UMTS Coverage Estimation

Contents
1 UMTS Service Model...................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Service Classification..........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Service Model......................................................................................................................................2
1.2.1 Classification of Area Types.....................................................................................................2
1.2.2 CS Domain Service Model.......................................................................................................3
1.2.3 PS Domain Service Model.......................................................................................................4
2 UMTS Coverage Estimation........................................................................................................................9
2.1 Radio Propagation Model....................................................................................................................9
2.1.1 Free Space Propagation Loss....................................................................................................9
2.1.2 Propagation Model.................................................................................................................10
2.2 Link Budget.......................................................................................................................................12
2.2.1 Basic Link Budget Parameters...............................................................................................13
2.2.2 Unlink Budget.........................................................................................................................21
2.2.3 Uplink/Downlink Balance......................................................................................................22
2.3 Coverage Scale Estimation................................................................................................................23
2.3.1 Calculation of BS Coverage Radius.......................................................................................23
2.3.2 Calculation of BS Coverage Area..........................................................................................24
2.3.3 Scale Calculation....................................................................................................................25

1 UMTS Service Model

1.1 Service Classification
In the 3GPP protocol, services running in the UMTS system are grouped into four
classes based on Quality of Service (QoS), Conversational, Streaming, Interactive and
Background. The 3GPP protocol 22.105 gives examples to illustrate typical
applications of these services and their QoS requirements. Table 1.1-1 offers the basic
features and typical cases of these four classes of services.
Table 1.1-1 Service Classification
Service Category
Conversational

Streaming

Interactive

Background

Basic Features

Typical Cases

Keep time relationship between information

Voice

entities in stream, conversational mode (small

conference,

delay and strict delay jitter requirement)

game, Telnet

Keep time relationship between information

entities in stream

service,

Voice

stream

video

interactive
media

download, movie browse,

Video On Demand (VOD)

Request response mode and keep data

integrity

Basic

browse,

mobile

office, information service

and e-commerce

Target has high tolerance to data delay and

Fax service, SMS, MMS,

data integrity shall be kept

FTP, E-mail

For different service cases, the UMTS service bear rate shall be designed according to
their special demands on radio resources. Table 1.1-2 lists the radio bear rates of these
typical services.
Table 1.1-2 Data Service Application Proportion and Bear Rate
Bear Rate (kbps)

Service

Uplink

Downlink

E-mail

64

64

MMS

64

64

Intranet

64

128

E-commerce

64

128

Info Services

64

128

Entertainment

64

128

WWW

64

128

FTP

64

128/384

Video streaming

64

384

1.2 Service Model

Service model is the reference for capacity estimation. It reflects the proportion of each
service in hybrid service under various service environments. Based on this proportion,
you can estimate the average traffic or data throughput of a single user. Multiply the
value by the expected number of users in various environments to get the
corresponding total traffic or throughput.

1.2.1 Classification of Area Types

Service model is very important to the UMTS network design because it is the
reference for capacity estimation and determines whether to take future network
service demands into account during planning. On the other hand, service model is
hard to predict. Service model is closely associated with the behavior habits of different
users using different services and users habits of using services are closely associated
with many factors in different areas, such as economy and culture. Therefore, a service
model is inapplicable for the application requirements of different environments.
According to service type distribution, service development policy and user dynamic
distribution as well as consumption behavior features in an area, service distribution
areas are categorized into six classes, downtown area, urban area, suburb area, rural
area, main line of communication/scenic spot and indoor coverage. Table 1.2-1 gives
service distribution features and user density of different areas.
Table 1.2-1 Service Distribution Features and User Density of Different Areas
Service
Area

Site

Distribution

Classification

Feature
Downtown area

Traffic-intensive

Central business

High service rate

district*

requirement

Irregular

Key area of data

building-

service

intensive area

User Density
2

(user/km )
>12000
>8000

Population Density
(user/km2)
>50000
>30000

Chapter 1 UMTS Service Model

development

Dense

building

>1000

complex area
High traffic; medium service rate;

Urban area

common data service demands

Low traffic; low-speed or no data

Suburb area

service

>1000
<1000

>10000
>3000
>100

Sparse traffic; with the purpose of

Rural area

solving coverage

<1000

<100

No guarantee for data service QoS

Main

line

of

communication/
Scenic spot

Low traffic; scenic spot with seasonal

features

Note: *Such regions as Middle Ring of HongKong and Lujiazui Financial & Trade Zone in Shanghai

Considering voice service remains important at the early stage of 3G construction, the
following sections gives detailed recommendation of busy hour traffic for the above six
areas respectively on voice service and video phone service; with respect to PS domain
data service, busy hour traffic for only the former four areas are provided.

