Guidance Note

for
Management of Safety and Health Risks
associated with
Hours of Work Arrangements
at Mining Operations

April 2001

FOREWORD
Queensland entered a new era in mine safety on
March 16, 2001 when the Coal Mining Safety and
Health Act 1999 and the Mining and Quarrying
Safety and Health Act 1999 came into force.
This event is the culmination of many years of
effort by unions, mine owners and the Queensland
Government. This is the greatest change to mining
safety and health legislation since 1925 and at last
the Queensland mining industry will have
contemporary safety and health legislation equal to
the best in the world.
This document, Guidance Note for Management of
Safety and Health Risks associated with Hours of
Work Arrangements at Mining Operations, covers
an important aspect of safety and health in the
Queensland mining industry. Our industry has been
subject to extensive change over the last five years
and many of these changes relate to hours of work
arrangements. We have seen extended shifts,
compressed work weeks and numerous variations of
working arrangements introduced into the mining
industry.
Many of these innovations bring advantages to
operators and workers alike, but some of them
introduce additional hazards into the work place or
increase the risks to safety and health associated
with existing hazards. Good examples of this can be
seen in the increased exposure to noise and
industrial chemicals associated with extended shifts.
In some hazardous activities increased levels of
fatigue can also be a problem.
This document was prepared to assist mine and
quarry operators and workers in taking all the
necessary precautions to protect their health and
safety from risks associated with non-traditional
working arrangements.

Stephen Robertson
Minister for Natural Resources
and Minister for Mines

CONTENTS
1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1
Purpose
1.2
Scope

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2.

WHAT IS COVERED BY HOURS OF WORK ARRANGEMENTS?

2.1
Commuter Operations

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5

3.

EFFECTS OF HOURS OF WORK ARRANGEMENTS

3.1
Health, Family and Community
3.1.1
Body Clock
3.1.2
Sleep and Fatigue
(a) Work related fatigue
(b) Non-work related fatigue
3.1.3
Effects on Health
(a) Medication
3.1.4
Effects on Family and Social Life
3.2
Work Performance and Safety
3.2.1
Sleep deficit
3.2.2
Roster Organisation
(a) Direction of rotation
(b) Speed of rotation
(c) Irregular and unpredictable work schedules
3.2.3
Work Scheduling
(a) Recovery within and between work periods
(b) Type of work and workloads
3.2.4
Travel Time
3.2.5
Safety
(a) Accidents and incidents
(b) Exposure to hazardous substances
3.2.6
Moonlighting
3.3
Commuter operations

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4.

RISK MANAGEMENT OF HOURS OF WORK ARRANGEMENTS

4.1
Risk Analysis
4.1.1
Workload
4.1.2
Needs of Employees
4.2
Risk Assessment
4.3
Risk Control
4.3.1
Length of shifts and working hours
4.3.2
Split or broken shifts
4.3.3
Overtime
4.3.4
Night work
4.3.5
Extended shifts
4.3.6
Breaks during shifts
4.3.7
Rest days

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4.3.8
4.3.9
4.3.10
4.3.11
4.3.12
4.3.13
4.3.14
4.3.15
4.3.16
4.3.17
4.3.18
4.3.19
4.3.20
4.3.21
4.3.22
4.3.23
5.

Employee responsibilities
Timing of shifts
Rotating shifts
Roster pattern and length of cycle
Standby and on-call duties
Exchange of shifts
Exposure to other safety and health hazards
Isolated work
Hot work
Hand-over
Travel
Communication
Information and education for workers and management
Heating and cooling
Commuter operations
Audit and review

COMPLIANCE WITH OBLILGATIONS UNDER MINING SAFETY AND HEALTH LEGISLATION

REFERENCE SOURCES

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1.

INTRODUCTION

This paper was developed to assist in the

identification and control of safety and health risks
associated with hours of work arrangements for the
mining industry.

communities. Approximately 20% are fly in/fly out

or drive in/drive out operations (ACIRRT, 2000).
The characteristics of the Queensland mining
industry in terms of location and roster patterns
show that shiftwork is a vital part of the industry
and as such the risks associated with hours of work
arrangements must be managed.

Changes in the design of work schedules have

resulted in the extension of work hours with
sometimes a decrease in the numbers of days
worked. The mining industry is under increased
pressure to compete more effectively globally,
which may require changes to work structures to
enhance productivity and reduce costs. The
introduction of extended shifts has been one of the
responses of the mining industry to meet the
changing structure of work.

