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CHASSIS
INTRODUCTION TO CHASSIS
Chassis (also known as carrying unit) is a French term and was initially used to denote the
frame or main structure of a vehicle.
The term chassis is now extensively used to denote the complete vehicle except the body
for the heavy vehicle having a separate body. The chassis contains all the major units necessary
to propel the vehicle, direct its motion, stop it, and allow it to run smoothly over uneven surfaces.
The chassis of an automobile consists of the following components suitably mounted Fig[1] :
(i) Frame
(ii) Front axle
(iii) Steering system (iv) Rear-axle
(v) Suspension system (vi) Transmission
(vii) Brake system
(viii) Engine
(ix) Electrical system.
The chassis is sub-divided into
(i) Power plant
(ii) Running gear.
The power plant includes the engine assembly and power transmission assembly.
The running gear includes the frame, steering system, suspension system, brakes, wheels and
tyres. The electrical system is part of both chassis and body.
All the above mentioned components are mounted in either of the following two ways
1. Conventional construction. In this case a separate frame is used.
2. Frameless or unitary construction. Here no separate frame is employed.
Out of these, the conventional construction is being used presently only for heavy vehicle
whereas for cars the same has been replaced by the frameless type except of course by
manufactures, who still find it economical to use frame. Steering gear box assembly

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Fig[1]
CLASSIFICATION OF CHASSIS
The chassis may be classified as follows
1. According to its control
(i) Conventional chassis :

In this type of chassis, engine is fitted in front of the driver cabin or driver seat ; -, in cars
and previous model of Tata trucks. Here, the driver sits behind the engrl~ quite far off
from the front axle) and as such he cannot see the road just in front oil front tyres. Owing
to this reason slope is provided at the mudguard and bonnet to enp the driver to see close
to the wheels as far as possible.
In this arrangement portion of the chassis where engine is fitted cannot be utilised carrying
passengers and goods.

(ii) Semi-forward chassis:

This is such a chassis where half portion of the engine is in the driver cabin and remaining
half is outside the cabin such as in Standard, Bedford Pick-ups and Tata truks
In this arrangement a part of the chassis is utilized for carrying extra passengers_

(iii) Full-forward (or Bus) chassis:

In this type of chassis the complete engine is mounted inside the driver cabin.
In this arrangement floor area is increased to the extent of accommodating 3 en seats.
Also, since the driver seat is just, above the front wheels he can see full front right from
the front wheels.

2. According to fitting of engine

1. Engine at front :
a. Conventionally the engines are fitted at front and drive is given to the wheels the "rear"
Advantages :

Enough space is available for the luggage behind the rear seat.
The weight of the vehicle is well balanced on all wheels.
Adequate space is available for steering the front wheels.
It is easier to inspect, repair and adjust the engine clutch and gear box.
Increased efficiency of cooling system (since radiator which is fitted in front gets natural
draft of air due to forward movement of vehicle).

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b.

Fig(2)
In another arrangement, the engine is fitted in front and drive is also given to the front
wheels only as in Matador vehicles.

Advantages :

Low bed or floor is available since there is no propeller shaft and differential at
the back.
The vehicle has more adhesion on the road since more weight is placed on driving
wheels. Due to good adhesion on road such vehicles have good road holding
capacity even on the curves.
The clutch, gear box and differential are usually made as one unit, thereby cost is
reduced.
At rear, luggage space is spacious.

Disadvantages:

While accelerating or on a gradient, the weight of vehicle shifts to the rear wheels
which is not desirable for better adhesion.
Because of shifting load to rear, the tractive effort is reduced on gradient.
On slippery gradients, under steer condition develops which is undesirable.

(ii) Engine fatted in front but crosswise :

In this arrangement, engine is fitted in front not in conventional way but crosswise as in faruti,
B.M.C. Mini and drive is given to front wheels only
(iii) Engine fitted at the centre of the chassis :
In this case, the engine is fitted at the centre of the chassis i.e., under the chasSL as in
Royal Tiger World master buses previously plied by Delhi Transportation Corporation.

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This arrangement provides full space of chassis floor for use.

(iv) Engine fitted at the back :

Fig. shows a rear engine drive. Popular vehicles, employing this system are Rena Dolphin
and Volkswagon, where engine is fitted at the rear of the vehicle.
Advantages
Because of more load on driving wheels, there is better adhesion on road specially
climbing hills.
In this system, during braking some of the weight of vehicle gets transferred to
fron: wheels, it helps quick stopping when more load is placed at rear wheels.
Flat floor is available since long propeller shafts are eliminated.
With the elimination of propeller shaft the centre of gravity is lowered giving
stabile driving specially at high speed.
Disadvantages :
Owing to shifting of weight on rear wheels the tractive effort is reduced on
gradients.
While climbing hills proper adhesion may be affected since the weight of vehicle
mores to the rear, thereby reducing the weight on the front wheels.
As a result of grouping of the engine with clutch, gear box and differential, the
repair and adjustment become difficult due to congestion at the rear.
In order to reduce wind resistance and give a better look at the road it becomes
necessary to give more slope to the bonnet which reduces the space for luggage.
3. According to the number of wheels fitted in the vehicles and the number 4 driving
wheels:
(i) 4 x 2 drive chassis vehicle. Refer to Fig. [3] (Tyres in black colour are drive wheel)
It consists of 4 wheels out of which 2 wheels are the driving wheels.
(ii) 4 x 4 drive chassis vehicle. Refer to Fig. [3]
It consists of 4 wheels and all of them are driving wheels.
(iii) 6 x 2 drive chassis vehicle. Refer to Fig. [3].
It consists 6 wheels out of which 2 wheels are the driving wheels.