1.2.2 CS Domain Service Model

Figure 1.2-1 shows the voice service call model.

Call duration

Call setup

Call release

Error: Reference source not foundFigure 1.2-1 Call Model of Voice Service

Primary parameters of the voice service model are Busy Hour Call Attempt (BHCA)
and call duration. With these two parameters, you can calculate the busy hour traffic.
Busy Hour Traffic = BHCA x Call Duration /3600
Tables 1.2-2 and 1.2-3 respectively offer the recommended values of voice service and
video phone service in different areas.
Table 1.2-2 Voice Service Model

UMTS Scale Estimation

Area

BHCA

Central business

Call Duration (S)

Traffic (Erl/BH)

2.7

60

0.045

1.8

60

0.03

1.2

60

0.02

Urban area

1.2

60

0.02

Suburb area

1.018

60

0.018

Rural area

0.96

60

0.016

0.9

60

0.015

district
Downtown
area

Irregular
buildingintensive area
Dense

building

complex area

Main

line

of

communication/scenic spot

Table 1.2-3 Video Phone Service Model

Area

BHCA

Central business

Call Duration (S)

Traffic (mErl/BH)

0.135

120

4.5

0.09

120

0.06

120

Urban area

0.06

120

Suburb area

0.0509

120

1.8

Rural area

0.048

120

1.6

0.045

120

1.5

district
Downtown
area

Irregular
buildingintensive area
Dense building
complex area

Main

line

communication/scenic spot

of

1.2.3 PS Domain Service Model

The data service call model widely differs from the voice service call model. Data call
has the following features:
Conversion between Dormant state and Active state;
Each session of a user can consist of several packet calls and different data service
types and user types have differentiated features;
Data is transmitted in data burst mode;
Resources occupied by packet call vary with data burst transmission.

Chapter 1 UMTS Service Model

Figure 1.2-2 shows the data call process:

A data service process of a user

A data service process of a user

Data call(session)-WWW

Data call(session)-WWW
Click web
page

Click next
page

Click next page

Packet Call

Packet Call
Web page
download

Web page download

Active

Send/Receive Email

Dormant

Packet Call

Active Dormant

Web page download

Web page download

Active

Active

Next web page download

Packet Call

Data Burst

Packet Call

Web page download

Packet Call

Data Burst

Data Burst

Data Burst

Call setup

Call release

Active

Dormant

Figure 1.2-2 Data Service Call Process

The data service here is described in ETSI model. Its primary parameters are Busy
Hour Session Attempt (BHSA), calls per session, packets per call and mean packet
size. With these parameters, you can work out the busy hour service throughput and
equivalent Erl. Table 1.2-4 gives the calculation method of data service throughput.
Table 1.2-4 Data Service Throughput Calculation
Parameter

Symbol

BHSA of data service

Application proportion

Calls per session

Packets per call

Mean packet size (Byte)

Service bear rate

Service throughput (kbits/BH)

G = a*b*c*d*e*8/1000

Erl

h = g/3600/f

Based on the national CDMA user habit analysis statistics in conjunction with the
international UMTS data service features, parameters of data service ETSI model in

UMTS Scale Estimation

downtown area are given in Table 1.2-5:

Table 1.2-5 Parameters of Data Service ETSI Model in Downtown Area

Service

BHSA

Call per

Packet

Session

in a Call

UL/DL

UL/DL

Mean Packet

Throughput

Size (Byte)

UL/DL(kbits)

E-mail

0.3

2/2

15/15

480

34.56/34.56

MMS

0.05

2/2

15/15

480

5.76/5.76

Intranet

0.15

5/5

4/27

480

11.56/77.76

0.05

2/2

10/26

480

3.84/9.98

0.08

2/2

5/33

480

6.14/40.69

0.02

5/5

4/27

480

1.54/10.37

WWW

0.2

5/5

2/15

480

7.68/57.60

FTP

0.15

1/1

8/74

480

4.61/42.62

Ecommer
ce
Info
Services
Entertai
nment

Because all services will finally come down to the bear rate, Table 1.2-6 provides a
recommended data service model at the early stage of 3G construction based on bear
rate. Where, 384 service is applicable only for downtown and urban areas due to its
great impact on network coverage.
Table 1.2-6 Data Service Model
Busy Hour Traffic (kbits)