1.1 Purpose
To provide practical guidance to companies,
employers and employees on how to minimise and
control risks arising from the hazards associated
with hours of work arrangements.

Twenty-four hour operations pose distinct

challenges to human physiology, particularly for
personnel working in hazardous environments.
Irregular work and sleep patterns are associated
with increased work-related fatigue, decreased
alertness and increased accident risk, especially in
the early morning hours.

1.2 Scope
The scope of the paper is limited to the
management of hazards related to hours of work
arrangements and the effect on the safety and
health of individuals and workplaces.

Where risks to safety and health are increased

through hours of work arrangements, both
employers and employees must take the necessary
steps to address them.
This joint responsibility needs to be appreciated if
the mining industry is to function in a safe and
healthy working environment. Both employees and
employers should cooperate to achieve this
objective.
Surveys conducted in 1999 by the Queensland
Department of Mines and Energy and the Australian
Centre for Industrial Relations, Research and
Training (ACIRRT) indicated that in Queensland,
greater than 80% of the mine workers were working
greater than eight hours per work shift. The
balance of workers (~ 20%) were on shift rostering
systems of eight hours or less.
The locations of Queensland mines are mixed.
Approximately 55% are located in mixed
community settings and 23% in isolated

2. WHAT IS COVERED BY HOURS OF WORK ARRANGEMENTS

It is difficult to arrive at a simple definition of
hours of work arrangements as these arrangements
include:

Scheduling of rosters;
Number of consecutive shifts;
Maximum hours per shift;
Maximum hours per roster cycle;
Start and finish times;
Break patterns within and between shifts;
Factors affecting the health and safety of
workers.

The difference between commuter operations and

other work schedules where workers return to the
community during non-working time should be
recognised and a holistic approach to workplace
safety and health adopted. There are potential
benefits in addition to the potential increase in
some risks when comparing fly in/fly out
operations to daily commute operations.

These factors are important in any shift pattern,

even work arrangements not normally classified as
shiftwork. These factors need to be considered in
the risk management of hours of work
arrangements.
Extended workdays refer to work schedules having
longer than normal workdays. Some sources
consider it to be between 8 to 12 hours in length,
however, there is no clear consensus about the
length of the extended workday.
Workers on extended shifts often work fewer than
five days a week. When the traditional 36 to 40
hour work week are compressed into three or four
days, the number of days worked in a row is
decreased and the number of consecutive days off is
increased. This is not always the case - working an
extended shift pattern does not automatically mean
the same as a compressed work week.

2.1 Commuter Operations

At remote mine sites, workers typically stay in
accommodation close to the mine site and only
commute at the beginning and end of the roster.
This is becoming more commonplace with many
operations adopting this practice.
This paper has been prepared in recognition of the
special characteristics and needs of both fly in/fly
out and drive in/drive out mining operations that
operate outside of the traditional standard working
week.

3. EFFECTS OF HOURS OF WORK ARRANGEMENTS

3.1 Health, family and community

sleep debt leading to increased fatigue and

decreased performance.

3.1.1 Body Clock

From a safety and health perspective, fatigue is

most appropriately conceptualised as either workrelated or non-work-related, and may be defined as
the increasing difficulty to perform physical or
mental activities.

Like other living organisms, humans have natural

body rhythms that are regulated by a circadian
clock in the brain. These are called circadian
rhythms.
Over a 24-hour period the circadian clock regulates
sleep/wake patterns, body temperature, hormone
levels, digestion and many other functions.
Depending on the time of day or night, the human
body is programmed for periods of wakefulness and
sleep, high and low body temperature, high and low
digestive activity, and so on.

(a) Work related fatigue

Adults tend naturally to sleep by midnight, wake

near dawn, and stay awake through the day (with
an afternoon sleepy period). Body temperature is at
its lowest between 2 am and 6 am. The ability to
concentrate and perform tasks is also at its lowest
in these early hours of the morning, parallelling the
fall in core body temperature. This pattern is
repeated every 24 hours.

Levels of work-related fatigue may be considered

to be more similar across different individuals
performing the same tasks than non-work
related fatigue. This follows because there are
fewer variables for individuals doing the same
task in the same environment than in a nonwork situation. Work-related fatigue as defined
in this paper can be measured and managed at
an organisational level.