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Fig. [3]

(iv) 6 x 4 drive chassis vehicle. Refer Fig. [3].

It consists of 6 wheels out of which 4 wheels are the driving wheels.

It is to be noted that one side of the axle may consist of either one-wheel or twowheels which .,ill be considered as one unit only.

4. According to wheel base size : Refer to Fig. [4].

In the long wheel base chassis vehicle ("wheel base" is the distance between the
centres of the front and rear wheels), the distance is more thereby providing
more floor area of the chassis for passengers and goods.

In this type of chassis, the front overhang and particularly the rear overhang are
also more.

Fig. [4].
FRAME
Introduction

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The frame or under body is the main part of the chassis on which the remaining
parts of the chassis are mounted. It is a rigid structure that forms a Skelton to hold all
the major parts together.
The engine is mounted in the forward end of the frame and is connected to the
clutch and transmission unit to form a complete power assembly.
At the rear end of the frame, the rear axle housing is attached through the rear
spring.
The wheel and tyre assemblies support the frame.
The steering system has some parts bolted to the frame and some to the body.
The petrol tank is fastened to the rear of the frame.
Chassis frames are made of "steel section" so that they are strong enough to
withstand the load and at the same time are also light in weight to reduce dead
weight on the vehicle.
The long sections which are right and left members of frame are called long members.
There are joined together with cross members with the help of rivets or bolts or nuts. There are
to 6 cross members joining the long member to give the chassis frame a good strength. In some
the models the long members are bent both at the front and rear to accommodate jumping of
Functions of Frame
The main functions of frame are
1.

To support the chassis components and the body.

2. To withstand static and dynamic loads with undue deflection or distortion. The
various loads dealt with by the frame are :
(i) Weight of the vehicle and the passengers, causing vertical bending of the side memb
(h) Vertical loads when the vehicle comes across a bump or hollow, which results in Ia.
tudinal torsion due to one wheel lifted or lowered with other wheels at the usual road level.
(iii)
Loads due to road camber, side wind, cornering force while taking a
turn, which sults in lateral bending of side members.
(iv)
Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause that particular
wheel to main obstructed while the other wheel tends to move forward, distorting the
frame to parall gram shape.
(v)
Engine torque and braking torque tending to bend the side members in
the vert plane.
(vi)

Sudden impact loads during a collision, which may result in sudden

collapse.
Types of Frames
The frames are made of the following steel sections
(i) Channel section

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(ii) Box section

(iii) Tubular section.

Channel section is used in long members of the frame.

Box section is used in short members of the frame.

Tubular section is used these days in three-wheelers, scooters and matadors,
pickups frames.

The channel section is good is bending, tubular in torsion and box in

bending and torsion.
The frames should be strong enough to bear loads, sudden brakes and accidents.
Basically, there are following three types of frames
1. Conventional frame.
2. Semi-integral frame.
3. Integral or unit frame.
Conventional frame

It is also known as non-load carrying frame. Here the loads on the vehicle are transferred
to the suspension by the frame, which supports the engine, power train and the body.

The body work is made of material like wood and completely isolated from the frame
deflection with the help of rubber mountings. This type of construction is widely used in
trucks.
This type of frame is not much suited to resist torsion. Use of a tubular or box-section
backbone type of frame improves the torsional strength.
Fig. [6] (a) and (b) shows a typical frame used in cars, using longitudinal members of
box-section.
The complete frame is fabricated by the welding process.
The frame tapers from the rear to the front to permit adequate movement of the steer -

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ing wheel. The longitudinal members, by sweeping upwards at the rear end, allow for
the vertical movement of the rear axle.

The tensional rigidity of the frame is increased by providing tubular or box-section cross
members

Semi-integral frame :

In this arrangement, the rubber body mounts are replaced by relatively stiff mounts so that a
part of the frame load is transferred to the body structure also.
This type of frame is quite popular for small European cars and American cars.

This frame however, is heavy.

Fig.[6]
3. Integral
(or
unitised) frame : Refer to Fig. [7].
In this type of construction, there is no frame and all assembly units are attached to the
body. The chassis, floor and body are assembled by welding from a large number of mild steel
pressings.
In this arrangement, the chassis becomes a sub-frame and other sub-frames are used for
the front and rear suspension units.
This design reduces vehicle weight, lowers production costs and allows a lower

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floor. This is the modern form of construction for almost all cars and lighter
commercial vehicles.

Fig. [7].
Sub-frames
Normally the various components of a vehicle are bolted directly either on the mainl
frame members or across members. However, sometimes the engine and gear box are
carried on a sub-frame supported by the main frame usually at three points. The
arrangement helps to isolate the components from the effect of twisting and
flexing of main frame.
Rubber mountings are used between the engine gear box unit and the frame to reduce
vibrations. For the same reason the body is also mounted on rubber blocks on the
frame.
The provisions of sub-frame simplify production on the assembly line and
facilitate subsequent overall or repair.

Defects in Chassis Frame

The following defects may be found in chassis body
1. Cracks
2. Dislocated parts
3. Broken welds
4. Buckling.

The chassis should be checked for the above mentioned defects and suitably rectifiedFurther, there will also be corrosion and rusting of the chassis frame. These can
prove to be very dangerous. Therefore, the vehicle should be guarded against
corrosion and rusting. To prevent rusting, the vehicle should be regularly painted. If this
is not done the chassis frame will be affected and soon lose its strength.