Bear
Rate

Downtown

(kbps)

Area

Urban Area

Suburb Area

Uplink/Downli
Rural Area

nk Proportion

64/64

80.64

63.04

38.8

15.76

1:1

64/128

161.88

140.3

87.35

34.94

1:7

64/384

112.51

86.8

54.25

21.7

1:10

Note: The data in this table is intended for Class 4 area, which relatively drops behind
Class 1, 2 and 3 areas so that you can multiply the data by 30, 20 and 10 respectively
for these areas. Overseas developed areas are taken as Class 1 areas.
From analysis, 31 provinces and cities in China mainland can be categorized into four

Chapter 1 UMTS Service Model

regions. The telecommunication development in provinces and cities of the same

region has many similarities so that they are taken into account comprehensively.
These four classes of regions are as follows:
Class 1: Guangdong, Shanghai, Beijing and Zhejiang;
Class 2: Tianjin, Fujian, Shandong, Liaoning, Sichuan, Chongqing and Jiangsu;
Class 3: Heilongjiang, Jilin, Hunan, Inner Mongolia, Hubei, Henan and Hainan;
Class 4: Qinghai, Hebei, Tibet, Shanxi, Anhui, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Yunnan,
Gansu, Ningxia, Xinjiang and Guizhou.

2 UMTS Coverage Estimation

2.1 Radio Propagation Model
2.1.1 Free Space Propagation Loss
Because of propagation path and landform interference, propagation signals are
decreased, which is known as propagation loss. In the space propagation, many factors
enter into radio wave loss, including ground absorption, reflection, refraction and
diffraction. In the case that radio wave is propagated in free space (homogeneous
medium with isotropy, imbibition and electric conductivity as zero), the above factors
are uncertain. However, it does not mean that there is no propagation loss of radio
wave in free space. After radio wave is propagated for a certain distance, it may also be
attenuated due to radiant energy diffusion (also called attenuation or loss).
When the transmitter whose transmission power is Pt eradiates radio signals through
isotropy antenna with gain as Gt, the signal power density Sr is:

Sr

Pt Gt
4d 2

The signal power Pr received by the antenna with gain as Gr is:

Pr Sr Ar
Where, Ar stands for the effective receiving area of antenna,

Ar

Gr 2
4

Pr
then,

Pt Gt Gr 2
4 d 2

Pt refers to the power from transmitter to transmit antenna.

refers to the electromagnetic wave length.

d refers to the distance between transmit and receive antennas.
Gt refers to the transmit antenna gain.
Gr refers to the receive antenna gain.

The propagation loss is defined as the ratio of power from transmitter to transmit
antenna to power received by receive antenna:

4 d
Pt

Pr Gt Gr 2
2

Loss

Path loss is measured by dB, then space propagation loss (Loss) is:

4 d 2

Loss 10 lg

4d
10 lg Gt 10 lg Gr

20 lg

Gt Gr
2

Propagation loss of free space (Free Loss) is:

4d

Loss 20 lg

If and d are measured by Km and f is measured by MHz, the common formula

is:
FreeLoss 32.44 20 lg d 20 lg f

From the above formula, we can see that the larger the distance (d) between transmit
antenna and receive antenna, and the larger the radio wave frequency (f), the larger the
free space loss. When d or f is doubled, the propagation loss of free space will be
increased by 6 dB.

2.1.2 Propagation Model

While planning and constructing a mobile communication network, you have to make
detailed study about electric wave propagation features and field strength prediction
before determining frequency band, frequency allocation and radio wave coverage,
calculating communication probability and inter-system electromagnetic interference,
and finally defining radio equipment parameters. The radio propagation model is a
mathematic formula of such variables as radio propagation loss and frequency,
distance, environment and antenna height concluded by theory study and practical test.
In the radio network planning, the radio propagation model presents the designer an
approximate propagation effect in the practical propagation environment to estimate
the space propagation loss. Therefore, the propagation model veracity determines
whether the cell planning is reasonable.
Radio propagation environments on the earth surface diversify a lot and propagation
models in different propagation environments are differentiated a lot, too. Therefore,
the propagation environment plays an important role in setting up a radio propagation

10

Chapter 1 UMTS Service Model

model. The propagation environment in a special region consists of the following

factors:

Terrains (mountains, hills, plain or water area)

Number, height, distribution and material features of buildings

Vegetation features

Weather conditions

Natural or man-made electromagnetic noise

Working frequency of system

Movement of mobile station

Propagation model is usually classified into outdoor propagation model and indoor
propagation model. The frequently-used models are shown in Table 2.1-1.
Table 2.1-1 Common Propagation Models
Model Name