Examples of work related fatigue might arise

from situations requiring concentration for
extended periods during work hours, working in
temperature extremes or working in high-risk
situations.

Disrupted rhythms impact on the quantity and

quality of sleep, task performance and create a
perceived sense of personal imbalance. Shiftwork
can be considered to be a biological disruptor.

(b) Non-work related fatigue

Examples of non-work related fatigue include
sleep disruption due to ill family members, stress
associated with financial difficulties,
moonlighting, domestic responsibilities or many
other factors.

Generally no complete physiological (body

function) adaptation takes place for the majority of
night workers. A majority of night workers suffer
ongoing sleep problems.

Non-work-related fatigue because of all the

different circumstances will be highly variable
between individuals and is dependent on a
persons environment in addition to their
physical and mental attributes. Non-workrelated fatigue is best managed at the individual
level.
Employers should provide access to information
that allows their employees to make informed
lifestyle choices. By providing relevant and
accurate information, employers are more likely
to minimise the impacts of non-work-related
fatigue on work activities.

3.1.2 Sleep and Fatigue

Human fatigue (represented by decreased physical
and mental capacity) is multifactorial. Symptoms
of fatigue include tiredness even after sleep,
psychological disturbances, disinclination to work
and general loss of vitality. This may lead to
chronic disruptive sleep patterns and body systems
alterations (gastric ulcers etc).
Disruptions to normal sleep routines are often
associated with night shift or extended hours, where
the major difficulty is getting adequate undisturbed
sleep during the day, particularly in hot climates.
The cumulative result of these disruptions is
insufficient recovery sleep, commonly known as

Effective management for work related and nonwork-related fatigue is likely to produce benefits
to the organisations, employees, their families
and communities. Organisations may receive

improvements in morale, safety, productivity and

attrition rates. Individuals can expect benefits to
health, well being, motivation and quality of life.
3.1.3 Effects on Health
Long - term exposure to shiftwork may have
deleterious effects on the health of individuals.
Evidence from studies of shift workers indicate a
higher incidence of:

Gastrointestinal disorders (eg peptic ulcers,

heartburn, nausea)

Cardiovascular disease (eg Ischaemic heart

disease, high blood pressure)

Complaints associated with stress (eg anxiety,

depression)

Those already suffering from digestive disorders,

diabetes, heart diseases, psychological problems,
alcohol and drug addictions and chronic sleep
disturbances face additional burdens.
(a) Medication
Generally, there is an assumption that
prescription medication is used during the day
and that sleep occurs at night. For shift workers
this may not be the case. It is important to
understand that the effects of medication are
related to the time-of-day at which they are
taken. Depending on the individual roster, the
intended effect of the prescribed medication may
vary from the actual outcome.
Workers should advise medical practitioners
about the status of working hours when being
prescribed medication.
3.1.4 Effects on family and social life

life may result in pressures on relationships,

domestic workloads and community activities.
As with sleep and fatigue, this has implications for
task performance, safety and health, morale,
absenteeism, productivity and attrition rates.
Good roster design may minimise these impacts.

3.2 Work Performance and Safety

3.2.1 Sleep deficit
Getting adequate undisturbed sleep during the day
may be difficult during periods of night work.
Extended hours that carry into night period may
create a similar problem.
The cumulative result of these disruptions is lack of
sufficient sleep, which may lead to what is called
sleep debt. If a worker is seriously sleep deprived,
they may suffer micro sleeps. Micro-sleep is a brief
nap that lasts for around 4 to 5 seconds. The
worker may not have realised that sleep has
occurred. These could have a significant impact on
safety.

3.2.2 Roster Organisation

While there is no right or wrong roster design,
good management practice in the design of rosters
can facilitate a balance between maximising
productivity and ensuring the safety and health of
the workforce.
Decisions to change roster design are more likely to
be more successful if they are preceded by
consultation with the workforce on the justification
for the change. This consultation may be supported
by an education and information program to enable
full appreciation of the implications and purpose of
the change.

Work scheduling that is based solely on

organisational requirements may not acknowledge
the personal, domestic and social needs of its
workforce.

