Brake

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion, slowing or stopping a moving object or
preventing its motion.
Types
Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. One brake
may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create
friction:

Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad"
brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which
use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically the term "friction brake"
is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though
hydrodynamic brakes use friction.
Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating
wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a
rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside
of a drum, commonly called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations are
possible; and pads that pinch a rotating disc, commonly called a "disc brake". Other brake
configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe
which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating
drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a
structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand laterally.
A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake shoes that
press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to the rotating
roadwheel hub.
The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a road wheel. A brake disc
(or rotor in U.S. English), usually made of cast iron or ceramic, is connected to the wheel or
the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads (mounted in a device
called a brake caliper) is
forcedmechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides
of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop.

Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery. For
example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and then
internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve
override called a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump

energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called
a hydraulic accumulator.

Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part
of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor
as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some
diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is
then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses,
do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively
a generator with an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy current
brakes, and electro-mechanical brakes(which actually are magnetically driven friction
brakes, but nowadays are often just called electromagnetic brakes as well).
Electromagnetic brakes slow an object through electromagnetic induction, which
creates resistance and in turn either heat or electricity. Friction brakes apply pressure on two
separate objects to slow the vehicle in a controlled manner.

Characteristics
Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:

Peak force The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained.
The peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake can
cause a wheel skid.

Continuous power dissipation Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the
temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that can be
dissipated through the brake without failure is the continuous power dissipation. Continuous
power dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient cooling air.

Fade As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade. Some designs
are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further, use
considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on fade.

Smoothness A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts varying
brake force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and friction
brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids, which increases maintenance
costs and leads to a "thump thump" feeling for riders inside.

Power Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human application force
leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other brakes in the same class. This
notion of "powerful" does not relate to continuous power dissipation, and may be confusing
in that a brake may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet
have lower (worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.

Pedal feel Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power output
as a function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement of the brake
and other factors.

Drag Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on
design of the system to accommodate total system compliance and deformation that exists
under braking with ability to retract friction material from the rubbing surface in the offbrake condition.

Durability Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed periodically. Wear
surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may be
tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that generates high peak force may also wear quickly.

Weight Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function. Further,
brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt traction in
some circumstances. "Weight" may mean the brake itself, or may include additional support
structure.

Noise Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create squeal or
grinding noises that are quite loud.

Types of Brakes
Mechanical Brakes
Drum Brakes
Disc Brakes
Hydraulic Brakes
Power Brakes
Air Brakes
Air Hydraulic Brakes
Vacuum Brakes

Electric Brakes
Dynamic Brakes

Dynamic brake
Dynamic braking is the use of the electric traction motors of a vehicle as generators when
slowing. It is termed rheostatic if the generated electrical power is dissipated as heat in brake
grid resistors, and regenerative if the power is returned to the supply line. Dynamic braking
lowers the wear of friction-based braking components, and additionally regeneration reduces
energy consumption.
Principle of operation
During braking, the motor fields are connected across either the main traction generator (dieselelectric locomotive, hybrid electric vehicle) or the supply (electric locomotive, electric vehicle)
and the motor armatures are connected across braking grids (rheostatic) or the supply
(regenerative). The rolling wheels turn the motor armatures and when the motor fields are
excited, the motors act as generators.
During dynamic braking, the traction motors, which are now acting as generators, are connected
to braking grids of large resistors which limit the current flow and dissipate the converted energy
as heat in the resistors instead of the motor. Brake intensity can be controlled by varying the
excitation of the traction motor field and the resistance of the resistor grid. A direct current
system can slow the train to about 5 mph (8 km/h); an alternating current system can slow the
train to nearly a full stop.
Locomotives with a direct current "transmission" system always use series-wound traction
motors as these motors produce their maximum tractive effort at "stall", or zero mph, thereby
easily starting almost any train.