Frequency Range

Okumura-Hata

150 MHz1500 MHz macro cell prediction

Cost231-Hata

150 MHz2000 MHz macro cell prediction

Cost231 Walfish-Ikegami

800 MHz2000 MHz micro cell prediction

Keenan-Motley

900 MHz and 1800 MHz indoor environment prediction

General model

150 MHz2000 MHz macro cell prediction

The Cost231-Hata model and the General model used in the network planning software
Aircom are described below.
The Cost231-Hata model is applicable for 150 MHz2000 MHz macro cell prediction.
The urban path loss value can be worked out with the following approximate analysis
formula:

Pathloss 46.3 33.9 lg f 13.82 log hb 44.9 6.55 lg hb lg d Ahm C m

Where, f refers to carrier, unit: MHz, applicable for 150 MHz2000 MHz;

hb refers to BS antenna height, unit: m, effective height 30 m200 m;

d refers to the distance from mobile station to antenna, unit: Km;

Ahm refers to mobile station antenna height correction factor;
C m refers to city center correction factor, 3 dBm for large cities and 0 dBm for

11

UMTS Scale Estimation

middle- and small-size cities.

In practical radio propagation environment, topographical features shall also be taken
into account. The planning software Aircom does make some improvements by
considering the topographical impacts in practical environment on the electric wave
propagation, and thus guarantee the accuracy of coverage prediction result in a better
manner.
The model is expressed as below:
Path loss = k1 + k2log(d) + k3Hms + k4lg(Hms) + k5lg(Heff) + k6log(Heff)log(d) +
k7(diffraction loss) + clutter loss
d refers to the distance from mobile station to BS antenna, unit: Km;
Heff refers to the effective height of BS transmit antenna, unit: m;
Hms refers to the height of mobile station antenna, unit: m;
diffraction loss refers to dispersion loss;
clutter loss refers to topographical feature loss correction factor.
To analyze the electric wave propagation of different regions and different cities, the K
value may vary with different topographical features and different city environments.
In practice, you need to determine the K value of different regions, cities and areas
through propagation model correction.

2.2 Link Budget

Link budget is the precondition of coverage planning. Calculation of the maximum
allowed loss of services can be made to get the coverage radius of cell in a certain
transmission model, so as to determine the BS scale under the continuous coverage
conditions. Generally, link budget shall be made in two directions of uplink (from MS
to BS) and downlink (from BS to MS). In addition, uplink/downlink balance shall be
implemented. The coverage planning is generally calculated based on the maximum
radius that the MS can reach (that is, uplink budget). That is because many uncertain
factors (such as number of subscribers that are simultaneously connected, subscriber
distribution, and subscriber rate) affect the forward coverage radius, which makes the
calculation complicated. In general cases, the BS power can satisfy the coverage
requirement. That is, the coverage is uplink limited. Table 3.2-1 shows the basic
algorithm of link budget.

12

Chapter 1 UMTS Service Model

Table 2.2-1
Parameter

Symbol

Transmitter power (dBm)

Transmitting antenna gain (dBi)

Transmitting-end human body loss (dB)

Transmitting-end feeder loss (dB)

Transmitting-end effective radiation power (dBm)

Thermal noise density (dBm/Hz)

E=A+B-C-D

Thermal noise (dBm)

Procedure

G=F+10*LOG(3840
000)

Receiver noise coefficient (dB)

Receiver noise (dBm)

Interference margin (dB)

Service bit rate (kbps)

Processing gain (dB)

Eb/No (dB)

Receiver sensitivity (dBm)

Receiver antenna gain (dBi)

Receiver feeder loss (dB)

Receiving-end human body loss (dB)

Power control margin (dB)

Soft handoff gain (dB)

Shadow fading margin (dB)

Penetration loss (dB)

I=G+H

L=10*LOG(3840/K)
N=I+J-L+M

Maximum allowed path loss (dB)

V=E-N+O-P-QR+S-T-U

2.2.1 Basic Link Budget Parameters

This section describes basic parameters of the UMTS link budget.
1

Transmitter power:

BS transmitting power:
The maximum transmitting power of BS is 43 dB. The power of the Dedicated
CHannel (DCH) accounts for 63% of the total power. Table 2.2-2 shows the
power distribution of all channels:
Table 2.2-2 Power Distribution of Channels
Power (dBm)

13

Power (W)