The following methods are used to avoid rust formation

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(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Use of galvanised sheets.

Use of zinc enriched primer paint.
Use of plastic coating on panels.
Use of rubberised solution.
Avoiding tight corners so that the moisture cannot get settled.

(vi)

Providing plenty of drain holes to allow trapped water to run out.

It is important that the chassis frame is properly aligned. After some repair is
carried out on the frame, the alignment should be checked with the original
measurements.

BODY
Body is the super-structure of the vehicle. The chassis and body make the complete
vehicle. In larger and heavier vehicles, the chassis and the body are each made as a separate
unit and then bolted together.
The body is usually made from a large number of steel pressings which are welded together.
The body is bolted to the chassis at numerous points, rubber or felt strips being
interposed to damp-down vibration and noise.
The body of motor vehicle should fulfill the following requirements
(i)
Light in weight.
(ii)
Cheap and easy in manufacturing.
(iii)
Attractive in shape and colour.
(iv)
Minimum number of components.
(v)
Clear all-round vision through glass area.
(vi)
Long fatigue life.
(vii) Minimum resistance to air.
(viii) Good access to the engine and suspension system.
(ix)
Minimum vibrations during running of the vehicle.
(x) Adequate space for passengers and luggage.
All steel sections of the body are stamped out by dies separately and welded together. Decorative moulds and bands are formed around the window and door openings. The tendency of all
Steel body to drum or rumble is overcome by using insulating and sound deadening materials.

The closed car body provided roof which may be used for luggage.

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The closed bus provides a large space for luggage.

The open truck body does not have roof. It consists of surrounding side only. The rear
side is only a half panel which may be opened down for loading and unloading. In
some good trucks, the lower side panels may also be opened down for unloading.
A car body is formed by a number of press steel panels welded together. For attaching
the door, instrument panel, hood, truck lid, head lining etc. attachment brackets are
welded to the body.
Different types of bodies for various vehicles are listed below. Refer to Fig. [8].
1. Two-door sedan
2. Four-door sedan
3. Convertible
4. Van
5. Truck Punjab body or Straight truck 6. Truck half-body

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INTRODUCTION TO BRAKING SYSTEM

This chapter deals with the construction and operation of the various types of braking systems used in automotive vehicles.
Brakes are one of the most important control components of the vehicle. They contribute very
much in the running and control of the vehicle. On the efficiency of brakes depends the lives and
comfort not only of driver and passengers but other persons moving on the road. Furthermore it is a
fact that owing to recent improvements in the braking mechanism it has been possible to have
increased speeds of the modern cars on the road.
The braking system used most frequently operates hydraulically, by pressure applied
through a liquid. These are the foot-operated brakes that the driver normally uses to slow or stop
the car. They are called the "service brakes". In addition all cars have a parking-brake system
which is mechanically operated by a separate foot or hand lever. On some trucks and buses,
the braking system is operated by air pressure (pneumatically). This type of brake is an air
brake. Many boat and camping trailers have electric brakes.

All the braking systems depend upon friction between moving parts and
stationary parts for their stopping force.

Braking efficiency is the ratio between the retarding force (or force of
friction between the linings and the drum) and the weight of the vehicle. It is
expressed as percentage.

NECESSITY OF A BRAKING SYSTEM

In an automobile, if the pressure from accelerator pedal is removed, the vehicle tends to slow up
because of wind resistance, drag of engine and road friction. These forces, of course, would stop
the vehicle but in the present day traffic, this would be quite unpracticable and dangerous. The
braking system provides added friction to overcome motion and to slow up or to stop the vehicle.
The momentum or kinetic energy developed by the vehicle when in motion is converted to heat
energy by the friction of brake shoes and drums which is dissipated into the surrounding air.

FUNCTIONS OF BRAKES
Brakes perform the following functions :
1. To stop the moving vehicle in the shortest possible time.
2. To help in controlling the speed of the vehicle and to reduce the speed at turnings and
other crowded places.
3. To hold the vehicle in its stationary position, without the presence of the operator, after
it has been brought to a stop.

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4.

In a moving vehicle, the friction between brake drum and brake shoes (having lining
riveted to it) slows down the rotation of wheel or stops the vehicle.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD BRAKING SYSTEM

The requirements of a good braking system are as follows
1.
The brakes should stop the vehicle within a reasonable distance. The
retardation shall be
smooth and free from jerk or shudder.
2.
The braking system should be very reliable to promote highest degree of
safety on the
road.
3.
The braking system should not be affected by water, heat, road grit or dust
etc.
4.
Pedal effort applied by the driver should not be more so as not to strain the
driver.
5.
Brake should work equally good in all weathers.
6.
The wear and tear of the material of the brake lining should be minimum
for its longer
life.
7.
Due to the rubbing action of brake shoes along with lining against drum,
large amount
of heat is generated due to friction. The brake design system should be capable of
dissipating this heat very quickly.
8.
All the components and levers of the braking system should be strong
enough to take
the mechanical stresses and strains which are encountered during brake actuation.
9.
No braking system can work at its best through worn out or incorrectly
inflated tyres.
Good, tyres are, therefore, a prime essential for efficient braking.
The capacity of a brake depends upon the following factors
(i) The unit pressure between the braking surfaces.
(ii) The coefficient of friction between the braking surfaces.
(iii)
The peripheral velocity of the brake drum.
(iv)The projected area of the friction surfaces.
(v)The ability of the brake to dissipate heat equivalent to the energy being absorbed.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKES

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Brakes may be classified as follows