Dynamic braking can also be achieved by shorting the motor terminals, thus bringing the motor
to a fast abrupt stop. This method causes an enormous current surge through the motor itself,
dissipating all the energy as heat, and can only be used in low-power intermittent applications
due to cooling limitations. It is not suitable for traction applications.
Permanent magnet motors do not require an excitation field, this field is provided by the
permanent magnets.

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Disc brake
A disc brake is a type of brake that uses calipers to squeeze pairs of pads against a disc in order
to create friction that retards the rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle, either to reduce its

rotational speed or to hold it stationary. The energy of motion is converted into waste heat which
must be dispersed. Hydraulic disc brakes are the most commonly used form of brake for motor
vehicles but the principles of a disc brake are applicable to almost any rotating shaft.

Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping performance because the disc is
more readily cooled. As a consequence discs are less prone to the brake fade caused when brake
components overheat. Disc brakes also recover more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are
less effective than dry ones).
DISC BRAKES

Drum brake
A drum brake with the drum removed, as used on the rear wheel of a car or truck. In this
installation, a cable-operated parking brake operates the service shoes.
A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press outward
against a rotating cylinder-shaped part called a brake drum.
The term drum brake usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner surface of the
drum. When shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is usually called a clasp brake. Where the
drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a conventional disc brake, it is sometimes called a
pinch drum brake, though such brakes are relatively rare. A related type called a band brake uses
a flexible belt or "band" wrapping around the outside of a drum.
Components
Drum brake components include the backing plate, brake drum, shoe, wheel cylinder, and
various springs and pins.

Backing plate

The backing plate provides a base for the other components. It attaches to the axle sleeve and
provides a non-rotating rigid mounting surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes, and assorted
hardware. Since all braking operations exert pressure on the backing plate, it must be strong and

wear-resistant. Levers for emergency or parking brakes, and automatic brake-shoe adjuster were
also added in recent years.

Brake drum

The brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron that is heat-conductive and wearresistant. It rotates with the wheel and axle. When a driver applies the brakes, the lining pushes
radially against the inner surface of the drum, and the ensuing friction slows or stops rotation of
the wheel and axle, and thus the vehicle. This friction generates substantial heat.

Wheel cylinder

Cut-away section of a wheel cylinder.

One wheel cylinder operates the brake on each wheel. Two pistons operate the shoes, one at each
end of the wheel cylinder. The leading shoe (closest to the front of the vehicle) is known as the
primary shoe. The trailing shoe is known as the secondary shoe. Hydraulic pressure from the
master cylinder acts on the piston cup, pushing the pistons toward the shoes, forcing them
against the drum. When the driver releases the brakes, the brake shoe springs restore the shoes to
their original (disengaged) position. The parts of the wheel cylinder are shown to the right.
Brake shoe

Brake shoes are typically made of two pieces of steel welded together. The friction material is
either riveted to the lining table or attached with adhesive. The crescent-shaped piece is called
the Web and contains holes and slots in different shapes for return springs, hold-down hardware,
parking brake linkage and self-adjusting components. All the application force of the wheel
cylinder is applied through the web to the lining table and brake lining. The edge of the lining
table generally has three V"-shaped notches or tabs on each side called nibs. The nibs rest
against the support pads of the backing plate to which the shoes are installed. Each brake
assembly has two shoes, a primary and secondary. The primary shoe is located toward the front
of the vehicle and has the lining positioned differently from the secondary shoe. Quite often, the
two shoes are interchangeable, so close inspection for any variation is important.

DRUM BRAKES

Hydraulic brake
The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, typically
containing ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling mechanism to the braking
mechanism.
Anti-lock braking system
Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a
motor vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface according to driver inputs while
braking, preventing the wheels from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled
skidding. It is an automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence
braking which were practiced by skillful drivers with previous generation braking systems. It
does this at a much faster rate and with better control than a driver could manage.
ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and
slippery surfaces; however, on loose gravel or snow-covered surfaces, ABS can significantly
increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control.

Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have been improved
considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also electronically
control the front-to-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific capabilities and
implementation, is known as electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD), traction control system,
emergency brake assist, or electronic stability control (ESC).
ANTI LOCK BRAKES are a system that is between the brake master cylinder and the wheels.
The system prevents an unstable condition of the car under extreme braking conditions. It
modulates the pressure of the brake fluid that is applied to both front brake calipers and/or both
rear calipers, preventing the wheels from "LOCKING UP". Normal brake fluid pressure is
restored when there is no longer a possibility of the wheels locking up. Each wheel has
a SENSOR that the system monitors for each wheels rotation. If one of the wheels is turning
slower than the others, the anti lock system releases the pressure to that wheel. The system is
designed to provide positive feedback by way of a kickback on the brake pedal when the system
has been activated. The system works very well in wet or icy conditions, preventing skids and
loss of directional control.

Operation (how ABS Works )

The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock Brake).
Typically ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors, and at
least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors the
rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the others,
a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic
pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the
wheel then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than
the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied,
slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the driver
via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock systems can apply or release braking pressure 15 times
per second. Because of this, the wheels of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to
lock even during panic braking in extreme conditions.
The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotative speed below a critical
threshold, because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn
slower than the outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all roadgoing
vehicles.

If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated on the
vehicle instrument panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the fault is rectified.
Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of
hub-mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or comes standard on
most road vehicles produced today and is the foundation for electronic stability control systems,
which are rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics
over the years.
Modern electronic stability control systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a
minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are a steering wheel
angle sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic
sensor detects that the direction taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel
sensor reports, the ESC software will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with
the most sophisticated systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering
wheel sensor also helps in the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this will tell
the ABS that wheels on the inside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the outside,
and by how much.
ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system (TCS) on acceleration
of the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS controller can detect the
situation and take suitable action so that traction is regained. More sophisticated versions of this
can also control throttle levels and brakes simultaneously.
The speed sensors of ABS are sometimes used in indirect tire pressure monitoring system
(TPMS), which can detect under-inflation of tire(s) by difference in rotational speed of wheels.
ABS Components
There are four main components of ABS: speed sensors, valves, a pump, and a controller.
Speed sensors
A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration of the wheel. These sensors
use a magnet and a coil of wire to generate a signal. The rotation of the wheel or differential
induces a magnetic field around the sensor. The fluctuations of this magnetic field generate a
voltage in the sensor. Since the voltage induced in the sensor is a result of the rotating wheel, this
sensor can become inaccurate at slow speeds. The slower rotation of the wheel can cause
inaccurate fluctuations in the magnetic field and thus cause inaccurate readings to the controller.
Valves
There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems, the
valve has three positions:
In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed right through to
the brake.

In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master cylinder. This
prevents the pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder.
In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.
The majority of problems with the valve system occur due to clogged valves. When a valve is
clogged it is unable to open, close, or change position. An inoperable valve will prevent the
system from modulating the valves and controlling pressure supplied to the brakes.
Pump
The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes after the valves have
released it. A signal from the controller will release the valve at the detection of wheel slip. After
a valve release the pressure supplied from the user, the pump is used to restore a desired amount
of pressure to the braking system. The controller will modulate the pumps status in order to
provide the desired amount of pressure and reduce slipping.
Controller
The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each individual
wheel speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the controller, the
controller will then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS modulator which actuates
the braking valves on and off.
Use of ABS
There are many different variations and control algorithms for use in ABS. One of the simpler
systems works as follows.
The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations in the wheel
that are out of the ordinary. Right before a wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration.
If left unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might take a
car five seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 km/h) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that locks
up could stop spinning in less than a second.
The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it reduces the pressure
to that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it sees the
deceleration again. It can do this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change
speed. The result is that the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping
the tires very near the point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the system maximum
braking power.
This replaces the need to manually pump the brakes while driving on a slippery or a low traction
surface, allowing to steer even in the most emergency braking conditions.
When the ABS is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes from
the rapid opening and closing of the valves. This pulsing also tells the driver that the ABS has
been triggered. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 16 times per second.