Proportion

UMTS Scale Estimation

Max Tx Power:

43.0

20.0

100.00%

Pilot Power:

33.0

2.0

10%

PCCPCH(BCH):

30.0

1.0

5%

SCCPCH(FACH):

30.0

1.0

5%

SCCPCH(PCH):

30.0

1.0

5%

AICH:

26.0

0.4

2%

PICH:

26.0

0.4

2%

P-SCH:

29.0

0.8

4%

S-SCH:

29.0

0.8

4%

DCH

41.0

12.6

63%

The BS transmitting power is a system parameter, different for individual services. It

shall be determined in accordance with service type and service coverage.
MS transmitting power:
During link budget, suppose the maximum transmitting power of UE data
service to +21 dBm and that of voice service to +21 dBm.
The BS transmitting power is a system parameter, different for individual services. It
shall be determined in accordance with service type and service coverage. In the
network optimization process, optimization engineers shall adjust power distribution to
all channels in accordance with network quality and service requirement to provide the
whole network with the optimal performance.
2

Human body loss

It is generally 3 dB for voice service and 0 dB for data service.

Antenna gain
It is generally 0 dB for the UE.
During link budget, suppose the directional antenna gain of the BS to 17 dBi and
the omni-directional receiving antenna gain to 11 dBi. In practice, different
antennas can be selected in accordance with different region types and coverage
requirements.

Feeder loss
It includes the loss of all feeders and connectors between the equipment top and
the antenna connector. For a feeder of 30-40 meters long, suppose the total
feeder loss to 4 dB (including the connector loss) during link budget. For a
feeder of 40-50 meters long, suppose the total feeder loss to 5 dB (including the
14

Chapter 1 UMTS Service Model

connector loss) during link budget.

The feeder loss may decrease the BS receiving level and shorten the coverage
radius. Tower amplifiers can be used to make up for the feeder loss on the
uplink.
5

Eb/No
In the GSM system, the Signal-to-Noise ratio (S/N) is used to describe the antiinterference capability of useful signals. When S/N matches certain conditions,
the receiver can demodulate useful signals. In the UMTS system, however,
useful signals are submerged in the noise. So S/N cannot be used to reflect the
signal quality sufficiently. Eb/No serves as the reference of signal quality in the
UMTS system.
Eb/No indicates the demodulation threshold of the receiver, that is, energy per
bit divided by the noise power spectrum density.
Eb indicates the signal energy per bit, that is, Eb = S/R where S indicates signal
energy and R indicates service bit rate.
No indicates the noise power spectrum density, that is No = N/W where W
indicates bandwidth (3.84 M) and N indicates noise (total receiving power
except the signal itself).

S
Eb/No =

R
N

S W = S PG
N R N

PG indicates the processing gain. As an important index of the spread spectrum

system, it reflects the amplitude of valid signals increased by the spread
spectrum technology at the demodulation end.
S N is similar to C I in the GSM system.

In the unit of dB, Eb/No = S(dBm) N(dBm) + 10lg(W/R).

The value of Eb/No is related to the receiving/transmitting diversity of mobile
equipment, multi-path channel condition, and service type.
Table 3.2-3 and Table 3.2-4 show the uplink/downlink Eb/No values of different
services under different multi-path channel conditions.

15

UMTS Scale Estimation

Table 2.2-3 Uplink Eb/No Value

UL Eb/No

Urban Area

Suburb Area

(dB)
Service type

Static

TU 3km/h

TU 50km/h RA 3km/h

RA 50km/h

RA 120km/h

AMR 12.2k

4.1

4.2

6.4

4.1

6.4

CS 64K

2.5

2.87

4.5

2.8

5.2

5.2

PS 64K

0.9

1.6

4.5

2.7

4.9

Table 2.2-4 Downlink Eb/No Value

UL Eb/No

Urban Area

Suburb Area

(dB)
Service type

Static

TU 3km/h

TU 50km/h RA 3km/h

RA 50km/h

RA 120km/h

AMR 12.2k

7.2

7.7

7.1

8.5

8.4

7.2

CS 64K

7.1

7.7

6.7

8.8

8.2

7.1

PS 64K

6.4

7.4

6.2

7.8

6.4

PS 128K

5.7

6.4

5.5

7.3

7.3

5.7

PS 384K

6.4

5.9

7.7

7.7

6.4

Interference margin
Interference margin = 10 lg lg(1 ) , where

indicates the cell load.