(a) Direction of rotation

The human body has difficulty in adjusting to
changing work routines. Evidence suggests that
the body can adapt easier to going to sleep later
(forward rotation) rather than earlier (backward
rotation). This is somewhat dependent on
individual preferences and circumstances and the
evidence in this field is inclusive.

In many cases, shift workers find it difficult to

maintain a satisfactory social and family life and
many neglect recovery from work in order to fulfil
other needs. The dislocation of family and social

(b) Speed of rotation

The value of a break, with a set duration, between shifts is dependent on the time of day at
which the break commences. Minimum break
duration should acknowledge the time of day
impacts.

The speed of rotation describes the number of

days an individual spends on a particular shift
before a change to another shift or to time off
periods occurs.

(b) Type of work and workloads

A slowly rotating schedule, working 3 to 4

weeks on the same shift, allows greater time for
body rhythms to adjust and adapt. As the quality
of sleep is lower when working night shift, such
long cycles may create an accumulating sleep
debt and fatigue problem. This can be
exacerbated if workers return to a day routine on
their days off.

Research indicates that certain types of tasks are

performed better at particular times of the day
than others. Performance reduction with particular types of tasks can be modified by factors
such as the activity duration and intrinsic nature
of the work.
When extended shifts are used, the following
must be carefully considered if risk to safety and
health is to be kept to an acceptable level:

A faster rotation may enable the employees to

minimise circadian movement, as the body does
not have time to adjust to differing shift times.
Such rapid rotations minimise the accumulation
of a large sleep debt as long periods of night
shifts are avoided.

Level of risk inherent risk associated with the

work;
Level of mental or physical effort required;

(c) Irregular and unpredictable work schedules

Exposure to hazards where safety standards

are based on 8 hour exposures;

It is generally more favourable to have a regular

and predictable work scheduling arrangement.
Unpredictable work schedules may also
compromise the quality of rest time if there is
the continual possibility of recall to duty. Where
on-call arrangements are used, on-site facilities
should maximise the opportunity for undisturbed
rest and sleep.

Work that is tied to short cycle operations;

Work that requires extended periods of
vigilance.
Studies show overtime after 12 hour shifts is a
high-risk practice and should not be worked
other than in emergencies.

3.2.3 Work scheduling

3.2.4 Travel time

Scheduling the work of employees to minimise the

impact of safety and health risks to all stakeholders
is essential.

In addition to the actual contact hours at work,

travel time to and from work each day should be
considered particularly when extended shifts are
worked.

(a) Recovery within and between work periods

Within a period of work, breaks should be taken
to allow for mental and physical time away from
the work environment. Potentially this may lead
to improved vigilance, performance, safety and
efficiency.

In some instances travelling time can significantly

extend the effective length of a shift. Sleep time is
reduced and recovery times at the end of shift
rosters may be reduced.

Lack of suitable recovery periods between shifts

may be viewed as a major potential hazard. This
is particularly the case between night shifts.

Hazards associated with persons driving on long

straight desolate stretches or road are a problem
especially when fatigued.

3.2.5 Safety
Consideration of the potential effects on safety of
shiftwork involves consideration of two separate
issues.
The first is related to the problem of fatigue and its
influence on behaviour associated with safe work
practices resulting in accident or injury.
The second issue relates to the problem of
prolonged exposure to physical, chemical and other
hazards in the working environment.
(a) Accidents and incidents
Four basic situations have been identified where
shift workers need to perform at their optimum
and where fatigue may play an important role.
Where work error is dangerous to society
Where work error is dangerous to the worker
or workers themselves
Where a failure to respond is dangerous to
society
Where failure to respond is dangerous to the
worker or workers themselves
These are the situations that need to be identified
and assessed in order to effectively manage the
safety risks associated with shiftwork and
fatigue.
One of the identified problems with determining
the effect of shiftwork on accident and injury
rates in the mining industry is the lack of data
available. Data should be collected that allows
analysis to determine if the shift roster system or
the length of the shift may have contributed to
the accident or incident.
(b) Exposure to hazardous substances
The effects of extended exposure to hazardous
substances for workers is another issue that
needs consideration with regard to rosters and
scheduling of extended shifts, particularly when
long durations of extended shifts are scheduled.
The national and international exposure
standards for toxic chemicals are based on an

eight-hour day, five day per week. This leaves

the question of necessary adjustment to
accommodate working hours outside the
standard week to be addressed.
3.2.6 Moonlighting
One unexpected outcome of compressed work
schedules may be moonlighting, in which
employees take additional employment on their
days off or during leisure time.
Moonlighting is difficult to control, impacts on the
management of fatigue and should be of concern to
the mining industry.