ABS Brake types

Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes in use. They
can be differentiated by the number of channels: that is, how many valves that are individually
controlledand the number of speed sensors.

Four-channel, four-sensor ABS

This is the best scheme. There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for all
four wheels. With this setup, the controller monitors each wheel individually to make sure it is
achieving maximum braking force.

Three-channel, four-sensor ABS

There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for each of the front wheels, but
only one valve for both of the rear wheels. Older vehicles with four-wheel ABS usually use this
type.

Three-channel, three-sensor ABS

This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS, has a speed sensor and a
valve for each of the front wheels, with one valve and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed
sensor for the rear wheels is located in the rear axle. This system provides individual control of
the front wheels, so they can both achieve maximum braking force. The rear wheels, however,
are monitored together; they both have to start to lock up before the ABS will activate on the
rear. With this system, it is possible that one of the rear wheels will lock during a stop, reducing
brake effectiveness. This system is easy to identify, as there are no individual speed sensors for
the rear wheels.

Two-channel, four sensor ABS

This system, commonly found on passenger cars from the late '80s through early 2000s (before
government mandated stability control), uses a speed sensor at each wheel, with one control
valve each for the front and rear wheels as a pair. If the speed sensor detect lock up at any
individual wheel, the control module pulses the valve for both wheels on that end of the car.

One-channel, one-sensor ABS

This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS. It has one valve, which
controls both rear wheels, and one speed sensor, located in the rear axle. This system operates the
same as the rear end of a three-channel system. The rear wheels are monitored together and they
both have to start to lock up before the ABS kicks in. In this system it is also possible that one of
the rear wheels will lock, reducing brake effectiveness. This system is also easy to identify, as
there are no individual speed sensors for any of the wheels.

Air brake (road vehicle)

Truck air actuated brake

An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of friction brake for
vehicles in which compressed air pressing on a piston is used to apply the pressure to the brake
pad needed to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are used in large heavy vehicles, particularly those
having multiple trailers which must be linked into the brake system, such a trucks, buses, trailers,
and semi-trailers in addition to their use inrailroad trains.
George Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air
brake on March 5, 1872. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured
brake invention, which led to various forms of the automatic brake. In the early 20th century,

after its advantages were proven in railway use, it was adopted by manufacturers of trucks and
heavy road vehicles.
Design and function
Air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The system consists of service
brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, and an air storage tank. For the parking brake, there is
a disc or drum brake arrangement which is designed to be held in the 'applied' position by spring
pressure. Air pressure must be produced to release these "spring brake" parking brakes. For the
service brakes (the ones used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake
pedal is pushed, routing the air under pressure (approx 100120 psi or 690830 kPa or 6.89-8.27
bar) to the brake chamber, causing the brake to be engaged. Most types of truck air brakes are
drum brakes, though there is an increasing trend towards the use of disc brakes in this
application. The air compressor draws filtered air from the atmosphere and forces it into highpressure reservoirs at around 120 psi (830 kPa; 8.3 bar). Most heavy vehicles have a gauge
within the driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure for safe vehicle operation,
often including warning tones or lights. Setting of the parking/emergency brake releases the
pressurized air in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes, thus allowing
the spring actuated parking brake to engage. A sudden loss of air pressure would result in full
spring brake pressure immediately.
A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control system. The supply
system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the control system as well as to
additional air operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift control, clutch pedal air
assistance servo, etc.).
Supply system

Highly simplified air brake diagram on a commercial road vehicle (does not show all air reservoirs and all
applicable air valves).