The UMTS system is of self-interference, and its coverage is closed related to

the system capacity. At earlier network stages, little traffic results in low value of
interference margin. As the traffic load increases, the interference margin
becomes larger and the BS coverage shrinks. With regard to link budget,
therefore, it is necessary to select the maximum uplink load in accordance with
the estimated traffic increasing trend to ensure good coverage.
The value of interference margin in the uplink budget depends on the capacity
requirement in the network design. The interference margin is 3 dB when the
load is taken 50% from the dense urban area or a cell in the urban area, it is 2.2
dB when the load is taken 40% from the suburb area, and it is 1.5 dB when the
load is taken 30% from the rural area.
For the downlink, the relationship between load and interference still exists. The
interference margin shall be determined by emulation because it is hard to make
the theoretic calculation.
7

BS receiving sensitivity

16

Chapter 1 UMTS Service Model

BS receiving sensitivity indicates the minimum receiving level that the service
channel requires to guarantee the decoding requirement with certain
communication qualities.
From the above deduction of Eb/No:
S(dBm) = Eb/No(dB) + N(dBm) - 10lg(W/R).
N indicates the total noise that the BS receives, that is, N = Noise + Nf + IM.
In the formula:
Noise indicates the thermal noise, caused by electronic thermal movements in
the conductor. It is generated between antenna and receiver as well as in the
damaged component coupler of level 1 of the receiver. In most of
communication systems, the power spectrum density is the same at the fixed
frequency point because the noise bandwidth is far larger than the system
bandwidth. From the DC to the frequency of 10 12 Hz, therefore, the noise power
generated by the thermal noise source is the same per unit bandwidth. The
calculation formula of power is:
Noise = KTW (in the unit of W)
K indicates a Boltzmann constant, namely 1.38*10-23J/K.
T indicates the Kelvin temperature, namely 290 K.
W indicates the signal bandwidth, namely 3.84 M.
When dBm is taken as the calculation unit:
Noise = 10lg(KT) + 10lg(W).
10lg(KT) indicates the thermal noise density (in the unit of dBm/Hz).
Nf indicates the BS noise coefficient, defined as the ratio of input S/N to output
S/N. 3GPP does not have specific requirement for the equipment noise. It is
generally taken as 3 dB for link budget.
IM indicates the noise increasing caused by system load.
S(dBm) = Eb/No(dB) + 10lg(KTW) + Nf(dBm) + IM(dBm) - 10lg(W/R).
The formula of BS receiving sensitivity is:
Receiver Sensitivity = 10lg(KT) + Nf + 10lg(Eb/No) + 10lgR + IM.
10lg(KT) indicates the thermal noise density, namely 174 dBm/Hz.
17

UMTS Scale Estimation

Nf indicates the BS noise coefficient, namely 3 dB.

IM indicates the interference margin.
8

Soft handoff gain

Here, soft handoff gain indicates the gain to overcome slow fading. When the
mobile equipment is located in the soft handoff region, multiple radio links of
soft handoff receive signals at the same time, which decreases the requirement
for the shadow fading margin. The soft handoff gain is generally taken as 3 dB
for link budget.

Power control margin (fast fading margin)

The UMTS system adopts the fast closed-loop power control of 1500 Hz. For a
low-speed mobile terminal, the fast closed-loop power control of 1500 Hz can
fight fast fading and guarantee the demodulation performance. Because of the
features of fast fading, however, the fast power control cannot compensate deep
fading when the low-speed mobile terminal is in deep fading. In this case, the
UE (Node B) needs to fight deep fading by increasing the average transmitting
power. When the UE is located at the edge of a cell, the fast power control
cannot compensate deep fading either. Therefore, it is necessary to reserve a
certain dynamic adjustment scope of transmitting power for the fast closed-loop
power control during link budget. The power control margin is generally taken
as 3 dB.
For a medium-speed or high-speed terminal (moving speed 50 km/hour), the
interleave in the channel code functions to fight fast fading while the fast closedloop power control has little function. So it is unnecessary to reserve the power
control margin.