1. Mechanical brakes.
2. Hydraulic brakes.
3. Power brakes.
(i) Air brakes
(iii) Vacuum brake

MECHANICAL BRAKES
Introduction
The brakes which are operated mechanically by means of levers, linkages, pedals, cams,
bell cranks, etc. are known as mechanical brakes.
The external contracting brake which is usually hand brake in automobiles is mechanical
brake. Automobiles contain service brakes operated
mechanically.
Mechanical brakes were employed in olden days
but now hydraulic and other types of braking system have
taken its place.
Internal Expanding Mechanical Brake
Construction. It consists of two shoes S1 and S2.
The outer surfaces of the shoes are lined with some
friction material, to increase the frictional coefficients
and to prevent wearing away of the metal. Each shoe is
pivoted at one end about a fixed fulcrum (01 and 02) and
made to contact a cam at the other end. When the cam
rotates, the shoes are pushed outwards against the rim of
the drum. The friction between the shoes and the drum produces the braking torque and
consequently speed of the drum reduces. Brake shoe retracting spring which connects both the
brake shoes at their loose end helps them in contracting after the brakes are released.

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INTERNAL EXPANDING BRAKE.

Operation :
When the brake pedal is pressed down, its motion is transmitted to the cam through
various mechanical linkages. The motion of the cam tends to expand out the brake
shoes. This inward motion of the brake shoes will try to slow down the motion of the
rotating brake drum. Because the wheel is fixed to the brake drum, so automatically it
will be held to move further.
When brake pedal is released, the pedal will move up because of the tension of the
return spring. A retracting spring draws the shoes away from the drum when the cam is
moved to its initial position and hence the brake shoes are no longer in contact with the
drum, which is now free to rotate.
Hand Brake (or Parking brake)
Hand brakes are usually the mechanical brakes. These brakes operate independently of the foot
brakes. These are used for parking on slopes and during emergency and are also called secondary
brakes". Hand brake is generally located on the side of the driver's seat. On most of the vehicles
hand brake applies only the rear brakes.
In order to apply the brakes the ratched is released first by pressing the ratchet release
handle, which causes the pawl to move up, disengaging the rotchet. Then the brake lever is
pulled up, while further pulls the cable which in them operates the rear brakes mechanically
through a linkage operating on the piston of the rear wheel cylinder, which is two halves. The
ratchet release handle which had been pressed so far is released now, so that the pawl moves
down the spring action and engages with the ratchet thus keeping the brakes applied.

Hand Brake

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SELF-ENERGIZING BRAKES
The hydraulic wheel brakes of drum type are provided with a self-energizing or servo
feature, in which the force of the rotating drum is utilized to increase the brake pressure. The
self-energizing brake shoe action is shown in Fig. When the vehicle is travelling forward,
the drum is rotating in anti-clockwise direction. When the brakes are applied, the primary shoe at
the left, tends to move in the direction of the drum's rotation, due to the friction of the rotating
drum. Because the primary shoe is linked to the secondary shoe at the bottom, the secondary
shoe is forced against the anchor pin at the top. This action causes to force both the shoes into
tighter contact with the drum and the braking pressure is more uniformly applied.

Disc Brakes
These brakes are different from drum brakes
in that the drum is replaced by a circular plate and
the brake shoes are replaced by a caliper which
supports a pair of friction pads, one on each side of
the disc. These pads are forced inward by the
operating force and so retard the disc.
Construction. A disc brake consists of a cast iron
disc bolted to the wheel hub and a stationary
housing called caliper. The caliper is connected to
some stationary part of the vehicle (such as stub
axle or axle casing) and is cast in two parts, each
containing a piston. In between the each piston and
the disc, there is a friction pad held in position by
retaining pins, spring plates etc. Passages are
drilled in the caliper for the fluid to enter or leave
each housing. These passages are also connected to
one another for bleeding. Each cylinder contains a
rubber sealing ring between the cylinder and piston.
Working On the application of brakes, hydraulically actuated pistons move the friction pads into
contact with the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on the later.When the brakes are
released, the rubber sealing rings act as return springs and retract the pistons and the friction pads
away from the disc. Special types of disc brakes include the swinging caliper type and the sliding
caliper type.
The advantages and disadvantages of disc brakes compared with drum brakes are as follows :
Advantages :
1. Lighter than drum brakes.

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2. Better cooling (since the braking surface is exposed directly to air).

3. Offer better resistance to fade.
4. Uniform pressure distribution (since disc brakes have no self-servo effect).
5. Brake pads can be easily replaced.
6. These brakes are self adjusting by design.
Disadvantages:
1. Costlier than drum brakes.
2. For stopping the vehicle higher pedal pressure is required.
3. There is no servo action in these brakes.
4. It is difficult to install an adequate parking attachment.
The major drawback of a "mechanical brake system" is that it is very difficult to get
simultaneous brake action on all the four wheels. Also lengths of various rods and
cables vary and this causes unequal braking action.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Introduction
Brakes which are operated by means of hydraulic pressure are known as hydraulic
brakes. In a hydraulic system, when the brakes are applied, the pressure in increased sufficiently
in the system to produce equal and uniform backing action on all the four wheels. The hydraulic
brakes function on the principle of Pascal's law which reads as follows
"Pressure applied to a liquid is transmitted equally in all directions."
1.

