OX AND REDOX

For any monatomic ion the oxidation number equals the ionic charge. Thus, K+
has an oxidation number of +1, S2- has an oxidation number of -2, and so forth.
In ionic compounds the alkali metal ions (group 1A) always have a 1+ charge and
therefore an oxidation number of +1. The alkaline earth metals (group 2A) are always
+2, and aluminum (group 3A) is always +3 in ionic compounds. (In writing
oxidation numbers we will write the sign before the number to distinguish them
from the actual electronic charges, which we write with the number first.)
Nonmetals usually have negative oxidation numbers, although they can sometimes
be positive:
The oxidation number of hydrogen is usually +1 when bonded to nonmetals
and -1 when bonded to metals ( for example, metal hydrides such as sodium
hydride, NaH).
The oxidation number of fluorine is -1 in all compounds. The other halogens
have an oxidation number of -1 in most binary compounds. When combined
with oxygen, as in oxyanions, however, they have positive oxidation states.
Ch 19
A spontaneous process is one that proceeds on its own without any outside assistance. A
spontaneous process occurs in one direction only, and the reverse of any spontaneous process is
always nonspontaneous.
We conclude that although the majorityof spontaneous reactions are exothermic, there are
spontaneous endothermic ones as well. Clearly, some other factor must be at work in determining
the natural direction of
processes.
a reversible change produces the maximum amount of work that can be
done by a system on its surroundings

_Suniv = _Ssys + _Ssurr

Microstate-possible arrangement. S = k ln W
An increase in temperature increases the most probable
speed of the molecules and also broadens the distribution of speeds. Hence, the molecules
have a greater number of possible kinetic energies, and the number of microstates
increases
the entropy of the system increases with increasing temperature.
In general, the number of microstates possible for a system increases with an increase in
volume, an increase in temperature, or an increase in the number of molecules because any
of these changes increases the possible positions and kinetic energies of the molecules making

up the system.
In summary, we generally expect the entropy of a system to increase for processes
in which
1. Gases form from either solids or liquids.
2. Liquids or solutions form from solids.
3. The number of gas molecules increases during a chemical reaction.
In any spontaneous process carried out at constant temperature
and pressure, the free energy always decreases
low atm means bigger volume aka more entropy

(a) HCl(g) has the higher entropy because the particles in gases
are more disordered and have more freedom of motion than the
particles in solids. (b) When these two systems are at the same pressure,
the sample containing 2 mol of HCl has twice the number of
molecules as the sample containing 1 mol. Thus, the 2-mol sample has
twice the number of microstates and twice the entropy. (c) The HCl
system has the higher entropy because the number of ways in which
an HCl molecule can store energy is greater than the number of ways in which an Ar atom can
store energy. Molecules can rotate and vibrate; atoms cannot.
third law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of a
pure, perfect crystalline substance at absolute zero is zero: S10 K2 = 0.
Molar entropies for substances in their standard states are known as standard
molar entropies and denoted S.
S = nSproducts - mSreactants
1. If _G <0, the reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction.
2. If _G = 0, the reaction is at equilibrium.
3. If _G > 0, the reaction in the forward direction is nonspontaneous (work must be
done to make it occur) but the reverse reaction is spontaneous.
We can define standard free energies of formation, _Gf, in a similar
way: _Gf for a substance is the free-energy change for its formation from its elements
under standard conditions. As is summarized in Table 19.2, standard state
means 1 atm pressure for gases, the pure solid for solids, and the pure liquid for liquids.
For substances in solution, the standard state is normally a concentration of 1 M.
Delta G at equilibrium=0 because no free energy

Ch 20
Commonly used reducing agents include H2 and the active metals, such as the alkali
metals and the alkaline earth metals.
Ch 23
Transition metals often have more than one stable oxidation state.
Many transition-metal compounds are colored, as shown in
Transition metals and their compounds often exhibit magnetic
properties.
Ferromagnets, ferrimagnets, and antiferromagnets all become paramagnetic when
heated above a critical temperature. This happens when the thermal energy is sufficient
to overcome the forces determining the spin directions of the electrons. This temperature
is called the Curie temperature, , for ferromagnets and ferrimagnets and the Nel
temperature, , for antiferromagnets
The transition metals occur in many interesting and important molecular forms.
Species that are assemblies of a central transition-metal ion bonded to a group of
surrounding
molecules or ions, such as Ag(NH3)2^+ and Fe(h20)6^3+ , are called metal
complexes, or merely complexes.* If the complex carries a net charge, it is generally
called a complex ion.(Section 17.5) Compounds that contain complexes are known
as coordination compounds.
The ligand atom that binds to the central metal ion in a coordination complex is called
the donor atom of the ligand. Ligands having only one donor atom are called
monodentate ligands (from the Latin, meaning one-toothed). These ligands are able
to occupy only one site in a coordination sphere. Ligands having two donor atoms are
bidentate ligands (two-toothed), and those having three or more donor atoms are
polydentate ligands (many-toothed). In both bidentate and polydentate species, the
multiple donor atoms can simultaneously bond to the metal ion, thereby occupying two
or more sites in a coordination sphere. _ TABLE 23.4 gives examples of all three types
of ligands.
Because they appear to grasp the metal between two or more donor atoms,
bidentate and polydentate ligands are also known as chelating agents (pronounced
KEE-lay-ting; from the Greek chele, claw).
The chlorophylls, which are porphyrins that contain Mg(II) (Figure 23.13),
are the key components in the conversion of solar energy into forms that can be
used by living organisms. This process, called photosynthesis, occurs in the
leaves of green plants:
6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)======C6H12O6(aq) + 6 O2(g)