10 Penetration loss
The penetration loss of buildings and vehicles is an important factor that
influences the radio coverage. The penetration loss is related to the specific
building/vehicle type and incident angle of radio wave. Suppose that the
penetration loss complies with lognormal distribution during link budget, and
use the average value of penetration loss and standard deviation to describe it. If
the radio coverage outside buildings is effective, it is enough to set the
penetration loss to 10 dB15 dB. To receive and initiate calls at the core part of a
building, it is necessary to set the penetration loss to 30 dB. Similarly, the

18

Chapter 1 UMTS Service Model

penetration loss is also important to the coverage inside vehicles. A car has the
penetration loss of 3 dB to 6 dB, and vans and buses may have larger changes.
The penetration loss at the front of vans should not exceed that of cars, but that
at the rear of vans may reach 10 dB to 12 dB. The specific value is dependent on
the number of windows. Therefore, it is necessary to set a reasonable penetration
loss value in accordance with actual conditions of the planning region during
link budget to guarantee good service quality.
11 Shadow fading margin
The shadow fading complies with lognormal distribution. Its value is related to
the sector edge communication probability and shadow fading standard
deviation, while the latter is related to the electromagnetic wave propagation
environment.
The fading margin is reserved to overcome fading changes and guarantee
reliability of communications in the cell. It shall correspond to certain
requirements of cell edge communication probability.
In the radio space propagation, the path loss of any a given distance changes
rapidly and the path loss value can be regarded as a random variable in
conformity with lognormal distribution. In the case of network design in
accordance with the average path loss, the loss value of points at the cell edge
shall be larger than the path loss median for 50% of time period, and smaller
than the median for the left 50% of time period. That is, the edge coverage
probability of the cell is 50% only. In this case, it is hard for subscribers at the
cell edge to obtain expected service quality with 50% of probability. To improve
coverage probability of the cell, it is necessary to reserve the fading margin
during link budget. The edge coverage probability is generally taken to 75% for
link budget. The following takes the edge coverage probability equal to or larger
than 75% as an example:
Suppose the random variable of propagation loss to which is Gaussian
distribution on dB. Set the average value to

m , the standard deviation to

and the corresponding probability distribution function to Q . Set a loss

threshold 1 . If the propagation loss is larger than this threshold, the signal
strength will fail to meet the demodulation requirement of expected service
qualities. The edge coverage probability equal to or larger than 75% can be
represented as:

19

UMTS Scale Estimation

Pcov erage Pr ( 1)

1
2

( m ) 2
2 2

For the outdoor environment, the standard deviation of the random variable of
propagation loss is always taken to 8 dB. The margin value corresponding to the
edge coverage probability (communication probability) of 75% is:
m 1 0.675 0.675 8 5.4dB

See Figure 3.2-1 and Figure 3.2-2:

Accumulated normal probability distribution
100%
90%
80%

75%

70%
60%

Median

0.675

50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Deviation with median signal m

Figure 2.2-1 Fading MarginProbability Distribution Function

Normal distribution
probability density function
Standard deviation=8dB
0.675 x8=5.4dB

m Threshold

Propagati
on loss

Figure 2.2-2 Fading MarginProbability Density Function

The above figures show that it is necessary to reserve 5.4 dB margin to guarantee the
edge coverage probability of 75% in the network planning. An easier method is to

20

Chapter 1 UMTS Service Model

calculate by using the NORMINV function in Excel. Table 2.2-5 and Figure 2.2-3
show the values of shadow fading margin and edge coverage probability in different
standard deviations.
Table 2.2-5 Shadow Fading Margin and Edge Coverage Probability in Different Standard Deviations
Edge Coverage Probability

Shadow Fading Margin

= 6dB

= 8dB

= 10dB

= 12dB

50%

55%

0.75

1.01

1.26

1.51

60%

1.52

2.03

2.53

3.04

65%

2.31

3.08

3.85

4.62

70%

3.15

4.20

5.24

6.29

75%

4.05

5.40

6.74

8.09

80%

5.05

6.73

8.42

10.10

85%

6.22

8.29

10.36

12.44

90%

7.69

10.25

12.82

15.38

95%

9.87

13.16

16.45

19.74

98%

12.32

16.43

20.54

24.64

22

Shadow fading margin (dB)

20

19.74

18
16.45

16

15.38

14
12.44

12
10.10

10.36

8.09

8.42

8.29

6.74

6.73

5.40

5.05

10
8
6
4
2
0

1.51
1.26
1.01
0.75
0
50%

55%

3.04
2.53
2.03
1.52
60%

4.62
3.85
3.08
2.31

65%

6.29
5.24
4.20
3.15

70%

12.82

10.25

13.16

9.87

6dB
8dB
10dB
12dB

7.69

6.22

4.05

75%

80%

85%

90%

95%

Edge coverage probability

Figure 2.2-3 Shadow Fading Margin and Edge Coverage Probability in Different Standard Deviations

2.2.2 Unlink Budget

The parameters taken in the last section can be used to calculate the uplink budget