The air compressor is driven by the engine either by crankshaft pulley via a belt or directly from
the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine lubrication and cooling
systems. Compressed air is first routed through a cooling coil and into an air dryer which
removes moisture and oil impurities and also may include a pressure regulator, safety valve and
smaller purge reservoir. As an alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped with
an anti-freeze device and oil separator. The compressed air is then stored in a reservoir (also
called a wet tank) from which it is then distributed via a four way protection valve into the front
and rear brake circuit air reservoir, a parking brake reservoir and an auxiliary air supply
distribution point. The system also includes various check, pressure limiting, drain and safety
valves.
Air brake systems may include a wig wag device which deploys to warn the driver if the system
air pressure drops too low.
Control system
The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits: the parking brake circuit
and the trailer brake circuit. This dual brake circuit is further split into front and rear wheel

circuits which receive compressed air from their individual reservoirs for added safety in case of
an air leak. The service brakes are applied by means of a brake pedal air valve which regulates
both circuits. The parking brake is the air operated spring brake type where its applied by spring
force in the spring brake cylinder and released by compressed air via hand control valve. The
trailer brake consists of a direct two line system: the supply line (marked red) and the separate
control or service line (marked blue). The supply line receives air from the prime mover park
brake air tank via a park brake relay valve and the control line is regulated via the trailer brake
relay valve. The operating signals for the relay are provided by the prime mover brake pedal air
valve, trailer service brake hand control (subject to local heavy vehicle legislation) and the prime
mover park brake hand control.

Park brake valve

Spring brake cylinder

Air brake foot valve

Trailer brake relay valve

Truck air compressor

Air dryer

Air brake relay valve

Four way protection valve

Advantages
Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter vehicles such
as automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a liquid (hydraulic fluid) to transfer pressure from the
brake pedal to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. *The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake
system can never run out of its operating fluid, as hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result
in brake failures.

Air line couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines; there is no danger
of letting air into a pneumatic circuit. So air brake circuits of trailers can be attached and
removed easily by operators with little training.

Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores potential energy.
So it can serve to control the force applied. Air brake systems include an air tank that stores
sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor fails.

Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake system can be
designed with sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle safely even when leaking.

Driving technique and operator licensing

As air brakes must be operated differently from more common hydraulic systems, most countries
require additional training and licensing in order to legally drive any vehicle using an air brake
system.
Driving a vehicle with air brakes requires basic knowledge of proper maintenance as well. A
driver is required to inspect the air pressurization system prior to driving and make sure all tanks
are in working order. In addition, the manner of applying brakes is usually different from regular
hydraulic type systems. Pressure is applied slowly and air levels must be monitored at all times
as a loss in air pressure will result in brake lockup aka "dynamiting". Unlike hydraulic brakes, air
brakes must not be pumped repeatedly as the repetitive application and release of air will drain
the system prematurely.

Railway air brake

A railway air brake is a railway brake power braking system with compressed air as the operating
medium.
Modern trains rely upon a fail-safe air brake system that is based upon a design patented by
George Westinghouse on March 5, 1868. The Westinghouse Air Brake Company (WABCO) was
subsequently organized to manufacture and sell Westinghouse's invention. In various forms, it
has been nearly universally adopted.
The Westinghouse system uses air pressure to charge air reservoirs (tanks) on each car. Full air
pressure signals each car to release the brakes. A reduction or loss of air pressure signals each car
to apply its brakes, using the compressed air in its reservoirs.

In the air brake's simplest form, called the straight air system, compressed air pushes on a piston
in a cylinder. The piston is connected through mechanical linkage to brake shoes that can rub on
the train wheels, using the resulting friction to slow the train. The mechanical linkage can
become quite elaborate, as it evenly distributes force from one pressurized air cylinder to 8 or 12
wheels.
The pressurized air comes from an air compressor in the locomotive and is sent from car to car
by a train line made up of pipes beneath each car and hoses between cars. The principal problem
with the straight air braking system is that any separation between hoses and pipes causes loss of
air pressure and hence the loss of the force applying the brakes. This could easily cause a
runaway train. Straight air brakes are still used on locomotives, although as a dual circuit system,
usually with each bogie (truck) having its own circuit.