3.3 Commuter operations

Commuting to work either by fly in/fly out or drive
in/drive out is becoming more commonplace.
This mode of operation has both pluses and
minuses and while many of the safety and health
concerns associated with extended shifts have been
addressed there are some issues specific to
commuter operations that warrant attention
especially as these often coincide with greater
number of consecutive shifts.
Many operations have in place risk management
processes. Examples of risk management
frameworks that could be used include:
.
.

Australian/New Zealand Standard - AS/NZS

4360:1995;
Risk Management; MDG 1010: Risk
Management Handbook for the Mining
Industry, Department of Mineral Resources,
New South Wales;
Workplace Health and Safety Risk
Management Advisory Standard 2000,
Department of Employment, Training and
Industrial Relations, Queensland.

Typical processes for the management of risk

comprises three steps:
(1)
(2)
(3)

Risk analysis
Risk assessment
Risk control

4. RISK MANAGEMENT OF HOURS OF WORK ARRANGEMENTS

4.1 Risk Analysis

Work related injury and disease arise from the

hazards at work. These can include the design of
work processes, the use of materials, substances,
machinery and equipment - and the associated
hazards (noise, fumes, radiation, etc), and the
organisation of work.

Working hours should be treated in the same way

as other safety and health hazards.

The first step in risk analysis is identification of the

hazards. Techniques that can be used to identify
hazards associated with hours of work
arrangements may include:

Conducting employee surveys

Examining accident and sickness records
Environmental and medical monitoring
Assessing expert reports
Reviewing current research literature
Incident, injury and illness investigation
Monitoring of accidents and incidents
associated with travel to or from work.
Investigating employee complaints

Factors to consider when determining the exposure,

probability and consequences to analyse the risks
posed by the identified hazards include:

Type of work and workload of employees

Competence of employees
Special circumstances on the site
Roster design including
- hours worked in any one period
- rest within and between work periods
- design principles for schedules
Exposure standards

4.1.1

4.1.2 Needs of Employees

Arrangements for hours of work should consider
the needs, commitments and responsibilities for all
employees who are trying to balance work and
other commitments.

4.2 Risk Assessment

Risk assessment is a process to determine the
likelihood of potential injury or illness for those
exposed to the hazard. The risk assessment should
consider any controls or methods already being
used to control risk and assess the effectiveness of
such current methods.
Risk assessment methods should be identified that
are appropriate for the hazards identified and may
include:

Workload

All jobs, and all tasks within jobs, impose a

workload. The following need to be considered in
analysis of risks for hours of work arrangements:

the physical effort required eg. lifting, carrying,

driving, operating a machine, using a keyboard
the demands caused by monotonous, repetitive
activities or the need for high vigilance and
concentration

the pressure on the employee, eg tasks required

to be done
the hours of work including night shift versus
day shift, length of shifts, timing of shifts, and
breaks between shifts
the bodys physiological and psychological
responses to workload, eg. heart rate, hormone
production, blood pressure, stress, anxiety and
fatigue;
Physically or mentally demanding work will
increase the risks associated with shift work and
extended hours

use of specialist expertise in scheduling and

shiftwork
use of techniques that enable calculation of
potential sleep deprivation and fatigue risk
factors
consultation with staff on best fit schedules
and on individual orientation to different work
schedules
use of available research on shiftwork

4.3 Risk Control

Where shift work is necessary, the risks can be
reduced and controlled as risks associated with
other hazards can be reduced and controlled. The
factors to be considered include the following:

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4.3.1 Length of shifts and working hours

Length of shifts, working hours and roster design
need to take into account the site requirements and
the requirement to maintain a safe and healthy
workplace. Strategies that may assist in managing
the risks associated with length of shift and
working hours include:

Where practical, scheduling complex tasks to be

undertaken during the day.

Rotating workers through different jobs to

relieve the monotony of some tasks.

Minimising or redesigning routine

administrative tasks to ensure employees can
focus on core duties during their night work.

