, eg: each pilot can only fly a certain amount each day.
Minimize costs, eg: accommodation for crews staying overnight out of town, crews
deadheading.
Would like a robust schedule. The airlines run on small profit margins, so saving a
few percent through good scheduling can make an enormous difference in terms of
profitability. They also use linear programming for yield management.

Portfolio Optimization
Many investment companies are now using optimization and linear programming extensively
to decide how to allocate assets. The increase in the speed of computers has enabled the
solution of far larger problems, taking some of the guesswork out of the allocation of assets.

How it started?
[20]

LEONID KANTOROVICH
The problem of solving a system of linear inequalities dates back at least as far as Fourier, who in
1827 published a method for solving them, and after whom the method of FourierMotzkin
elimination is named. The first linear programming formulation of a problem that is equivalent to the
general linear programming problem was given by Leonid Kantorovich in 1939, who also proposed a
method for solving it. He developed it during World War II as a way to plan expenditures and returns
so as to reduce costs to the army and increase losses incurred by the enemy. About the same time as
Kantorovich, the Dutch-American economist T. C. Koopmans formulated classical economic
problems as linear programs. Kantorovich and Koopmans later shared the 1975 Nobel prize in
economics. In 1941, Frank Lauren Hitchcock also formulated transportation problems as linear
programs and gave a solution very similar to the later Simplex method; Hitchcock had died in
1957 and the Nobel prize is not awarded posthumously. During 1946-1947, George B. Dantzig
independently developed general linear programming formulation to use for planning problems in US
Air Force. In 1947, Dantzig also invented the simplex method that for the first time efficiently tackled
the linear programming problem in most cases. When Dantzig arranged meeting with John von
Neumann to discuss his Simplex method, Neumann immediately conjectured the theory of duality by
realizing that the problem he had been working in game theory was equivalent. Dantzig provided
formal proof in an unpublished report "A Theorem on Linear Inequalities" on January 5, 1948.
Postwar, many industries found its use in their daily planning. Dantzig's original example was to find
the best assignment of 70 people to 70 jobs. The computing power required to test all the
permutations to select the best assignment is vast; the number of possible configurations exceeds the
number of particles in the observable universe. However, it takes only a moment to find the optimum
solution by posing the problem as a linear program and applying the simplex algorithm. The theory
behind linear programming drastically reduces the number of possible solutions that must be checked.
The linear-programming problem was first shown to be solvable in polynomial time by Leonid
Khachiyan in 1979, but a larger theoretical and practical breakthrough in the field came in 1984 when
Narendra Karmarkar introduced a new interior-point method for solving linear-programming
problems.

Reflection
[21]

As a reflection I love to make a poem that tell all of my feelings towards addmaths along finish up
this project work. My poem is including Malay words to make it more wonderful.. seriously I had fun
with addmath!
Additional MathematicsFor the first time kau kukenali
1001 cerita tentang dirimu aku dengari
Tatkala itu juga many questions marks bermain di fikiranku ini
Function was the first chapter yang aku pelajari
I am so pleased dapat mengenali Quadratic Function, Simultaneous Equation juga Coordinate
geometry
Apabila Differentation mula mengetuk pintu hati
Aku mula bingung sendiri
Lalu datangnya Solution Of Triangle yang memujuk hati
Sine rule and cosine rule menambahkan ceria dalam addmath ini
Semangat, minat juga nilai usaha yang tinggi
Membuka jalan kepada all of math problems
This project work teached me everything
Now I am on the way along Form 5 chapters
Addmaths
You are the one who makes me cry
You are the one who makes me laughs
It was a wonderful journey baby!
Thank you cause being a part of my life
I will love you for the rest of my life

[22]