Vacuum brake
How the automatic vacuum brake works
In its simplest form, the automatic vacuum brake consists of a continuous pipe (the train pipe
) running throughout the length of the train. In normal running a partial vacuum is maintained
in the train pipe, and the brakes are released. When air is admitted to the train pipe, the air
pressure acts against pistons in cylinders in each vehicle. A vacuum is sustained on the other face
of the pistons, so that a net force is applied. A mechanical linkage transmits this force to brake
shoes which act on the treads of the wheels.
The fittings to achieve this are:

a train pipe: a steel pipe running the length of each vehicle, with flexible vacuum hoses at
each end of the vehicles, and coupled between adjacent vehicles; at the end of the train, the
final hose is seated on an air-tight plug;
an ejector on the locomotive, to create vacuum in the train pipe;

controls for the driver to bring the ejector into action, and to admit air to the train pipe;
these may be separate controls or a combined brake valve;

a brake cylinder on each vehicle containing a piston, connected by rigging to the brake
shoes on the vehicle; and

a vacuum (pressure) gauge on the locomotive to indicate to the driver the degree of
vacuum in the train pipe.

The brake cylinder is contained in a larger housingthis gives a reserve of vacuum as the piston
operates. The cylinder rocks slightly in operation to maintain alignment with the brake rigging
cranks, so it is supported in trunnion bearings, and the vacuum pipe connection to it is flexible.
The piston in the brake cylinder has a flexible piston ring that allows air to pass from the upper
part of the cylinder to the lower part if necessary.
When the vehicles have been at rest, so that the brake is not charged, the brake pistons will have
dropped to their lower position in the absence of a pressure differential (as air will have leaked
slowly into the upper part of the cylinder, destroying the vacuum).
When a locomotive is coupled to the vehicles, the driver moves the brake control to the "release"
position and air is exhausted from the train pipe, creating a partial vacuum. Air in the upper part
of the brake cylinders is also exhausted from the train pipe, through a non-return valve.
If the driver now moves his control to the "brake" position, air is admitted to the train pipe.
According to the driver's manipulation of the control, some or the entire vacuum will be
destroyed in the process. The ball valve closes and there is a higher air pressure under the brake
pistons than above it, and the pressure differential forces the piston upwards, applying the brakes.
The driver can control the amount of braking effort by admitting more or less air to the train
pipe.

Vacuum brake cylinder in running position: the vacuum is the same above and below the piston

Air at atmospheric pressure from the train pipe is admitted below the piston, which is forced up

Electromagnetic brake

Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-mechanical brakes or EM brakes) slow or stop

motion using electromagnetic force to apply mechanical resistance (friction). The original name
was "electro-mechanical brakes" but over the years the name changed to "electromagnetic
brakes", referring to their actuation method, the variety of applications and brake designs has
increased dramatically, but the basic operation remains the same.
Both electromagnetic brakes and eddy current brakes use electromagnetic force but
electromagnetic brakes ultimately depend on friction and eddy current brakes use magnetic force
directly.

Applications
In locomotives, a mechanical linkage transmits torque to an electromagnetic braking component.
Trams and trains use electromagnetic track brakes where the braking element is pressed by
magnetic force to the rail. They are distinguished from mechanical track brakes, where the
braking element is mechanically pressed on the rail. Electric motors in industrial and robotic
applications also employ electromagnetic brakes. Recent design innovations have led to the
application of electromagnetic brakes to aircraft applications.In this application, a combination
motor/generator is used first as a motor to spin the tires up to speed prior to touchdown, thus
reducing wear on the tires, and then as a generator to provide regenerative braking.

Types

Single face brake

A-3 Electromagentic brake

A friction-plate brake uses a single plate friction surface to engage the input and output members
of the clutch. Single face electromagnetic brakes make up approximately 80% of all of the power
applied brake applications.