Employers need to establish systems that provide

for relief staff to cover emergencies, or possible
absences on incoming crews.
4.3.4 Night Work
Work that is physically or mentally demanding,
monotonous, or requires high vigilance can lead to
fatigue which may be made worse by night work.
and this needs to be considered when designing
rosters.
Night work should be organised to allow and
encourage employees to take additional breaks and
pauses. Breaks before the onset of fatigue are much
more beneficial than those taken after the onset of
fatigue.
4.3.5 Extended shifts

The allocation of employees during peak times

and demands is fundamental in minimising the
exposure to risks associated with extended
working hours. Numbers and types of
employees should be rostered on the basis of
predictable demands for services.

Replacing or substituting employees where

extended hours have created a risk to safety and
health.

4.3.6 Breaks during shifts

Deferring non-urgent work to allow appropriate

rest and recuperation for employees.

Adequate and regular rest breaks and pauses are

necessary if risk to safety and health is to be
properly controlled. Meal breaks or rest breaks
should not be traded off for an early finish time.

4.3.2 Split or broken shifts

Split or broken shifts should be avoided if possible.
Particular attention to risk management should be
ensured if split or broken shifts are required. As
they are usually arranged to cover periods of peak
activity, they put employees at greater risk of work
overload.
4.3.3 Overtime
Overtime should not extend the length of shifts
beyond the maximum lengths established at the
mine.The overall work pattern when overtime shifts
are introduced should be monitored. Records
should be kept of the hours individual employees
have worked.

There is the definite possibility of increased hazards

associated with extended shifts and in order to
minimise the hazards, it is essential that the
increased leisure time be used for recuperation and
recreation and not as an opportunity for additional
employment.

The number and duration of breaks during a shift

should be adapted to the type of work, workload
and length of shift. The longer the shift, the longer
the total break time required per shift and regular
rest breaks and pauses are needed. Some flexibility
to enable workers to take a break when fatigued
should be allowed where possible. Considerable
research has been undertaken on this subject and
suggested readings are provided in the references.
4.3.7 Rest days
Good roster design should take into account the
need for adequate blocks of rest days to allow for
recovery.

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4.3.8 Employee responsibilities

It is the responsibility of the employee to ensure
they make appropriate use of rest periods and are fit
for duty. Factors that may diminish the
effectiveness of rest periods include:

moonlighting
medication
other leisure activities

The employee should notify the supervisor of any

impairment or potential impairment that may place
any person at risk prior to undertaking activities.
Any risk assessment should include personal health
and lifestyle factors.
4.3.9 Timing of shifts
It is recommended that shifts do not start between
midnight and 6 am. This is to ensure an
opportunity for adequate night rest.
4.3.10 Rotating shifts
If a rotating three shift system is in operation (day,
afternoon and night), the preferred rotation should
be in the order of day then afternoon then night.
This is a forward rotation (as in forward on the
clock face).
If shift start times vary throughout a sequence of
shifts, they should commence with an early start
and move progressively later. Changes from a late
start to an early start reduce the number of rest
hours between shifts.
4.3.11 Roster pattern and length of cycle
When designing a roster, particular consideration
should be given to:

The number of consecutive day shifts

The number of consecutive night shifts
The length of the roster cycle
The recovery time at the end of each roster
cycle
The recovery time from the end of each shift to
the start of the next shift

It is generally preferable that the roster cycle be as

short as possible.

Rosters should be regular and predictable to avoid

disruptions to rest and sleep periods, and for better
organisation of private, family and social life.
Roster details should be available to employees well
in advance, and maximum notice should be given
regarding changes in the roster.
4.3.12 Standby and on-call duties
Being on standby or on-call means that the
employee has not entirely stopped work. Anxieties
and stresses related to the job are still experienced.
Such periods should be included in workload
calculations.
If people on-call are called in to work, this can lead
to accumulated fatigue, lack of sleep and severely
disturbed sleep.
4.3.13 Exchange of shifts
Exchange of shifts for special reasons may be
allowed, provided the change does not result in
excessive daily or weekly hours for any employee.
A supervisor should be responsible for monitoring
the effect on individual roster patterns.
Exchange of shifts should not occur if it results in
two or more continuous shifts being worked (ie. no
break between), or if recommended maximum hours
are exceeded.
4.3.14 Exposure to other safety and health hazards
Extended hour shifts may increase the risk of health
effects that are generally associated with work.
Exposure to work hazards such as noise, heat and
chemicals may be increased and must be carefully
monitored. The increased exposure of employees
over a 12 hour shift period to physical stressors
such as noise and contaminants represents an
increase over the traditional eight hour shift that
may not simply be 1.5 times that for eight hours.
Models to be used for the calculation of exposure
limits for workers working in excess of an eighthour shift period need to take into account the
reduced recovery time after exposure to
contaminants if extended shifts are being worked.
It is fundamental to good work practice to adopt
the as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA)
principle and keep all exposures significantly below
specified standards to allow for day-to-day