21

UMTS Scale Estimation

under different environments and coverage requirements. The following table shows
the calculation process:
Table 2.2-6 Uplink Budget
Parameter

Symbol

Maximum transmitting power of UE

UE antenna transmitting gain

UE transmitting loss (human body loss)

Actual maximum transmitting power of UE per

channel
Environment thermal noise power spectrum
density

D= A +B C
E

Uplink noise figure

Uplink receiving noise power spectrum density

G = E +F

Uplink noise rise

Total BS uplink receiving interference power

spectrum density

I=G+H

Uplink signal quality requirement Eb/No

Uplink service rate

K
L = I + 10lg(3.84*106) +(J 10lg (3.84*106/

Uplink receiving sensitivity

k ))

BS antenna gain

BS integrated loss

Shadow fading margin

Soft handoff gain

Power control margin

Penetration loss

Maximum loss

T = D -L +M-N-P+Q-R-S

2.2.3 Uplink/Downlink Balance

Different from uplink budget, downlink budget makes all subscribers in the cell share
the BS power at the same time. The BS power distribution aims to make all subscriber
services connected with the BS in the cell match the corresponding service level.
Besides the number of subscribers in the cell, the downlink cell radius is also related to
the location and services of the subscriber.
The following table shows the parameters that cause the maximum allowed path loss
difference between uplink budget and downlink budget. The downlink is usually

22

Chapter 1 UMTS Service Model

limited by the capacity. When the load of the cell increases, the condition of limited
downlink may occur.
Table 2.2-7 Uplink/Downlink Parameter Comparison
Parameter

Uplink

Downlink

Receiver noise coefficient (dB)

2.2

Maximum transmitting power (dBm)

21

Receiving-end Eb/No (dB) (12.2 kbps)

4. 2

Depending on the maximum singlechannel transmitting power

7.2

The balance between the uplink and downlink needs the help of planning software for
iterative calculation. The calculation includes the uplink coverage estimation and the
downlink power distribution. It shows link balance if the total power does not exceed
the maximum BS transmitting power. If the total power required by the downlink
exceeds the maximum BS transmitting power, it is necessary to reduce the coverage
area and conduct the downlink power distribution again until the total power is smaller
than or equal to the maximum BS transmitting power.

2.3 Coverage Scale Estimation

2.3.1 Calculation of BS Coverage Radius
After acquisition of the maximum allowed path loss between MS and BS via link
budget, it is easy to estimate the BS coverage radius by combining with the local radio
propagation model. In fact, the radio propagation model describes the relationship
between path propagation loss and coverage distance. The maximum allowed path loss
and radio propagation model that have been known can be used to conversely deduct
the maximum BS coverage radius. If the coverage radius of macro-cell BS is to be
estimated only without considering the topographic features, the macro-cell radius can
be calculated by using the Cost231-hata model.

R 10
Pathloss 46.3 33.9 lg f 13.82 lg hb Cm Ahm / 44.9 6.55 lg hb
Pathloss indicates the maximum allowed path loss, acquired via link budget.
f indicates the carrier frequency, in the unit of MHz.

hb indicates the BS antenna height, in the unit of m.

23

UMTS Scale Estimation

d indicates the distance from the MS to the antenna, in the unit of Km.
Ahm indicates the mobile antenna height correction factor.
C m indicates the big-city center correction factor, 3 dBm for big cities and 0 dBm for
medium and small cities.
In practice, the universal model of emulation software (such as Aircom) is generally
used:
Path loss = k1 + k2log(d) + k3Hms + k4log(Hms) + k5log(Heff) + k6log(Heff)log(d) +
k7(diffraction loss) + clutter loss
Obtain the radio propagation model that best matches the actual environment of the
local area by correcting k1, k2, k3, k4, k5, k6, k7(diffraction loss) and clutter loss.

2.3.2 Calculation of BS Coverage Area

The cell coverage radius R calculated in the last section can be used to obtain the BS
coverage area Area and inter-BS distance D. The BS coverage area is related to the
BS type. The following shows some common BS types of Node B:
1

Omni-directional BS

Area =
2

3
2

3R 2 , D =

3R

Three-sector directional BS (65 horizontal lobe)

24

Chapter 1 UMTS Service Model

Area =
3

9
8

3R 2 , D =

3
R
2

Six-sector directional BS

Area =

3
2

3R 2 , D =

3R

2.3.3 Scale Calculation

The planning region area divided by the single-BS coverage area is the number of BSs
that can cover the region with coverage requirements satisfied.

25