Hydraulic Braking System

The hydraulic braking system consists of four wheel cylinders, one at each of the
four wheels of the vehicle as shown in Fig.. The system also consists of one master cylinder,
which is connected to the wheel cylinders by steel tubing. Each wheel cylinder contains two
pistons, which will move out when the pressure will be applied through brake fluid. When the
Hydraulic Braking System `

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brakes are not in operation, the system is filled with brake fluid. Each wheel brake consists
of a cylindrical brake drum which is mounted on the inner side of the wheel and revolves with it.
There are two brake shoes mounted inside each of the brake drum but do not rotate with it.
When the brakes are to be applied, the driver presses down the brake pedal, the piston is
forced into the master cylinder, thus increasing the pressure of the fluid in the master cylinder
and in the entire hydraulic system. This pressure is conducted instantaneously to the wheel
cylinders on each of the four brakes, where it forces the wheel cylinder pistons outwards. These
pistons, in turn, force the brake shoes out against the brake drums. Thus the brakes are applied.
When the driver releases the brake pedal, the master cylinder piston returns to its original
position due to the return spring pressure, and thus the fluid pressure in the entire system drops to
its original low value, which allows retracting springs on wheel brakes to pull the brake shoes
out of contact with the brake drums into their original positions. This causes the wheel cylinder
pistons also to come back to their original inward position. Thus the brakes are released.
The hydraulic brake system contains two important components upon which the system is
mostly dependent, these are
1. Master cylinder
2. Wheel cylinder.
1. Master cylinder:
It is the main cylinder in the hydraulic brake system. It serves the following objects in
the system.
(i) It builds up hydraulic pressure to operate the brakes.
(ii) It maintains a constant volume of fluid in the system owing to its reservoir.
(iii)
It serves as a pump to bleed or force air out of the hydraulic system.
There are the following two types of master cylinders:
(a) "Single master cylinder" for all the front and rear wheel cylinders.

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(b) "Tandem master cylinder" containing separate units for front and rear wheel cylinders.
(a) Single master cylinder:
Construction:
The master cylinder named as the heart of the hydraulic brake systems, consists of two
main chambers: i) The "fluid reservoir" (which contains the fluid to supply to the brake system),
and (ii) the "compression chamber" (in which piston operates). The reservoir supplies fluid to the
brake system through two ports. The larger port is called the filler or intake port and is connected
to the hollow portion of the piston (there are a number of holes in the piston on the primary or
high pressure seal side) between the primary and secondary cups which act as piston sews. The
smaller port is called the compensating, bypass or relief port which connects the reservoir
directly with the cylinder and lines when the piston is in the released position. The reservoir is
vented to the atmosphere so that atmospheric pressure causes the flow through the filler port. The
vent is placed in the filler cap. The "boot" covers the push rod and the end of the cylinder to keep
it free from foreign matter. Towards the brake lines side of the compression chamber, there is a
fluid check valve" with a rubber cup inside. It serves to retain the residual pressure in the brake
lines even when the brakes are released.

Working:
When the brake pedal is pressed piston of the master cylinder moves forward to force
the liquid under pressure into the system. The relief port is sealed out of the system. The
liquid pressure is conducted to the wheel cylinders, where it forces the wheel cylinder
pistons outwards. These pistons force the brakes shoes out against the brake drums and
the brakes are applied.
As soon as the brake pedal is released, the return spring quickly forces the master
cylinder piston back against the piston stop. Since the fluid in the lines returns rather

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slowly, a vacuum tends to form in the cylinder in front of the piston. This causes the
primary cup to collapse/deflect to allow the liquid to flow from the reservoir through the
filler port past the piston to fill the vacuum.
When the pedal is in "off position", the liquid may flow from the reservoir through the
relief port in the master cylinder, supply lines, and wheel cylinders to make up for any
fluid that may be lost or to compensate for shrinkage cooling of the liquid. In this way, a
complete column of liquid is always maintained between the master cylinder piston and
wheel cylinder pistons.
In some makes of master cylinders a bleeder screw is also provided to bleed air out of the
master cylinder.
(b) Tandem master cylinder:
A simple master cylinder is mostly used in all small and medium type of vehicles.
However, in some vehicles, the tandem master cylinder is used.
A "tandem master cylinder" is the master cylinder with two separate cylinders and
reservoirs in the same master cylinder assembly, one operating front brakes and the other
cylinder operating rear brakes. This master cylinder avoids the possibility of all the brakes of a
vehicle being put out of order by a leak or fracture in the pipe line leading to one wheel cylinder.
It ensures reliability with not much extra cost. In this arrangement separate lines go to
different sections of the brake system, say, the rear and the front brakes and it so arranged that if
the front brake lines are damaged, the rear brakes will be still effective. Similarly if rear brake
line is defective, at least front brakes will be applied.
Fig. shows a single line diagram of a tandem master cylinder. Two pistons have been
shown which are in line with each other. If line A fails, the piston A bottoms against the end of
the cylinder while the piston B continues to develop pressure in the line B thus applying brakes
to one set of wheels. If the line B fails piston B comes up against piston A, thus building up
pressure in line A.
Fig shows the sectional view of a tandem master cylinder. As shown in diagram, the master
cylinder contains two pistons, the rear being operated directly by the brake pedal. The space
between the pistons is connected to the front brakes while the connection to rear brakes is made
at the front end opposite to operating link.
Depressing the brake pedal moves the rear piston inward developing pressure in the operating cylinder for front brakes. Since the front piston is free to move along the cylinder, so it also
moves ahead developing an equal pressure in the operating cylinder for rear brakes. The return
motion of the front piston is limited by the stopper screw.
Refer to Fig. A wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder, two pistons, two rubber cups and a spring.
The fluid presses against pistons. The pistons move outward in the cylinder. When the pistons
come closer, the liquid is forced into the master cylinder. The spring between the two pistons

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holds the rubber cups in position.