Power off brake

Electromagnetic Power Off Brake Spring Set

Power off brakes stop or hold a load when electrical power is either accidentally lost or
intentionally disconnected. In the past, some companies have referred to these as "fail safe"
brakes. These brakes are typically used on or near an electric motor. Typical applications include
robotics, holding brakes for Z axis ball screws and servo motor brakes. Brakes are available in
multiple voltages and can have either standard backlash or zero backlash hubs. Multiple disks
can also be used to increase brake torque, without increasing brake diameter. There are 2 main
types of holding brakes. The first is spring applied brakes. The second is permanent magnet
brakes.
1. Spring type - When no electricity is applied to the brake, a spring pushes against a
pressure plate, squeezing the friction disk between the inner pressure plate and the outer
cover plate. This frictional clamping force is transferred to the hub, which is mounted to a
shaft.
2. Permanent magnet type A permanent magnet holding brake looks very similar to a
standard power applied electromagnetic brake. Instead of squeezing a friction disk, via
springs, it uses permanent magnets to attract a single face armature. When the brake is
engaged, the permanent magnets create magnetic lines of flux, which can in turn attract
the armature to the brake housing. To disengage the brake, power is applied to the coil
which sets up an alternate magnetic field that cancels out the magnetic flux of the
permanent magnets.

Both power off brakes are considered to be engaged when no power is applied to them. They are
typically required to hold or to stop alone in the event of a loss of power or when power is not
available in a machine circuit. Permanent magnet brakes have a very high torque for their size,
but also require a constant current control to offset the permanent magnetic field. Spring applied
brakes do not require a constant current control, they can use a simple rectifier, but are larger in
diameter or would need stacked friction disks to increase the torque.

Particle brake

Magnetic Particle Brake

Magnetic particle brakes are unique in their design from other electro-mechanical brakes because
of the wide operating torque range available. Like an electro-mechanical brake, torque to voltage
is almost linear; however, in a magnetic particle brake, torque can be controlled very accurately
(within the operating RPM range of the unit). This makes these units ideally suited for tension
control applications, such as wire winding, foil, film, and tape tension control. Because of their
fast response, they can also be used in high cycle applications, such as magnetic card readers,
sorting machines and labeling equipment.
Magnetic particles (very similar to iron filings) are located in the powder cavity. When electricity
is applied to the coil, the resulting magnetic flux tries to bind the particles together, almost like a
magnetic particle slush. As the electric current is increased, the binding of the particles becomes
stronger. The brake rotor passes through these bound particles. The output of the housing is
rigidly attached to some portion of the machine. As the particles start to bind together, a resistant
force is created on the rotor, slowing, and eventually stopping the output shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the input is free to turn with the shaft. Since
magnetic particle powder is in the cavity, all magnetic particle units have some type of minimum
drag associated with them.

Hysteresis power brake

Electomagnetic Hysteresis Power Brake

Electrical hysteresis units have an extremely wide torque range. Since these units can be
controlled remotely, they are ideal for test stand applications where varying torque is required.
Since drag torque is minimal, these units offer the widest available torque range of any of the
hysteresis products. Most applications involving powered hysteresis units are in test stand
requirements.
When electricity is applied to the field, it creates an internal magnetic flux. That flux is then
transferred into a hysteresis disk passing through the field. The hysteresis disk is attached to the
brake shaft. A magnetic drag on the hysteresis disk allows for a constant drag, or eventual
stoppage of the output shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the hysteresis disk is free to turn, and no relative
force is transmitted between either member. Therefore, the only torque seen between the input
and the output is bearing drag.

Multiple disk brake

Electromagnetic Multiple Disk Brake

Multiple disk brakes are used to deliver extremely high torque within a small space. These
brakes can be used either wet or dry, which makes them ideal to run in multi-speed gear box
applications, machine tool applications, or in off road equipment.
Electro-mechanical disk brakes operate via electrical actuation, but transmit torque mechanically.
When electricity is applied to the coil of an electromagnet, the magnetic flux attracts the
armature to the face of the brake. As it does so, it squeezes the inner and outer friction disks
together. The hub is normally mounted on the shaft that is rotating. The brake housing is
mounted solidly to the machine frame. As the disks are squeezed, torque is transmitted from the
hub into the machine frame, stopping and holding the shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the armature is free to turn with the shaft. Springs
keep the friction disk and armature away from each other. There is no contact between braking
surfaces and minimal drag.