12

variability and ensure that workers are not over

exposed.

does not require employees to work in excess of the

site established maximum hours.

Expert advice on exposure levels should be sought

where necessary. Some references are included at
the end of this paper.

Important communication sessions should be

schedules to allow effective communication.

Manual handling hazards may also be increased by

extended shifts, due to the cumulative effects of
muscle fatigue, sprains and strains.
4.3.15 Isolated work
While working in isolation is not unique to shift
work or night shift, special attention needs to be
paid to working in isolation under this regime.
Recognition should be taken of the consequence of
error and hence in periods where error is more
likely additional controls may be required.

4.3.20 Information and education for workers and

management
Employees should be provided with information on
shiftwork including:

4.3.16 Hot work

The effects of working in high temperatures during

shift work or for extended hours should be
considered.

.
.

4.3.17 Hand-over
Appropriate mechanisms should be in place to
enable efficient and safe handover between shifts,
and ensure new shifts are adequately informed
about all issues that have arisen in the workplace.
4.3.18 Travel
Travel to and from work can effectively extend the
working hours and decrease the recovery time.
Both employers and employees need to be aware of
this.
Travel between work locations is particularly
relevant to contractors.
For fly in/fly out operations, consideration needs to
be given to the first and last shifts due to the
extended travel time at the start and end of the
roster period.

The hazards associated with shiftwork,

including extended hours and roster patterns
Potential safety and health impacts of shiftwork
How to identify potential and/or existing
problems associated with lack of sleep and
fatigue
Individual coping strategies to best minimise
the adverse impacts of shiftwork
Services made available to assist employees to
cope with shiftwork
The effects of diet and exercise on the ability to
cope with shiftwork;
The effects of drugs and alcohol on the ability
to cope with shiftwork.

Provision of training and advice would include

managers and supervisors who should be fully
educated about shiftwork occupational safety and
health issues.
Management needs to update policies to reflect
current legislative requirements and scientifically
based approaches to shiftwork management.
Promotion of good shiftwork and workplace
practices needs to be adopted by management with
the provision of adequate and appropriate
resources.
Special arrangements should be made to allow shift
workers access to training and information.
Training should be organised so it is available to
employees on all shifts. If shift workers must
attend training outside their shift, they should be
considered to be at work and rosters should be
adjusted accordingly.

4.3.19 Communication
Communication sessions should be considered as
working. When organising communication
sessions, care should be taken that participation

13

4.3.21 Heating and cooling

4.3.23 Audit and Review

Ambient temperature levels should be considered

when designing roster systems to determine what if
any additional controls are necessary to control
risk.

The risk management of hours of work

arrangements should be audited and reviewed at
intervals as appropriate to ensure the continuing
suitability, adequacy and effectiveness of the
control of the associated risks. The need for audit
and review may be indicated by changing
circumstances at the mine, changes to rostering
patterns or other indications that risks are not
controlled.

4.3.22 Commuter operations

Satisfactory management of risks to safety and
health associated with hours of work arrangements
and extended shift rosters for fly in/fly out and
drive in/drive out operations may be improved by:

The provision of full information to prospective

employees regarding geographical location,
workplace and living conditions on-site.

A recognition that personal problems both onsite and off-site can adversely affect safety and
health.

Provision of adequate recovery time between

periods on-site for emotional, physical and
social adjustment.

The establishment of a shift changeover process

to fully acquaint incoming workers with current
mining conditions.

The provision of a good standard of on-site

accommodation for workers including
contractors employees where site
accommodation is required.

The provision of a range of recreational

facilities together with encouragement to use
the facilities.

The provision of adequate health care facilities

on site for all workers accessible at all hours.

The scheduling of regular consultation with the

workforce on existing arrangements and
proposals for change.