Wheel cylinder (or Slave cylinder):

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The copper-coated, tin-plated annealed steel tubing and flexible hoses are used to connect the master cylinder to the wheel cylinders. The hoses are used to connect the lines
to the front wheel cylinder to permit the front wheel to be turned. Rear wheel cylinders
are generally connected directly to a line fastened to the rear axle housing. The brake
lines are attached directly or by means of brackets to the frame or axle housings.
Advantages

and

Disadvantages

of

Hydraulic

Brakes

Advantages :
1.
Equal braking effort to all the four wheels (since fluid exerts equal pressure
every where in the circuit).
2.
The system is simple in construction.
3.

Less rate of wear (due to absence of joints compared to mechanical

brakes).
4.

The system is mostly self-lubricating.

5.

Increased braking effort.

6.

High mechanical advantage.

7.

Flexibility in brake lines.

8.
Tiehydraulic brakes can also provide differential braking action between
the front and rear brakes by using the wheel cylinder of different size for the front and
rear wheels.
Disadvantages:
1.

Even slight leakage of air into the braking system makes it useless.

2. The brake shoes are liable to get ruined if the brake fluid leaks out.
3.
This system is suitable only for applying brakes intermittently. For parking
purpose separate mechanical linkage has to be employed.

BRAKE FLUID
The fluid used in the braking system is a special kind of fluid which has to be
satisfactory under all conditions.
Most fluids are based on polyglycols and additives are added to achieve the
required properties. A 50% solution of castor oil in alcohol to which a neutraliser is added,
meets the above mentioned requirements satisfactorily. The neutraliser is added to counteract the
effect of any free acids which may be present in castor oil or alcohol.
It must meet certain requirements as mentioned below
It must have a high boiling point.

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It must remain fluid at the lowest temperature at which the vehicle is likely to operate.
It must be chemically stable.
It must have lubricating properties.
It must not attack the rubber and metallic parts.
In Maruti-800 Cars, the brake system uses a glycol type of brake fluid. When purchasing the
replacement fluid, its specifications should be "Servo Brake Fluid Super HD". Some
commercially available brake fluids are of silicon or petroleum base ; do not use any of these
fluids. It must be remembered that any brake fluid which is a mixture of two or more brands is
likely to effect some of the brake system components adversely, resulting in faulty braking.
The brake fluid in service is subject to gradual deterioration because the moisture content of
air finds its way slowly into the brake fluid. For this reason the brake fluid should be regarded as
an expendable item and be replaced at regular intervals.
Air Brakes
Description of air brakes
In air brakes, the brake shoe operating cam is operated by means of air pressure which is
developed by an air compressor driven by the engine. There are separate brake chambers for the
separate brake shoe operating cams. The brake chambers are connected with the air reservoir by
means of pipe line. A brake valve operated by the foot pedal, controls the pressure of air which
affects the brake chambers. Fig. shows the general arrangement (simple line diagram) of an air
brake system. Fig. shows the layout of an air brake system for bus or truck.
When the foot pedal is pressed down, air pressure acts on the diaphragm of brake chamber.
The diaphragm is linked with the brake shoe operating camshaft. The diaphragm is pushed
outward in the brake chamber causing movement of brake shoe operating cam. The brake shoes
expands outwards and hold the moving brake drums as they come into its contact. The brakes are
thus applied.

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General arrangement of an air brake system.

As soon as the pressure is released from the brake pedal, it comes back with the help of
return spring. This results in closing of brake valve and release of pressure inside the brake
chamber. The brake shoe operating cam moves in the reverse direction as a result of pressure
release on the brake chamber. The brake shoe contracts inward with the help of retracting spring,
releasing the brake drum of the binding effect. The brakes are thus released.

Main parts

of an air

brake:
Following are the main parts of an air brake
i) Air compressor. (ii) Unloader valve. (iii) Reservoir. (iv)Brake valve.
(v) Brake chamber. (vi)Quick release valve. (vii) Relay valve. (viii) Warning signal.
Air compressor:
It builds up air pressure in reservoir.
A piston type air compressor is commonly employed in the brake system. When piston moves

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downwards air is drawn into the cylinder through intake valve. When the piston moves
upward, the intake valve is closed and outlet valve is opened by the air pressure and the air is
forced out into the reservoir.
(ii) Unloader valve:
This valve is mounted in the air pressure system between the compressor and the reservoir to
control the pressure of air in the reservoir. It relieves the compressor of its pumping load once
the unloader cut-out pressure is obtained and seals the reservoir when the compressor has built
up a pressure depending upon the setting of the adjusting screw which is normally 7.4 bar. The
unloader then diverts the air delivered by the compressor to the atmosphere thus allowing the
compressor to run right whilst the reservoir contains an adequate supply of air.
It consists mainly of a governor valve, an unloader plunger and a non-return valve.
(iii) Reservoir
It stores compressed air at the specified pressure for brake application.
It is made of sheet steel and a safety valve is provided at the top of the reservoir to regulate
the air pressure. A drain plug is also provided at the bottom for periodic draining of the reservoir,
without which the lubricating oil from the compressor and moisture in the air would form
emulsion which would damage the other brake units (e.g., brake valve, brake chambers etc.).
iv) Brake valve:

It is the control valve which is operated by the brake pedal. It controls the intensity of
braking in an air pressure system.

It is located between the reservoir and air lines leading to individual brake chambers.

(V) Brake chamber:

The brake chambers convert the energy of the compressed air into mechanical force
and motion necessary to operate the vehicle brakes.
A brake chamber consists of a housing which encloses a movable diaphragm connected by a rod linked to the brake shoe operating camshaft. The chamber is divided
into two parts by the diaphragm, the side opposite to the rod being air tight. Air
pressure acts in the air tight portion of the chamber which causes deflection of diaphragin and application of brakes.
(vi) Quick release valve :
It is employed in the front brake lines to accelerate the release of air from the brake

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chambers.

It directly releases pressure to the atmosphere rather than through the brake valve.

(vii) Relay valve :

The relay valve speeds up the application and release of air from the brake chambers.
It supplies air to the brake chambers directly from the reservoir for quick application
of the brake. It also exhausts compressed air from the rear brake chambers directly to
the atmosphere rather than through the brake valve.
(viii) Warning signal :
It is a warning light or buzzer which warns low pressure in the circuit.
Advantages and disadvantages of air brakes
Advantages:
Air brakes entail the following advantages
1.
Much more powerful than the ordinary mechanical or hydraulic brakes
(that is why these are exclusively used in heavy vehicles).
1.
Simplified chassis design.
2.
The compressed air from reservoir, apart from braking, can be used for tyre
inflation, windscreen wipers, horns etc.
Disadvantages:
1. Involve relatively more parts.
2. The air compressor uses a certain amount of the engine power.
Vacuum Brakes
Any mechanism which adds to the driver's effort in applying the brakes is called a servo
mechanism (It may be mentioned that servo is also used in place of power cylinders), although
that effort remains a considerable part of the total braking effort required. Initially mechanical
servos were used, but after the introduction of vacuum operated servos these have becomes
obsolete. In the vacuum brakes the suction from the engine inlet manifold is utilised for brake
application.
There are two types of vacuum brakes, both incorporating a piston or a diaphragm operating
in a cylinder and provided with suitable linkage for brake application. A small vacuum reservoir is
also there to provide enough vacuum for several brake applications even after the engine has
stopped.
First type. In this system both sides of the piston are exposed to atmosphere when brakes
are in the released position. For applying brakes, engine vacuum is applied on one side of the

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piston, subjecting the same to differential pressure and thus operating the linkage. This system is
called "atmospheric suspended" system.
Second type. In this case both sides of the piston are subjected to engine vacuum in the
brakes released position. To apply brakes, one side is exposed to atmosphere which provides the
desired force on the piston. This system is called "vacuum suspended" system. This system is preferred over the first system since this is comparatively more rapid in action. These days vacuum
suspended brakes are predominantly used.
In "vacuum suspended servo" the air is first exhausted from both sides of the piston in a
large cylinder and during the application of brake, the air then admitted from the atmosphere to
one side of the piston. The amount of air entering the cylinder is controlled by the driver. The
piston of the cylinder moves under the pressure differential which in turn moves the hydraulic
piston thus forcing the fluid into brake pipes into the wheel cylinders. The vacuum (about 0.35
bar) is obtained from the inlet manifold of the engine. In this system a vacuum reserve tank is
fitted between servo and engine. The tank and servo are protected with the help of non-return
valves in order to enable them to hold some vacuum in case of failure of other components. The
tank provides reserve of some vacuum which can be utilised for making number of stops in quick
succession.
Till now engine vacuum was the only source of power for vacuum-assist brakes on cars.
However, with the use of smaller engines and provision of emission controls, some vehicles do
not have sufficient vacuum to operate the power brakes. In such cases, separate vacuum pumps
are used.

Electric Brakes
In an electric brake the current from the battery is utilized to energize an electromagnet
within the brake drum. This actuates a cam to expand the brake shoes.When current stops, the
cam and brake shoes are returned to the release position by retractor springs. The severity of
braking is controlled by means of a rheostat, which is operated by the driver through the foot
pedal.
Hydraulic pressure has also been used to apply electric brakes. As pedal is pressed more,
hydraulic pressure actuates the rheostat to increase current to the electromagnet.
Advantages:
Electric brakes claim the following advantages
1.
Simple in design and installation.
2. Simplified operating linkage (only one cable for each drum).
3. Less time-lag between the pressing of brake pedal and application of brakes at the

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wheels.
4. Much better control over the braking effort.
5. Absence of grab.
6. No adjustment required during its lining life.
7.
For trailer brakes, this type offers much simplified connections ; simply
one cable has to be carried to the trailer side.
8.
Electric brakes are not very popular, as service brakes. These are
commonly used on trailers
.
BRAKE EFFECTIVENESS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The following factors contribute to the effectiveness of the brakes

Amount of pressure applied to the shoe brakes.
Area of brake linings.
Radius of brake drum.
Radius of car wheel.
Coefficient of friction of braking surfaces.
Coefficient of friction between tyre and road surface.

FACTORS CONTROLLING THE STOP OF AN AUTOMOBILE

The following factors control the stop of an automobile
1. Speed and load:
Lesser the speed and lesser the load, the less energy shall be absorbed to stop the
vehicle as the brakes convert energy of motion into heat.

The higher the speed and more the load, the more energy shall be absorbed for stopping a vehicle.

2. Road surface.
The coefficient of friction between the road and tyre is affected by the nature of road. If
the road is slippery, the vehicle shall stop at a greater distance than if the road is dry.
3.
Tyre tread.
A good tyre tread has good holding ability. It provides a greater coefficient of friction
than a smooth tyre.
4. Gradient:
When a vehicle is going up a gradient or hill, the gravitational force assists in stop-

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ping the movement of the vehicle.