The encouragement of workers to prepare

themselves physically and mentally for return
to work following rest and recuperation.

14

5.

COMPLIANCE WITH OBLIGATIONS UNDER MINING SAFETY AND

HEALTH LEGISLATION

Employers and employees should be conversant

with their respective responsibilities, which are
defined in the mining safety and health legislation.
This paper operates in the context of mining safety
and health legislation for Queensland that sets out
obligations for employers, employees and others to
ensure the risk of injury or illness resulting from
mining operations is at an acceptable level.
Hours of work arrangements, compressed shift
schedules and commuter operations require all
parties to focus on their respective responsibilities
to ensure that an acceptable level of risk is
maintained at all mining operations.

15

REFERENCE SOURCES
The following sources have been used in compiling
this paper and will provide additional information.
Australian/New Zealand Standard - AS/NZS
4360:1995, Risk Management; Standards Australia,
New South Wales, Australia and Standards New
Zealand, New Zealand.
Baker A, Fletcher A, Dawson D, 1999, Policy
Guidelines for a Risk Management Approach for
Shiftwork, ver 2.02a, July 1999, Centre for Sleep
Research, The University of South Australia.
Brief R S and Scala R A, 1975, Occupational
Exposure Limits for Novel Work Schedules,
American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal,
vol 36, no 6, pp467-469.
Cunningham J B, 1989, A Compressed shift
schedule: Dealing with some of the problems of
shift-work, Journal of Organisational Behaviour,
1989.Vol 10, 231-245.
European Council Directive 93/104/EC.
Extended Workday: Health and safety Issues,
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and
safety, http://www.msds.org/oshanswers/
work_schedules.
Interim Health and safety Guidelines for Shift Work
and Extended Working Hours, ACTU OHS Unit,
Melbourne, May 1999.
Guerrini V H, Flippich L J and Bourne D W, 1996,
Adjustment of exposure standards for extended
workshifts, On-line Journal of Veterinary Research,
vol 1, no 11, pp1-21.

shiftwork, Applied Ergonomics, Vol 27, No1, pp

17-23, 1996.
Nelson L and Holland P, 1999, Assessing the
impact of 12-hour shifts, Journal of Occupational
Health and Safety - Australia and New Zealand,
15(3): 263-265, 1999.
Paustenbach D J, 1985, Occupational exposure
limits: Pharmacokinetics and unusual work
schedules, Pattys Industrial Hygiene and
toxicology, vol 3A, 2nd Ed, Wiley, New York,
pp111-127.
Shiftwork and Occupational Health and Safety in
the Western Australian Mining Industry Guidelines for workers and Management, The
Chamber of Minerals and Energy of Western
Australia Inc, January 1998.
Tiernan G and Van Zanten D, 1998, Development
of an extended shift exposure limit adjustment
factor for coal mine dusts, Joint Coal Board Health
and Safety Trust, Joint Coal Board, Corrimal, New
South Wales.
Wallace M, 1998, OHS Implications of Shiftwork
and Irregular Hours of Work: Part 1 - The Effects of
Shiftwork on Health, Part 2 - Guidelines for
Managing shiftwork. National Occupational Health
and Safety Commission, 1998. (Available from
NOHSC web site, http://www.worksafe.gov.au)
Workplace Health and Safety Risk Management
Advisory Standard 2000, Department of
Employment, Training and Industrial Relations,
Queensland.

Knauth P, 1996, Designing Better Shift Systems

Applied Ergonomics, Vol 27, No1, 1996 .
Mchaina D M, Grenier M G & Hardcastle S G, 1993,
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and occupational exposure evaluation Innovative
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Maintaining safety and high performance on

16

WEB SITES
ARRB Transport Research
www.arrb.org.au
Australian Centre for Industrial Relations
Research and Training (ACCIRT)
www.econ.usyd.ed.au
Centre for Sleep Research University of Adelaide
www.unisa.edu.au/sleep/main
Dupont Behavioural Safety Systems
www.dupont.com
European Communities Directive on Night Work
www.europa.eu.int/eclas/
International Labour Organisation
www.ilo.org
Road Side Testing Authority (ROSITA)
www.rosita.org
Safety in Mines Testing and Research Station
(SIMTARS)
www.dme.qld.gov.au/simtars
National Road Transport Council
www.nrtc.com.au

17