If the vehicle is going down a gradient or hill, the force of gravity tends to keep the
vehicle moving and hence a greater braking force is required to overcome its movement.
5. Number of wheels braking :
For getting maximum braking effort, all the wheels should be equipped with brakes.
If any of the wheels is not equipped with brakes the time and distances of stopping
the vehicle shall increase.
6. Coefficient of friction of braking surfaces.
The ability to hold a moving wheel is controlled by the coefficient of friction between
the brake lining and brake drum. If the linkages are glazed with oil or grease they will tend the
brake drums to slip as the coefficient of friction is lowered down.
6. Braking force of engine.
The engine is also used as a brake when going down a hill. The braking effect of the
engine is more in lower gear speed than in direct drive.
7. Pressure applied through energization.
More the self-energizing ability of the brake shoe, better the braking effect.
8. Weight transfer.
On application of brakes, there is a natural transfer of weight from the rear
wheels to the front wheels caused by the tendency of the mass to continue in its forward motion.
The greater the deceleration, the greater is the load or weight transfer from rear to front wheels.
During the stop, the weight holding the rear wheels to the road is lessened while the weight on
the front wheel is increased by exactly the same amount. It is due to this fact that brakes are
designed so that applied effort is greater on front wheels than on the rear.
BRAKE SHOES AND LININGS
Brake shoes are made of metal to which a lining of friction material is attached.
The lining has to be tough. During hard braking, the shoe may be pressed against the drum by
force of 4500 N or higher. Since friction increases as the applied force increases, a strong
frictional drag is produced on the brake drum. This produces the braking effect at the wheel.
A large quantity of heat is produced by the frictional contact between the brake

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shoes and the drum. Under heavy braking conditions, drum-brake temperatures may reach
260C. Some heat flows through the brake linings to the shoes and braking plate. There the heat
is carried away by the surrounding air. But most of the heat is absorbed by the brake drum. Some
brake drums have cooling fins. They provide additional surface to get rid of the heat more
quickly. To help provide drum cooling, some brake linings are grooved at the centre.
Excessive temperature may damage brakes and burn the brake linings. When the linings
and drums are excessively hot, the coefficient of friction changes. Then less effective braking
action results. This is the reason that brakes "fade" after continuous use, as driving down a
mountain.
The brake linings are either of "solid woven type" or "moulded type".
The asbestos base non-metallic linings have an average coefficient of friction of 0.4
upto about 260C. This maximum temperature resistance is about 350C. Zinc wire linings have
better resistance to wear than the non-metallic type. Also zinc serves to conduct some heat away
from the working surface.
"Moulded type linings" are prepared directly from the mix which contains asbestos
fibres, together with resin powders and fillers. These linings have good wear resistance. Their
maximum temperature resistance is about 450C. The average coefficient of friction is 0.4.

The braking linings are attached with shoe brakes by synthetic resin adhesives or by riveting.
The first method is preferable, due to the following reasons
(i) Absence of riveting holes.
(ii) More contact surface.
(iii)
Free from scoring action.
(iv)More effective wearing thickness.
BRAKE TESTERS
The break testers are of following two types

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1. Static break tester

2. Dynamic break tester
Static break tester:
One type of static break tester has four tread plates and registering columns. To make the
tests, the car is driven onto the tread plates at specified speed and the breaks are applied hard.
The stopping force at each wheel is registered on the four columns. If the readings are too low, or
are unequal, brake service is needed.

Dynamic brake tester:

Static brake tester

The dynamic brake tester has rollers in the floor. The two wheels for which brakes are to
be tested are placed on the rollers (Fig.). If these wheels are drive wheels, the wheels are spun at
the specified speed by the vehicle engine. For non driving wheels, the rollers and wheels are
spun by an electric motor. Then throttle is released or the electric motor is turned off and brakes
are applied. The braking force at wheel registers on meters. This shows if the brake performs
normally or if they need service.

TROUBLESHOOTING CHART OF HYDRAULIC BREAKS SYSTEM

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Troubleshooting chart for hydraulic brake system is given below

Faults
Breaks
i.e.they

Causes

Remedies

drags
remain

(i) Weak or broken springs

i) Replace them by new ones.
of brake shoes.
(ii) Clean the port.
(ii) Clogged by-pass port of
applied
without master cylinder.
(iii) Remove it and replace it by a new
pressing the pedal
(iii) Weak or broken pedal one.
(iv) Clean the mechanism and lubricate it
spring.
(iv) Seized mechanism of wherever necessary.
(v) Clean the wheel cylinder; replace the
hand brake.
damaged pistons.
(v) Seized pistons in wheel
cylinder.
Insufficient brake.

(i) Greasy linings.

(ii) Bad linings.
(iii) Incorrect type of linings
used.

Pedal feel
spongy
when
pressed

Exc ees ive

peda l trave l

(i) Air in brake system.

(ii) Worn out secondary cup
of master cylinder
(iii) Leakage in brake
system.
(i) Leakage past main cup
into master cylinder.
(ii) Low oil level in master
cylinder.

(i) Remove the grease from the linings.

(ii) Replace the lining.
(iii) Replace it with correct type of
linings.
(i) Remove the air by bleeding the system.
(ii) Replace the cup.
(iii) Rectify the leakage.

(i) Remove the main cup and clean it

Replace if necessary.
(ii) Fill the master cylinder with sufficient oil.
(iii) Adjust the push rod.

(iv) Adjust the brake shoes

(iii) Push rod of master
necessary ,fit them with new linings.
cylinder out of adjustment.
(iv) Brake shoes out-ofadjustment.

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